Info For Yous Afro-Paraguayans (Afro-Paraguayos): The Irristible In Addition To Goodness Drumming In Addition To Dancing African Descendants Inward Southward America

Afro-Paraguayan are Paraguayans of African descent. They tin live found inwards the metropolis of Camba Cua exterior Asuncion; Kamba Kokue exterior of Paraguari, in addition to the metropolis of Emboscada. Currently, the Afro-Paraguayan population accounts for 2% of the total population.

Afro-Paraguayan dancers of Kamba Kue. En los bailes del grupo Kamba Cua no faltaron sonrisas ni alegría, contagiaba y llenaba el alma de felicidad. (In the dances of Kamba Cua group, they weren't curt at all with smiles or joy, that spread in addition to filled the soul with happiness.)

In the foremost decade of the 21st century the notion that Paraguay has no Black population still
persists, despite the widely acclaimed Afro-Paraguayan trip the low-cal fantastic grouping Ballet Kamba Cuá, which
gives performances across the province in addition to inwards neighboring countries, in addition to whose celebration of St.
Balthasar on Jan six attracts spectators from around the nation.

Afro-Paraguayans

Some historians believe that the “neo-Africanization” of Camba Cua, in addition to past times extension Kamba Kokué in addition to Emboscada, presents unquestionably a positive evolution for Paraguay’s afrodescendientes. To engagement the essence of Camba Cua civilization is identified with drumming in addition to the accompanying dance, piece inwards Kamba Kokue in addition to Emboscada entirely vague notions of a “Black” past times shape a mutual thread of identity, entirely late supplemented past times the activism of a handful of intellectuals. No chemical element of linguistic communication is associated with Afro-Paraguayan self-identity, with the exception of a lullaby idea to live inwards an African linguistic communication which some Camba Cua community members assert has been component division of the traditional culture, but which appears to have got been taught past times a visiting African artist.

Lázaro Medina, Afro-Paraguayan in addition to Director of the Ballet Camba Cua.

It must live noted that apart from Argentine Republic that espouses itself every bit completely "White" in addition to systematically targeted blacks for extermination, Paraguay is some other southern American province that has successfully exterminated blacks (people of African descents) whose population inwards 1800 used to live around 11,000 or nearly 11% of the national total population to live drastically reduced to entirely 2% every bit at 2014. It must also live emphasized that inwards 1782, the dark population represented 11.2 percent of the total population. In 1811 half of the Paraguayan population was of African descent. Also, curiously, people of ethnic Kamba Cuá, a Kenyan ethnic grouping out of Uruguay, came to settle inwards Paraguay inwards the 1820s. They arrived inwards a regiment of 250 spearmen, men in addition to women, who accompanied General Jose Gervasio Artigas, the revolutionary leader of the at nowadays land of Uruguay, inwards his exile to Paraguay.

Afro-Paraguayan woman mortal dancer

Paraguay was the in conclusion port of arrival of African slaves inwards Americas, in addition to they, mostly of Angolan, Nigerian in addition to Kenyan origin. The foremost batch of African slaves arrived inwards Paraguay inwards 1556. The blacks were mostly Yoruba people from Nigeria, Kongo (Ambundu, Umbundu etc) people from Republic of Angola in addition to Kamba people from Kenya. The Afro-Paraguayans (Afroparaguanyos) who are also known every bit "pardos" were concentrated inwards 3 communities inwards the Eastern part of the country. They are the Kamba Cuá, Kamba Kokue (meaning "chacra de negros"- dark farm inwards Guarani language), in addition to Emboscada.

Afro-Paraguayan dancers from Kamba Kue Community (Grupo de dança da comunidade afrodescendente Kamba Kuá.)

Today, live dark inwards Paraguay is to live almost invisible to the ease of society. Most Paraguayans are unaware of the existence of a dark community inwards Paraguay in addition to assume that whatever dark people are Brazilian. Nevertheless, Afro-Paraguayans, despite their lack of numbers in addition to the daily racism to which they are subjected, maintain a distinct identity characterized past times a vibrant in addition to continually evolving culture.
In fact, Cambacuá, an Afro-Paraguayan community of 300 families (c. 2,000 individuals) located some xv km to the E of the Paraguayan majuscule Asunción inwards the municipality of Fernando de la Mora, has been violently dispossessed of over ninety per cent of its the world past times the Paraguayan province for over xxx years.
Afro- Paraguayans are non included every bit a dissever category within the national census in addition to their exact numbers are unknown; however, They are added along with the indigenous population to comprise 2 percent of the population they authorities statistic claims. They are with the most impoverished groups inwards the country. While the Paraguayan Constitution recognizes the existence of indigenous people – in addition to guarantees them the correct to the world in addition to the liberty to practise their distinct
cultures – Afro-Paraguayans every bit a dissever category are absent from whatever national legislation, every bit if it were assumed that dark civilization either has disappeared, or should do so.
Since then, inwards the expression upwards of human rights abuses, immense poverty in addition to racial discrimination, the Afro-Paraguayan communities led past times its leading advocacy grouping La comunidad Afro Paraguaya Kamba Kua has been immersed inwards a struggle both to retain its identity in addition to to have got its traditional the world restored.

Afro-Paraguayan dancers

Demography
Ethnically, culturally, in addition to socially, Paraguay is touted every bit 1 of the most homogeneous populations inwards South America. About 95% of the people are mestizo (mixed Castilian in addition to Guaraní Indian descent. Little draw is left of the original Guaraní civilization except the language, which is spoken past times 90% of the population. About 75% of all Paraguayans also utter Spanish. Guaraní in addition to Castilian are official languages.
This assertion that Paraguay has the most homogeneous population cannot live true. Because Paraguay has a history of other settlement specially inwards the 20th century: Germans, the bulk are Mennonites with long-reigned dictator Alfredo Stroessner himself of German linguistic communication ancestry, Japanese with Okinawans, Koreans, ethnic Chinese, Arabs, Ukrainians, Southern Europeans, Brazilians, in addition to Argentines are with those who have got settled inwards Paraguay. There are also an estimated 63,000 Afro-Paraguayans, or 1% of the population.
Historically the whites were non to a greater extent than than the blacks inwards Paraguay. Colonial Paraguay imported few enslaved Africans, due to the unique weather condition of this colony, in addition to those who did brand it to a greater extent than oftentimes came from Buenos Aires or Brazil than straight from Africa.i An guess of the population inwards 1682 suggested some 6% of the total population was Black, with the proportion rising to 11% inwards Asunción (Argüello Martínez 1999:69; Pla 1972; Boccia Romañach 2004; Williams 1974).

Afro-Paraguayan adult man from Kamba Kue dancing group

In 1800 the complimentary in addition to captive Black population was some 11,000 or nearly 11% of the total national total. When 1 considers that some other 31% of the population was indigenous—including many non participating inwards the Castilian colonial culture—the proportion of Blacks to whites rises to nearly 18% (Andrews 2004:41). H5N1 census of immature people (age 11-16) Asunción taken inwards 1854 revealed 385 white children in addition to 294 pardos (Black in addition to mulatto) children (Pla 1972:33).
H5N1 count of Blacks in addition to mulattoes taken inwards 1782 revealed a total of 10,838 Black enslaved in addition to complimentary citizens (Pla 1972:36). In the 1860’s it was estimated that at to the lowest degree 10% of Paraguay’s population was Black or mulatto (Pla 1972:37; 1976:206). In 1925 at that topographic point was an guess of some 10,000 Paraguayans of noticeable African descent,, some other guess of 31,500 inwards 1935, in addition to every bit slow every bit 1951 an informal guess of 3.5% of the national population was presumed to have got some African blood (Rout 1976:208). Oviedo (1992) extended this guess into the 1990’s, in addition to this figure was incorporated into the map inwards Minority Rights Group (1995: xiii). As a little-known facet of Afro-Paraguayan history, during the dictatorship of Dr. Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1814-1840), known every bit El Supremo 'the Supreme one,’ Francia decreed that white citizens could non get hitched with other whites, but could entirely get hitched with Blacks, mulattoes, or Indians (Williams 1971:272); to the extent that this law was genuinely enforced (and Williams’ sources suggest that it was), racial mixture was farther accelerated inwards a land whose colonial origins already stemmed from an atypical demographic mix: Castilian men (mostly soldiers), in addition to Native American women.

Afro-Paraguayan dancers

Language
The history of the Afro-Paraguayan communities is 1 of isolation in addition to discrimination, coupled
with a traditionally strong sense of ethnic identity. These are just the weather condition that favor
the retention of ethnolinguistic traits apart from the vocalization communication of the surrounding non-Afro
descendent Paraguayan towns, every bit has occurred inwards some other Afro-Hispanic communities
throughout Latin America. An obvious source of such potential differentiating features would be
the partially restructured Castilian foremost acquired every bit a instant linguistic communication past times African-born bozales
during the colonial period; inwards some instances traces remained inwards subsequent generations of Afrodescendents born inwards the colonies in addition to acquiring some diversity of Castilian every bit a native language.
In watch of the de facto ghettoization of Afro-Paraguayans, specially inwards Camba Cua, Laurelty, and
Kamba Kokué, some innovations may have got arisen that are non straight traceable to before Afro-
Hispanic vocalization communication patterns. To engagement Paraguay has never been included inwards the search for remnants
of Afro-Hispanic language, in addition to at that topographic point are no documents—not fifty-fifty literary parodies or folkloric
texts—to give testimony to Africans’ approximations to Castilian during before fourth dimension periods; the
entirely fragment uncovered so far is a legal document dated 1789, which offers a brief fragment in
pidginized Castilian attributed to an African (Argüello Martínez 1999: 95): ¡Sargento! ¡No haber
de llevar! [Sergeant, non select {me}!].

Lapses of Noun-adjective Gender Agreement
Afro-Paraguayan vocalization communication inwards the 3 little enclaves exhibits several instances of lack of the
usual adjective-noun understanding for grammatical sex (masculine-feminine), which is
obligatory in addition to exceptionless inwards Spanish. As with other Afro-Hispanic dialects, the masculine
sex unremarkably predominates, but cases similar la motivo `the motive’ occasionally occur.
Camba Cua:
la [el] motivo é ... {the motive is}; é jodido [jodida] la cosa que tiene ... {the affair that he has is
screwed up} ; loh [las] mujere {the women}; todo [todas] mih cosa [all my things]; algún
[alguna] comida {some food}; esas oracione legítimo [legítimas]que han traído {those legitimate
prayers that they have got brought]; aquí demasiado [demasiada] plata {too much coin here}; hasta
el propio [la propia] justicia {the really same jurist system}; láhtima que de la raza negro [negra]
ya quedamo muy poco {it’s besides bad that at that topographic point are so few of us Black people left}; tenemoh gente
jóvene sano [sanas] {we have got salubrious immature people}; toda la ciudad tranquilo [tranquila] {the
whole metropolis [is] calm}; comprar yerba importado [importada], lo peor que puede suceder {the
worst affair that tin come about is to purchase imported yerba mate}; unoh [unas] fuente de trabajo {some
jobs}; un [una] canción {a song};
Kamba Kokué:
fue una casa colonial muy antiguo [antigua] {it was an old colonial house}; nuestro [nuestra]
comunidad es muy respetada dentro de la sociedad de Paraguarí {our community is well
respected within Paraguarí society}; madera tierno [tierna] que se saca {green lumber that is cut};
una pare(d) francés [francesa] {a French trend wall}; mucho mucho había gente negro [negra]
{there were a lot of Black people}; la miel de caña es rico [rica] {honey is really tasty}; hay mucho
[muchas] hierba para curar; el [la] hierba buena {there are a lot of medicinal herbs, similar mint};

Afro-Paraguayans

History
There is trivial accurate information on the arrival of Africans inwards colonial Paraguay, beyond the
indisputable predominance of the Castilian port of Buenos Aires, every bit good every bit the ongoing contraband merchandise with neighboring Brazil. The foremost African slaves arrived the Paraguay inwards 1556. The most of the slaves were from Nigerian (Yoruba) in addition to Angolan (Kongo) origin, but the Sudamericans elsewhere were obtained from. Thus, according to Argentine historian José Ignacio Telesca, the slaves that entered legally came from the esclavostas ports of Buenos Aires, Montevideo in addition to Córdoba, piece that those that entered of illegally way came from Brazil.
Thus, the Castilian explorer Pedro de Mendoza - reached the Rio de Plata inwards the 16th century in addition to appointed viceroy of it - brought enslaved Africans to Paraguay to settle them inwards that place. According the aforementioned Telesca, to a greater extent than than 4% of the population were slaves inwards colonial times, keeping the same pct inwards the 19th century after independence. However, according the Kamba Cuá "Afro Paraguayan Association", inwards 1782, the dark population represented 11.2 percent of the total population of the so Province of Paraguay.
This population was continued to increase, every bit already inwards 1811, according Telesca, half of the Paraguayan population was of African descent, whether slave or free. So, several towns similar Aregua, Emboscada (in English: "Ambush"), in addition to Guarambare were established every bit dark communities.
Also, with the arrived of Artigas' also arrived, curiously, people of Kamba ethnic, a Kenyan ethnic group, from Uruguay, who settled inwards Paraguay inwards the 1820s. They arrived inwards a regiment of 250 spearmen, men in addition to women, who accompanied to General Jose Gervasio Artigas, the revolutionary leader of the at nowadays Uruguay, inwards his exile inwards Paraguay.
According to the few available colonial documents, it appears that the arrival of African-born captives (known every bit bozales `untamed’ past times slave dealers) dropped off sharply after the terminate of the 17th century (Cooney 1995). The Swiss travelers Rengger in addition to Lompchamp (1828), describing a voyage to Paraguay inwards 1825, noted that at that topographic point were few Blacks inwards Paraguay, either enslaved or free, in addition to that the bulk of Black Paraguayans had been born inwards the colonies (Boccia Romañach 2005: 80).

Afro-Paraguayan Kamba Kue girls` dancing group

Pastor Benítez (1955:81) attributes the minimal presence of Africans inwards colonial Paraguay to the absence of large-scale mining plantation agriculture: “La esclavitud era más bien casera; los siervos adoptaban el apellido del dueño. Las paraguayas prefieren amamantar al hijo, antes de confiarlo al aya negra” [Slavery was mainly domestic; servants took the surname of their owner. Paraguayan women preferred to nurse their ain children, rather than entrusting them to Black nursemaids]. These observations notwithstanding, accounts of bozal (African-born) maroons inwards recur inwards Paraguay good into the 19th century; at that topographic point are fifty-fifty accounts of uprisings inwards some villages (Argüello Martínez 1999: 67).
Despite the consistent historical documentation, past times the start of the 20th century the Afro-
Paraguayan population had shrunk to the dot where most Paraguayans sincerely held the watch that the province had no Black residents. Thus for illustration the Paraguayan historian indirectly hinted at the lack of a Black population inwards Paraguay inwards his description of a trip to Lima, Republic of Peru inwards 1912 to attend a conference of educators: “El bajo pueblo ofrece idénticas analogías con la nuestra. Hay, sin embargo, en sus filas elementos exóticos, que no existen en nuestro país. Chinos y negros” [the lower classes offering identical analogies to ours; at that topographic point are, however, exotic elements inwards their ranks: Chinese in addition to Blacks] (Stefanich 1914: 88).
Around 1970 the slow African-American historian Leslie Rout declared that “As far every bit most citizens inwards the majuscule metropolis are concerned, the total physical assimilation of the Afro-Paraguayan has already
occurred” (Rout 1976:208). Rout had seen some Black residents close the river inwards Asuncion, but
they fled when Rout called out to him; Rout imagined that they considered him to live a Brazilian.
Andrews (2004:60), inwards speaking of Paraguay, cites Montaño (1997:210-10) inwards briefly referring to
the communities of Laurelty in addition to Camba Cua, considered every bit exogenous communities not
originally arising inwards colonial Paraguay.

Contemporary Afro-Paraguayan Activism: The 2007 Census
In the foremost decade of the 21st century the notion that Paraguay has no Black population still
persists, despite the widely acclaimed Afro-Paraguayan trip the low-cal fantastic grouping Ballet Kamba Cuá, which
gives performances across the province in addition to inwards neighboring countries, in addition to whose celebration of St.
Balthasar on Jan six attracts spectators from around the nation.
In monastic enjoin to combat the official policy of invisibility, a grouping of Afro-Paraguayan activists, headed past times the managing director of the Ballet Kamba Cuá, Lázaro Medina, in addition to Kamba Cuá cultural evolution leader José Carlos Medina organized a census of Paraguayan Afro-descendents inwards 2007, focusing on 3 communities with an acknowledged Afro-Hispanic population: Camba Cua, simply exterior of greater Asuncion; Kamba Kokué, on the outskirts of Paraguarí, in addition to the metropolis of Emboscada (AAPKC 2008). The census was supported past times the Interamerican Foundation of the the States in addition to past times Mundo Afro from Uruguay. The census, which was formally presented to in addition to accepted past times the Paraguayan authorities in addition to representatives of the UN inwards Asuncion, contained the next results: inwards Camba Cua 418 residents were included; en Kamba Kokué some 385 Afro-descendants, in addition to inwards Emboscada 2686 inwards the urban surface area in addition to some other 4524 inwards the surrounding rural zone, for a total of 8.013 acknowledged Afro-Paraguayans.
This figure is manifestly incomplete, beingness entirely a fraction of the total Afro-descendant population inwards Paraguay, although in all probability much closer to reality than the figure of 156,000 suggested past times Oviedo (1992). The census did non achieve all potential residents, specially inwards Emboscada; some individuals approached past times the census takers preferred to non seat every bit Afrodescendents; moreover, at that topographic point are other nuclei of Afro-descendant Paraguayans scattered throughout the province that have got non yet been included inwards whatever reckoning. At this dot it is impossible to guess the total number of Afro-Paraguayans, but Lázaro Medina feels that the figure of around 8000 presented inwards the 2007 census could easily live doubled. The acquaint study focuses on the 3 communities identified inwards the Afro-Paraguayan census, with the improver of the little enclave of Laurelty, unopen to Camba Cua in addition to descending from the same original
population. If whatever discernible cultural in addition to linguistic elements harking dorsum to an Afro-colonial
past times are to live found inwards contemporary Paraguay, they are most probable to live acquaint inwards self-identified
Afro-descendant communities.

Los niños realizan bailes con sus respectivas compañeras de elenco, evocando viejas danzas africanas para buscar pareja. (The children performed dances with their cast partners, evoking ancient African dances to discovery a mate.)

San Agustín de la Emboscada: Town of Free Blacks: Emboscada (in Spanish: "Ambush"), a metropolis that at nowadays has nearly 14,000 inhabitants, was founded inwards 1740 nether the shout out of "Emboscada de Pardos libres "(Free Pardos ambush), because it was a dot of frequent ambushes in addition to because early on settlers were 500 brownish (black in addition to mestizos) freedmen.
Beginning at the plough of the 17th century several villages comprised of complimentary in addition to enslaved Black
people were established past times colonial officials, unremarkably with an oculus to fortifying remote areas that
were dependent land to attacks past times hostile indigenous groups.
The foremost Black Paraguayan community Tabapy (today named Roque González de Santa Cruz) was founded inwards 1653 (Silva 2005: 36; Williams 1977). As a side note, inwards 1813 some 40 Black in addition to mulatto men were forcibly extracted from Tabapy in addition to sent to the northern border of Paraguay to shape the fortified community of Tevegó (Williams 1971; Viola 1986:142-156). This experimental community was short-lived, in addition to did non endure past times the devasting Triple Alliance War of 1864-1870.
Other Black villages founded during the colonial menstruum were Areguá in addition to Guarambaré. Today, few
distinguishable Afro-descendants are found inwards Tabapy, Areguá, in addition to Guarambaré, in addition to at that topographic point is no
community sense of an Afro-colonial past, although the Kamba Cuá activists are beginning
outreach activities inwards these towns. Around 1740 (proposed dates arrive at from 1740 to 1744), the
town of San Agustín de la Emboscada was founded, the termination of constant attacks past times the hostile
Mbayá.
H5N1 detachment of complimentary Blacks in addition to pardos (mixed-race or mulattoes was moved from Tabapy to
Emboscada, piece other Black residents were sent past times the religious orders based inwards Asuncion. It is
widely believed that Blacks in addition to mulattoes resettled inwards Emboscada received some variety of conditional liberty past times agency of official decrees or amparos, provided that they participate
actively inwards armed services defense strength operations. This has given ascension to the pop designation of
Emboscada every bit the “Town of complimentary Blacks” (Pueblo de Pardos Libres), despite the fact that many
of the original settlers were soundless enslaved (Blujaki 1980, Granda 1983). Azara (1904: 47-49, 61-
62, 69), inwards a written report dated 1790 offered descriptions of the Black in addition to mulatto populations in
Emboscada, Areguá, in addition to Tabapy, all of which were soundless considerable inwards the slow 18th century.
Today, Emboscada is a modern in addition to well-groomed metropolis of some 13,5000 inhabitants, according to
the 2002 census. Although the 2007 Afro-Paraguayan census reported that some 58% of the
population of Emboscada is of Afro-colonial origin, at that topographic point is trivial collective awareness of Afro-descendency, except for occasional vacation celebrations. Recently, Emboscada activists have
formed the Misión de Afro-descendientes de Emboscada, loosely tied to the town’s municipal
offices, but this grouping has yet to initiate the task of recovering traditions in addition to memories among
the scattered rural sectors (for illustration Minas) most probable to contain Afro-Paraguayan cultural
remnants. Within the urban surface area of Emboscada, characterized past times neatly manicured parks and
carefully maintained churches in addition to monuments, at that topographic point are no visible reminders of the founders of
the city, although occasional mixed-race phenotypes tin live seen. Since the in conclusion African-born
bozales would have got disappeared from this part to a greater extent than than 250 years ago, it is non surprising
that no traces of whatever before Afro-Hispanic linguistic communication or ethnolinguistic traits are to live found in
contemporary Emboscadeño Spanish. As inwards other Paraguayan cities, proficiency inwards Castilian (as
opposed to Guarani) is straight proportional to the bird of formal instruction in addition to to contacts with Spanish-speaking sectors of the population.

The Afro-Paraguayan Community of Camba Cua: This metropolis is inwards the Paraguarí Department, also was founded past times dark communities, having at that topographic point ranches of slaves of the religious missionaries of the Catholic Society of Jesus, ameliorate known every bit the Jesuit order. Also towns or villages every bit Aregua, Emboscada, in addition to Guarambaré were established every bit dark communities.
The most important Black presence inwards Paraguay derives non from captives formerly held inwards the
Castilian colony, but rather from a grouping of complimentary Black soldiers who arrived inwards 1820. In that year
the Uruguayan full general José Gervasio Artigas, next numerous defeats inwards his homeland, went
into exile inwards Paraguay, where he received political asylum from the country’s foremost president, Dr.
Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.

Artigas was accompanied past times some 250 Black lancers (accounts vary every bit to the precise number), non surprising inwards watch of the fundamental role played past times Black soldiers inwards Uruguay in addition to Argentine Republic inwards the many civil wars that erupted inwards the decades next independence. Francia—who had already proclaimed himself supreme dictator for life— evidently had instant thoughts nearly a powerful in addition to pop political leader establishing himself inwards the nation’s capital, in addition to he sent Artigas into internal exile inwards distant Curuguatí, where the Uruguayan leader spent most of the ease of his life. The Black soldiers were resettled inwards at to the lowest degree 2 areas some xv km. to the E of Asunción, Laurelty in addition to what became known every bit Campamento Loma(s), so Lomas Campamento, in addition to ultimately Camba Cua.

Each Black seat unit of measurement was given land, a squad of oxen, in addition to seeds to plant, in addition to for to a greater extent than than a
century in addition to a half these tiny settlements retained a distinctly Afro-Hispanic character. Lomas
Campamento (still the “official” shout out of this community) became known past times the Guaraní term
Camba Cua, combining an originally derisive term for Black people, camba, in addition to the news cua,
pregnant cave or hideout. The original the world grant to the residents of Camba Cua was some 100
hectares. In 1940 the dictatorship of General Higinio Morínigo snatched half of the land. In
1967, at the peak of the Stroessner dictatorship, soldiers all of a abrupt cordoned off most of the
remaining the world with barbed wire, with the intent of turning over this rich farmland, at nowadays component division of
greater urban Asunción in addition to bordering on the lands of a major university, to private owners
(Machado 2000, Montaño 1997:201-210; Carvalho Neto 1971:29-130, Cooney 1995).
Theresidents resisted every bit best they could, sending the men into hiding for fearfulness of beingness killed, while
the women, armed entirely with sticks in addition to machetes, tore downwards the fences in addition to attempted to hold
dorsum the soldiers in addition to police. The latter prevailed inwards curt monastic enjoin in addition to the community was stripped
of all but 7 hectares. In recent years the community has been able to recover 3 more
hectares, but although the Paraguayan authorities acknowledges the resident’s putative rights to
to a greater extent than land, the law requires that the the world originally taken past times strength in addition to coercion live paid for at
electrical flow fair marketplace seat prices, estimated to live several 1000000 U.S.A. dollars in addition to beyond the wildest
dreams of the settlement’s piteous residents. After losing to a greater extent than than 90% of their original land, the
old farmers were forced to seek choice employment. Many of the women found piece of work as
maids inwards Asunción, piece those men who could discovery piece of work labored every bit masons in addition to carpenters.
There is considerable prejudice against visibly Black people, in addition to consequently unemployment
in addition to underemployment is high inwards the community.
Currently all that remains of Camba Cua is a long narrow strip of the world along a dirt route that branches off a major artery linking Asunción in addition to towns to the east, the Avenida Mariscal López. The dirt route is bordered on 1 side past times the Hospital Materno Infantil, for women in addition to children, in addition to farther along past times lands belonging to the college of agriculture of the national university. On the other side the community is hemmed inwards past times a housing development, so that Camba Cua is effectively a narrow string of houses along a winding dirt route some 1.5 km. long. The 2007 Afro-Paraguayan census counted 418 residents inwards 89 households, reaching nearly every community member. The community at nowadays has an simple school, but many older residents are functionally illiterate.
Of the rich drumming in addition to dancing traditions of Afro-Uruguayan in addition to before Afro-Argentine
communities trivial survived the march to Paraguay inwards the 19th century. Afro-Paraguayans in
Camba Cua in addition to Laurelty have got ever celebrated the feast of San Baltasar on Jan six with
dancing in addition to drumming, but with entirely a few dancers in addition to drummers carrying on the tradition
across generations. Ruiz Rivas de Domínguez (1974:2521-3) describes the formerly popular
galopa marimba trip the low-cal fantastic with drum accompaniment; the term marimba does non refer to the
xylophone-like musical instrument but rather to an African drum, which accompanies the galopa. In
recent decades the annual San Baltasar celebration inwards Camba Cua has acquire a regional and
fifty-fifty national tourist attraction, covered extensively inwards the press, the dependent land of curt television
documentaries in addition to occasional recordings.
The Ballet Folklórico Kamba Cuá has simply finished a commercially produced video DVD of
traditional dancing in addition to drumming, in addition to YouTube contains diverse video clips dealing with
Camba Cua. Hundreds of visitors present upwards at the tiny Camba Cua chapel, inwards crowds that
sometimes include members of the diplomatic corps in addition to other resident in addition to visiting dignitaries.
This activity has given considerable publicity to the Camba Cua community in addition to has resulted in
by in addition to large favorable press coverage. Although at that topographic point have got ever been traditional drummers in
the community—Santiago Medina (b. 1920), who learned from his ain father, is the oldest
surviving drummer—but inwards recent decades the Afro-Paraguayan community has received an
infusion of cultural assistance from Afro-Uruguayan groups, most notably the Montevideo-based
Mundo Afro.
The latter grouping has contributed Afro-Uruguayan tamboriles, elongated drums similar to the Afro-Cuban congas or tumbadoras, to complement the rounder drums previously used past times Afro-Paraguayans. The Ballet Folklórico Kamba Cuá has toured extensively, including inwards Uruguay in addition to at international Afro-Latin American events, in addition to at that topographic point is clearly some syncretism in addition to borrowing inwards their contemporary interpretation of drum patterns claimed to live purely traditional.
The success of the trip the low-cal fantastic grouping has given impetus to the sis Organización Kamba Cuá, which past times agency of local activism every bit good every bit contact with international Afrodiasporic in addition to human rights organizations is fighting for the render of the lands seized past times the Stroessner authorities every bit good every bit official recognition every bit an ethnic community. As has occurred inwards Chile, Bolivia, in addition to fifty-fifty inwards Peru, the cultural identity every bit afrodescendientes is a recent phenomenon inwards a province where possessing visible African traits has ever been considered a social liability. Despite the pop acclaim of the Ballet Folklórico Kamba Cuá, the community remains marginalized in addition to exterior the pale of proactive authorities assistance.

The Other “Artigas-Cué”: The Afro-descendents of Laurelty
The historical tape is by in addition to large clear every bit regards the arrival of Artigas in addition to his Black soldiers
(known every bit “Artiguas-Cué”) in addition to their subsequent redeployment inwards at to the lowest degree 2 areas near
Asuncion, known every bit Campamento Lomas (modern Camba Cua) in addition to Laurelty. Despite this fact,
in addition to mayhap due to the recent name-recognition afforded to Camba Cua, at that topographic point has arisen a
considerable confusion every bit to the nature in addition to identity of the Uruguayan-derived Afro-Paraguayan
population. While some to a greater extent than recent accounts explicit admit the existence of two
dissever communities, other descriptions cite entirely a unmarried community, piece soundless others
assert that Lomas Campamento/Camba Cua in addition to Laurelty are choice names for 1 in addition to the
same community.
The Afro-Uruguayan historian Montaño (1997:204) quotes a personal testimony from the Paraguayan historian Juan Stefanich, who inwards plough indicated that Artigas’ soldiers were given “un terreno llano muy apto para la agricultura situado a dos leguas de la ciudad en un lugar llamado Laurelty” [a apartment slice of the world good suited for agriculture in addition to situated 2 leagues from Asuncion, inwards a seat called Laurelty] Montaño notes that Laurelty “conserva aún ese nombre y allí siguen viviendo los descendientes de los soldados artiguistas, todos morenos” [it soundless retains this shout out in addition to the descendents of Artigas’ soldiers, all Black, soundless alive there].
Montaño goes on to say that Artigas’ soldiers were also resettled inwards “el otro lugar [...] fue en el
distrito de Fernando de la Mora [...] Esta comunidad se dio en llamar Loma Campamento o
Cambá Cuá [...] Es aquí donde hoy siguen viviendo los descendientes de aquellos negros y
negras que acompañaron a Artigas” [the other seat was inwards the district of Fernando de la Mora
... this community became known every bit Loma Campamento or Camba Cua. It is hither that the
descendants of those Black people that accompanied Artigas maintain to live]. Addressing the
confusion regarding the names, Montaño (1997:204) observes that “El que sean dos las
denominaciones que han superado el paso del tiempo, es un motivo elocuente de que se piense
en la existencia de dos poblaciones” [the fact that 2 names have got survived the examine of time
provides a strong motive for believing inwards the existence of 2 communities], in addition to cites a personal
communication from Lázaro Medina inwards 1996 to the lawsuit that both communities maintain to
exist.
Medina, quotes that activist every bit having affirmed that “Our ancestors, the award guard for General Jose Gervasio Artigas, accompanied the General to Paraguay piece he was seeking political asylum from Uruguay [...] the dictator of Paraguay at the time, Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia, who had granted them asylum, dispersed them into 3 groups widely separated from each other. Sergeant Ansina remained with General Artigas inwards Caraguatay.
H5N1 instant grouping was sent to what is called Laurelty today, in addition to our ancestors were sent to Lomas Campamento, which used to live within the metropolis jurisdiction of San Lorenzo in addition to is at nowadays within the metropolis of Fernando de la Mora.” Andrews (2004:60) refers indirectly to 2 Afro-Paraguayan communities descended from Artigas’ soldiers: ““As Artigas went downwards inwards defeat, his Black troops formed the loyal difficult centre of his forces in addition to followed him into permanent exile inwards Paraguay, where they settled inwards 2 Afro-Uruguayan towns exterior Asunción that soundless be to the present.”
Bejarano (1960:63) speaks of “una imagen del SANTO REY Baltazar, a quien un año festejaban en Campamento Loma o Kambakuá, y otro año en Laurelty, compañías próximas habitadas por sus familias, descendientes de los negros que acompañaron a Artigas” [an picture of the Holy King Balthasar, which is celebrated every other twelvemonth inwards Campamento Loma or Kambakua in addition to Laurelty]. He goes on to say (p. 64): “Tanto los de Laurelty (pasando San Lorenzo), como los de Campamento Loma (al norte del Colegio Nacional de Agronomía Mariscal Estigarribia), se esfuerzan en hacer fiestas mejores que los contrincantes” [both the people from Laurelty (past San Lorenzo) in addition to those from Campamento Loma (to the due north of the Mariscal Estigarribia National Agronomy School) brand non bad efforts to seat on a ameliorate festival than their competitors]. Ruiz Rivas de Domínguez (1974:251), who interviewed Catalina in addition to Eulalia Medina inwards 1954, mentions
Campamento Loma (Cambacua) in addition to Laurelty every bit dissever communities: “Un pequeño grupo de
familias negras se ubicó en dos compañías de la ciudad de San Lorenzo, denominadas
Campamento Loma o Cambacuá (cueva de negros) y Laurelty” [a little grouping of Black families
was settled inwards 2 sectors of the metropolis of San Lorenzo, known every bit Campamento Loma or
Cambacuá, in addition to Laurelty]. Obliquely suggesting a argue for the ambiguity surrounding the two
communities, Boettner (1956:192) explains that “Los negros de Artigas [...] fueron ubicados
cerca de San Lorenzo.
Hoy persisten dos comunidades llamadas Loma Campamento y Laurelty. No pasan de pocas
familias. El pueblo designa esos sitios como CAMBACUÁ [...]” [the Blacks who came with
Artigas ... were relocated close San Lorenzo. Two communities be to this day, named Loma
Campamento in addition to Laurelty. They have got entirely a few families. People refer to these sites as
Cambacuá].
Despite such clear indications, several studies refer entirely to a unmarried Artigas-derived Afro-
Paraguayan community, unremarkably Laurelty (although Rodríguez 2001 in addition to Machado 2000 only
cite Camba Cuá). Rout (1976:208) entirely mentions a unmarried Afro-Paraguayan community,
Laurelty “which was started inwards 1820 past times 50 Black in addition to mulatto followers of the vanquished
Uruguayan patriot, José Artigas.” Rout’s see to Laurelty inwards the 1960’s convinced him that “the
fourth dimension of the disappearance of the in conclusion Black mortal inwards the settlement cannot live far off.”
The distinguished Afro-Hispanic linguistic scholar Granda (1983). P. 231, nota 1), states that “En el
municipio de San Lorenzo existe otro núcleo de población negra, Laurelty. Pero su origen es
exógeno, ya que surgió como tal a consecuencia del asentamiento en dicha área de un grupo de
negros uruguayos que acompañó a Artigas en su destierro al Paraguay durante la dictadura del
doc Francia” [In the municipality of San Lorenzo at that topographic point is some other Black community, Laurelty.
But its origins are exogeneous, since the community arose through the resettlement inwards this surface area of
a grouping of Black Uruguayans who accompanied Artigas into exile inwards Paraguay, during the
Francia dictatorship].
Granda makes reference to Carvalho Neto (1971)’s Afro-Paraguayan studies, in addition to it is non clear whether Granda had personal knowledge beyond that gleaned from secondary sources. Since Granda had lived inwards Asunción at 1 dot in addition to had done extensive enquiry on Paraguayan Spanish, it is reasonable to suppose that he was familiar with communities entirely a few km. exterior of the majuscule city. The Paraguayan musicologist in addition to composer Sánchez Quell (1947:189), inwards his description of colonial Asuncion, speaks of “la aldea de negros denominada Laurelty [...] Allí celebraban anualmente la tradicional fiesta de San Baltasar, el Rey Mago negro [...] enorme cantidad de gente iba llegando a la capilla de Laurelty, donde se veneraba la imagen de San Baltasar” [the Black hamlet called Laurelty ... at that topographic point the traditional feast twenty-four hours of St. Balthasar, the Black Wise King, is celebrated annually ... a non bad number of people would go to the Laurelty chapel, where they adored the picture of St. Balthasar]. Sánchez Quell had composed (together with Mauricio Cardozo Ocampo) a musical piece of work “San Baltasar” based on Afro-Paraguayan traditions, so he presumably had some personal knowledge of the Black communities on the outskirts of Asuncion.
Decoud (1930: 18), inwards a monograph nearly Laurelty, describes the community without reference to whatever other Afro-Paraguayan settlement, although his description of Laurelty appears to to a greater extent than accurately check the location of Camba Cua: “distante como dos leguas de la capital, en la jurisdicción del departamento de San Lorenzo del Campo Grande, sobre la orilla de una abra o cañada que, por
un extremo, comunicaba con la calle pública que une dicho pueblo con el de Luque y, por el
otro, con el campo llamado Ñu Guazu (Campo Grande)” [about 2 leagues from the capital, in
the jurisdiction of the subdivision of San Lorenzo del Campo Grande, on the border of a ravine
which at 1 terminate connects to the populace route uniting that town with Luque, in addition to on the other end
with the opened upwards surface area known every bit Ñu Guazú `big field’].
Decoud indirectly suggests that the shout out Campamento (currently applied to Camba Cua) inwards fact
pertained to Laurelty; according to his analysis, Guaraní speakers who saw Blacks for the first
fourth dimension exclaimed ¡Cambá, memetéro chamento! `they are genuinely black!’ According to Decoud
(1930: 16): “estos vocablos nativos, con el transcurso del tiempo, fueron transformándose hasta
quedar definitivamente castellanizado, bajo el nombre de “Campamento”, el cual conserva hasta
hoy, existiendo siempre algunos de los descendientes que dieron origen a tal denominación, que
muchos aún están radicados en las tierras que fueron de sus remotos antepasados [...]” [these
native words, with the passing of time, became transformed into Castilian with the name
“Campamento,” which is used to to this day, since some of the descendents of those who gave
ascension to this shout out maintain to alive there]. Decoud (1930:13) also describes the founding of
Laurelty inwards 1843 “sobre el camino entre San Lorenzo y Luque” [along the route betwixt San
Lorenzo in addition to Luque], which also corresponds to the location of Lomas Campamento/Camba Cua.
In his literary vignettes, Galeano (1984: 149-150) entirely makes reference to “Campamento
Laurelty” inwards describing the arrival of Artigas’ dark soldiers inwards Paraguay.
To add together to the confusion, several prominent researchers have got referred to Laurelty in addition to Lomas
Campamento/Camba Cua every bit beingness choice names for a unmarried community. The Brazilian
anthropologist Carvalho Neto (1971: 109), referring to information collected inwards Paraguay inwards 1951, states
that “El actual negro paraguayo vive en colonias de negros, geográficamente distantes entre sí
[...] tuvimos referencias de las siguientes: Campamento o Campamento Loma o también
Campamento Laurelty, Emboscada, Camba-Cuá, Lavretá, Fernando de Lamora y San Baltasar
[...]Campamento Loma o Laurelty es aún hoy aquel mismo sitio donado por el dictador Francia a
algunos de los negros orientales que acompañaron a Artigas al Paraguay en 1820” [The
contemporary dark Paraguayan lives inwards Black settlements, geographically separated from one
some other [...] nosotros heard nearly Campamento or Campamento Lomas or also Campamento Laurelty,
Emboscada, Camba Cua, Lavretá, Fernando de La Mora in addition to San Baltasar [...] Campamento
Loma or Laurelty is fifty-fifty today the same site donated past times the dictator Francia to some of the
Black Uruguayans who accompanied Artigas to Paraguay inwards 1820].
The Afro-Uruguayan scholar Pereda Valdés (1964: 6) assserted that “En el Paraguay, a dos leguas de la ciudad de Asunción existe un lugar llamado Laurelty también denominado Cambá Cuá ... donde habita desde hace muchos años un núcleo de descendientes de africanos que mantienen sus tradiciones” [in Paraguay, 2 leagues exterior of Asuncion at that topographic point is a seat called Laurelty in addition to also called Camba Cua ... inhabited for many years past times a grouping of African descendents who maintain their traditions]. H5N1 number of didactic spider web sites also maintain the ambiguity surrounding Laurelty.
One site devoted to the Paraguayan polkavi asserts that “ [...] algunas comunidades como
Kambacuá en Laurelty, situada en el límite de Fernando de la Mora y San Lorenzo, han
reivindicado su ascendencia negra con el cultivo de su música, sus danzas y sus tradiciones”
[some communities similar Kamba Cuá inwards Laurelty, located on the border of Fernando de la Mora
in addition to San Lorenzo, have got acknowledged their African ancestry through cultivating their music,
dance, in addition to traditions].
It is just Camba Cua that is located inwards Fernando de la Mora, piece across the street entirely a
few meters away the municipality of San Lorenzo begins. An official spider web site of the nearby city
of Luquevii claims that “Se los llama Kamba Kua. ... El gueto de gente de color ubicado en
Laurelty, Luque. Gente de origen humilde, cuya presencia en el país arranca del tiempo en que el
full general uruguayo Artigas busco refugio en el país, allá por 1820” [they are called Kamba Cuá ..
this grouping of colored people located inwards Laurelty, Luque, people of humble origins, whose
presence inwards this province goes dorsum to the times inwards which the Uruguayan full general Artigas sought
refuge inwards the province inwards 1820].
While it is non surprising that writers from exterior of Paraguay mightiness confuse the names and
fifty-fifty the existence of the 2 Black communities arising from Artigas’ exile from Uruguay, it is
non clear why such confusion should have got recurred so oftentimes with Paraguayans. It is
possible that the utilisation of Camba Cua to refer to whatever little Black enclave may have got caused some
ambiguity, but the failure to distinguish names in addition to places every bit distinct every bit Campamento Loma and
Laurelty is to a greater extent than probable attributable to racist indifference inwards a lodge supremely uninterested in
accurate details nearly its tiny Afro-descendent population. After sorting through the tangle of
contradictory statements in addition to after receiving ambiguous or vague responses from several
Paraguayan sources, I returned to Camba Cua inwards 2008, in addition to accompanied past times Lázaro Medina,
managing director of the Ballet Folklórico Kamba Cuá, conducted land enquiry inwards Laurelty.
Today Laurelty is a marginal sector of the sprawling metropolis of Luque, in addition to located entirely a few kilometers from Camba Cua. Like Camba Cua, Laurelty consists of several blocks of semi-rural residences, located less than 1 kilometer from a chief route that traverses Luque. Ordinarily ignored past times other residents of Luque in addition to neighboring communities, Laurelty made headlines throughout South America inwards early on 2008, due to a serious outbreak of yellowish fever, surprising inwards such an urbanized area, in addition to indicative of the marginality in addition to piteous sanitary weather condition of this sector. The Santo Rey (Holy King) chapel of St. Balthasar sits inwards the middle of the community, recently
rebuilt on the ruins of an older chapel. As inwards Camba Cua, residents of Laurelty celebrate the feast
of St. Balthasar on Jan 6, in addition to older people recall a fourth dimension when drumming in addition to dancing were
component division of the celebration. At the acquaint time, drumming is rare on the feast day, but some younger
community members are inwards contact with Camba Cua activists inwards an endeavor to revive the cultural
links betwixt the 2 communities that flourished inwards before generations. Few people inwards Laurelty
exhibit Afro-descendent phenotypes, in addition to fifty-fifty fewer actively seat themselves every bit Afro-descendents, although the growing popularity of the Ballet Folklorico Kamba Cuá in addition to the annual festivities inwards that community are piquing the involvement of some Laurelty residents.

The Afro-Paraguayans of Kamba Kokué
The existence of Afro-Paraguayans inwards Emboscada was known to other Paraguayans fifty-fifty in
recent times, piece the communities of Lomas Campamento/Camba Cua in addition to Laurelty had been
mentioned past times historians (in Paraguay in addition to Uruguay) in addition to musicologists, although largely going
unnoticed inwards the residue of the national population. As the Kamba Cuá activists began
preparations for the Afro-descendent census, a 3rd historically Black community non previously
mentioned inwards historical accounts came to light, inwards a marginal sector on the outskirts of the metropolis of
Paraguarí, some seventy km. to the southeast of Asuncion. The traditional shout out of the community is
Kamba Kokué, which inwards Guaraní agency `farm of the Blacks’; the official shout out today is Barrio
Virgen de Caacupé, although the residents themselves maintain to utilisation the older name.
The community currently consists of a few semi-rural blocks simply off the chief highway at the
entrance to Paraguarí; dirt roads in addition to little homes are flanked past times an old cemetery in addition to several
fallow plots of land. The 2007 Afro-descendent census counted some 385 inhabitants inwards 90
households, or so the same every bit Camba Cua. Older in addition to fifty-fifty middle-aged residents tell
tales of discrimination, racist comments in addition to shunning past times residents of neighboring sectors of
Paraguarí, in addition to the census takers non surprisingly discovered that non all residents willingly
seat themselves every bit Afro-descendents. As inwards the other Afro-Paraguayan communities, racially
distinctive phenotypes, piece non uncommon inwards Kamba Kokué, are interspersed with other more
indeterminate physical traits, to the dot where Kamba Kokué is no longer a visibly “Black”
neighborhood. In 1 corner of the community, sandwiched with several large trees, are found
2 chapels, 1 really little in addition to rustic, the other a larger to a greater extent than recent construction. The latter
edifice bears a brightly painted sign over the entrance reading “Oratorio Virgen del Rosario
Kamba Kokué”,viii in addition to within are several paintings depicting African in addition to Afro-American figures.
Young community activists have got formed the Comisión Afroamericana Kamba Kokué, in addition to group
members participated inwards the Afro-descendent census in addition to inwards other Afro-Paraguayan cultural
events. The oral history of Kamba Kokué is at nowadays mentioned inwards some of the local schools,
although no written materials have got yet been prepared in addition to the official curriculum makes no
cite of Black Paraguayans. Older residents interviewed for the acquaint study expressed pride
inwards the census in addition to inwards the renewed sense of community identity, fifty-fifty those inhabitants who do not
consider themselves to live Afro-descendents. Younger people within the Kamba Kokué sector are
increasingly proud of their heritage, piece the ease of Paraguarí, including the immediately
next neighborhoods, appears to have got scarcely noticed the presumed Kamba Kokué cultural
revival.
To engagement no accurate information on the origins of Kamba Kokué’s Black community has come upwards to
light. According to the collective retentivity of many older residents, the community of Kamba
Kokué has its roots inwards colonial history, quite in all probability to the slave-holding estates of religious
orders throughout Paraguay. As inwards the instance of the Afro-Hispanic communities of highland
Ecuador’s Chota Valley, the bulk of slave-holding estates inwards Paraguay were managed past times the
Jesuits until their expulsion inwards the middle of the 18th century.

In Paraguarí, the old Jesuit estates were taken over past times the Ignacian order. According to
Boccia Romañach (2004: 223; 2005: 80) in addition to Maeder (1996), when the Jesuits were expelled,
they held 519 enslaved Blacks inwards Paraguarí, a number which increased through natural
reproduction inwards the next years. As slow every bit 1837 at that topographic point were soundless some 160 enslaved Blacks in
the estates surrounding Paraguarí, together with an unspecified number of complimentary Blacks and
pardos (Boccia Romañach 2004: 224; Argüello Martínez 1999: 74). Although Kamba Kokué
was never geographically isolated from nearby Paraguarí, the status of community members as
captives in addition to after complimentary persons of color resulted inwards the social in addition to linguistic marginalization of this
tiny ethnic enclave. According to Kamba Kokué oral traditions, the picture of the Virgen del
Rosario currently placed inwards the large chapel was originally discovered past times a Black adult woman during
the colonial period. The same residents tell tales of the old communal well—still inwards existence at
1 border of Kamba Kokué in addition to soundless occasionally used for drawing drinking water—as the main
source of H2O for the Black community inwards the past.