The Ovambo people (sometimes called Owambo) are an amalgamation of various agricultural Bantu-speaking people occupying international border regions of southern Republic of Angola in addition to northern Namibia, popularly known every bit Ovamboland. The Ovambo people are yesteryear far the largest ethnic grouping inward Namibia in addition to brand upwards precisely over one-half the population.

Ovambo people performing traditional dance

The Ovambo are portion of the larger Southwestern Bantu grouping (Murdock 1959), in addition to consist of 12 culturally related peoples - originally kingdoms. In northern Namibia reside the Ovakwanyama, Ondonga, Ukwambi, Ongandjera, Ombalantu, Ukwaludhi, Uukolonkahdi in addition to Eunda (Hahn 1928:1; Tuupainen 1970:12). The Ovakwanyama, Evale, Dombondola, Kafima in addition to Ombadja (a divided kingdom nether 2 different ruling clans), inhabit the southern Angolan part (Estermann 1976:51, 117).

Of the 12 peoples, the Ovakwanyama in addition to the Ondonga (occupying eastern Ovamboland) are larger

in addition to to a greater extent than prosperous than the smaller Ovambo groups to the west. They are also meliorate documented inward the source literature (Loeb 1962:18).

Ovambo children from Namibia

The Owambo is actively involved inward the politics of Namibia. SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organisation), the electrical flow ruling political party started every bit non-violent force per unit of measurement area grouping inward Ovamboland in addition to was led yesteryear tow nifty Ovambo people, Herman Toivo ya Toivo in addition to Samuel Shafiishuna Nujoma (the starting fourth dimension elected president). The electrical flow President Hifikepunye Pohamba is also an Ovambo.

Ovambo people

Their language, Oshivambo (sometimes known every bit Ambo or Vambo inward Namibia), is Bantu based. The nifty bulk alive inward their traditional areas – Owamboland – away from the main carry arteries inward the remote far N of the country, straddled on the border amongst Angola.

Elderly Ovambo woman Ruacana - Namibia. www.fotopedia.com

The Name Ovambo (Owambo)/Geography

It is maintained inward the source literature that the Ovambo owe their scream to their neighbours the Herero. Tuupainen (1970:12) states that the term ‘Ovambo’ is derived from the Herero ovajamba, important ‘wealthy-people’, whilst Loeb (1962:9) claims that inward Herero dialect ‘ovambo’ agency ‘people-with-the-cattle-posts’, because the Ovambo had to graze their cattle N in addition to E of the living area.

Although the 2 interpretations of the term differ, what is of import is that they both comprise a reference to Ovambo economical prosperity in addition to relative political mightiness based on ivory trading (jamba: elephant) in addition to pastoralism/cattle raiding.

The Nyaneka-Nkhumbi peoples on the western depository fiscal establishment of the Kunene river are closely related to the

Ovambo in addition to have got expert trading relations amongst them. The Ovambo also merchandise amongst the Damara farther southward (in Namibia). The Herero in addition to the Ovambo portion mutual ancestral mythology. Both peoples cherish anomborombonga tree inward eastern Ovamboland, which they consider marks the identify where their founding ancestors (two brothers) parted companionship to cast the immediately distinct cultural groups. Both peoples migrated from the Zambesi river region, in addition to upon reaching what is immediately the Ovambo part i blood brother in addition to his followers decided to remain in addition to settle the area, spell the other together amongst his followers (the Herero) continued westwards inward search of meliorate pasture-land (Hahn 1928:1; Williams 1988:90). It has been assumed on the ground of imperial genealogies that the higher upwards migration took identify sometime during the sixteenth century. Aarni (1982:23) in addition to Williams (1988) have got attempted to constitute the migration routes on the ground of available archaeological, oral historical, linguistic in addition to onomastic data. The Okavango peoples of eastern southern Republic of Angola are also culturally related to the Ovambo, in addition to in i trial formed i kingdom ruled yesteryear the Hyena clan, sharing mutual ancestry amongst the same clan inward Ovambo (Williams 1988:23, 89-91).

The Ovambo fifty-fifty claim a distant association amongst neighbouring hunter-gatherer communities, which may inward portion business concern human relationship for their expert relations amongst them. H5N1 number of Ovambo proverbs refer to the fourth dimension when Ovambo were Twa (i.e. hunter-gatherers) (Kuusi 1970; Estermann 1976:55-57).

Ovamboland (The Ovambo Region)

Ovamboland is located on an alluvial floodplain most 1,200m higher upwards body of body of water level, which slopes gently from

the N (Duparquet 1935:125; Loeb 1948:16). In Namibia the Ovambo expanse covers 56,000 sq km (Aarni 1982:22), betwixt Latitudes 17.30 S in addition to 18.30 S, in addition to Longtitudes 14.00 E in addition to 17.30 E (Tuupainen 1970:12). The expanse close the border amongst Republic of Angola is characterised yesteryear thick belts of sub-tropical vegetation, spell large, opened upwards grass plains are found farther to the southward every bit the environs assumes a to a greater extent than semi-desert appearance, due to the increased salinity of the soil (Loeb 1948:17). The eastern expanse is also thickly wooded, dissimilar the western expanse which is primarily opened upwards savanna fringed amongst bush.

The Ovambo expanse inward Namibia extends every bit far N every bit the international boundary amongst Angola, in addition to almost every bit far southward every bit the Etosha Pan (Hahn 1928:1; Loeb 1948:17).

In Angola, Ovambo territory is situated betwixt the Kunene in addition to Okavango rivers (west in addition to E respectively), in addition to extends roughly 200 km northwards from the Angola-Namibia border, principally along the banks of the Kuvelai river (running through Handa, Evale in addition to Kwanyama country) (Delachaux in addition to Thiebaud 1933:8-9).

Generally speaking, the Ovambo peoples inward the N (i.e. southern Angola) bask meliorate living weather condition every bit a effect of the sub-tropical arboreal environment, which is direct attributable to the greater abundance of H2O due to the proximity of the permanent Kunene in addition to Okavango rivers in addition to seasonal river Kuvelai. The Ovambo province every bit a whole is served yesteryear a network of broad, shallow H2O courses in addition to pools known every bit ooshana, which are tributaries that fan out from the Kuvelai river originating precisely exterior Handa territory.

During the moisture season, pelting in addition to overflowing waters from the 2 permanent rivers inward the part enable the oshana network to render the Ovambo amongst 6-7 months of H2O during the dry out flavor inward a expert year.

Years of abundant rainfall are known every bit efundja in addition to are much celebrated since they turn over infrequently (Tuupainen 1970:16). Hahn (1928:1) states that next a expert moisture flavor upwards to three-fifths of the dry ground may go submerged for quite some time.

As the oshana network progresses southwards, through northern Namibia, its intersecting character

increases inward complexity. Wider H2O channels in addition to pools are replaced yesteryear narrower, to a greater extent than numerous streams, which dwindle farther before petering out into the Etosha Pan (Estermann 1976:53). The Ovambo are heavily dependent on pelting for the provision of expert grazing areas, in addition to the success of their millet in addition to sorghum crops. However, rainfall is often piteous - fifty-fifty absent - some years, leading to severe H2O shortage in addition to frequent drought. Two moisture seasons are recognised yesteryear Ovambo: a brusque rainy flavor from Oct to Nov (when grain fields are prepared inward advance of pelting proper), followed yesteryear a longer i from Dec to March. Rain rarely falls during all of these months, the overall amount averaging most 400mm. Water conservation, therefore, becomes a major priority in addition to is largely achieved yesteryear the construction in addition to maintainance of wells in addition to reservoirs throughout the region, together amongst careful regulation of H2O use. They are built to supplement the ooshana, when the latter start to dry out up. Because the H2O tabular array is quite closed to the surface, the Ovambo rarely have got to dig deeper than 3-7 metres to gain H2O for domestic use. Such wells are ordinarily unlined, in addition to are conical inward blueprint due to sandiness of the soil which disturbs easily (Loeb 1948:17; Hahn 1928:1; Aarni 1982:22; Rodin 1985:40).

Ovambo sparrowhawk

Despite the irregular grapheme of the region’s H2O supply, the oshana scheme nevertheless ensured

the abundance of various types of flora that were widely used yesteryear the Ovambo every bit food, medicines, manufacturing materials in addition to fuel. Estermann (1976:53-54) informs us that the best vegetation was found along the edges of the regulation ooshana, inward the fundamental expanse of Ovamboland occupied yesteryear the Ovakwanyama, inward southern Angola. Away from the water-courses the dry ground assumed woods growth similar to that found due west of the Kunene river. Estermann classifies the woods into 2 main types, distinguishable on the ground of the soil inward which each grows. It would seem that he has followed the distinction made yesteryear Ovambo themselves, every bit he provides us amongst the Ovambo terms for the woods types. Thus nosotros have got the woods of the sandy plains, omufitu, inward which Burkeas, Pterocarpus in addition to Endandrophragma species predominate. Then at that topographic point is that thriving inward to a greater extent than clayey soil, omuhenye, typical of the southern Angolan bush: Excoecana africana in addition to Colophospermum mopane, amongst some Terminalia species. Occurring inward all soil types are the gigantic

Adansonia digitata (baobab) trees. H5N1 number of fruit trees flourish inward the part which are regarded every bit a

valuable nutrient source in addition to much respected yesteryear Ovambo. These include: Schlerocarya birrea, Diospyros

mespiliformis, Ficus sycomoros in addition to Berchemia discolor. Fan palms (Hyphaene ventricosa) grace the

area, although most of the mature palms were destroyed during the nifty famine of 1915, when Ovambo were forced to utilization the trunks every bit a major source of nutrient (Estermann 1976:54).

Language

Ovambo people speak Oshiwambo, a Bantu linguistic communication which belongs the larger Niger-Congo phylum. It include the Oshikwanyama, Oshingandjera, Oshimbadja, Oshindonga in addition to other dialects. Over 2 i M k people inward Namibia in addition to Republic of Angola verbalize Oshiwambo in addition to over one-half of the people inward Namibia verbalize Oshiwambo, peculiarly the Ovambo people.

The linguistic communication is closely related to that of the Hereros in addition to Himba, Otjiherero. An obvious sign of proximity is the prefix used for linguistic communication in addition to dialect names, Proto-Bantu *ki- (class 7, every bit inward Ki-Swahili), which inward Herero has evolved to Otji- in addition to inward Ovambo farther to Oshi-.

Namibian president Hifikepunye Pohamba is Owambo man

Linguistically, the Ovambo tin live divided broadly into 2 groups. The starting fourth dimension includes the Ovakwanyama in addition to all the southern Angolan peoples, whose dialect is known every bit Oshikwanyama in addition to distinguished, for example, yesteryear the plural prefix ova for ‘people’ - every bit inward ovakulunhu (elders). The mo includes the Ondonga in addition to all the remaining Ovambo peoples, the dialect known every bit Oshindonga amongst a plural prefix aa for ‘people’, e.g. Aandonga (Loeb 1962:6). Maho (2009) lists the next every bit distinct languages inward the Ovambo cluster: (A) Ovakwayama or Kwanyama grouping which include Kafima, Evale,

Mbandja, Mbalanhu, Ndongwena, Kwankwa, Dombondola, in addition to Esinga; (B) Ndonga grouping which also include Kwambi, Ngandjera, Kwaluudhi in addition to Kolonkadhi-Eunda.

There are 8 dialects, including the 2 written standards Kwanyama in addition to Ndonga.

The next tabular array contains the names, areas, dialect names in addition to the locations of the Ovambo tribes according to T. E. Tirronen's Ndonga-English Dictionary. The tabular array also contains information concerning which substantive course of study of the Proto-Bantu linguistic communication the words belong to.

Area	Tribe	Dialect	Location
Classes 9 (*ny > on-), 11 (uu-/ou-)	Class 2 (*wa-, a-)	Class 7 (*ki > oshi-)
O-ndonga	Aa-ndonga	Oshi-ndonga	Southern Ovamboland
Uu-kwambi	Aa-kwambi	Oshi-kwambi	Central Ovamboland
O-ngandjera	Aa-ngandjera	Oshi-ngandjera	Central Ovamboland
Uu-kwaluudhi	Aa-kwaluudhi	Oshi-kwaluudhi	Western Ovamboland
O-mbalanhu	Aa-mbalanhu	Oshi-mbalanhu	Western Ovamboland
Uu-kolonkadhi	Aa-kolonkadhi	Oshi-kolonkadhi	Western Ovamboland
Ou-kwanyama	Ova-kwanyama	Oshi-kwanyama	Northern in addition to Eastern Ovamboland, Angola
O-mbadja	Ova-mbadja	Oshi-mbadja	Angola, Shangalala vicinity

Sam Nujomah the starting fourth dimension president of Namibia is Owambo man

History

Ovambo people are portion of the Great Bantu Migration from West Africa in addition to Central Africa through Great Lake expanse in addition to farther downwards to Upper Zambezi in addition to to afterwards migrated gradually to their acquaint locations inward Namibia in addition to Angola. Ovambo people met San in addition to Khoikhoi people of Southern Africa. Ovambo people similar all the Bantu people brought Fe technology scientific discipline to Southern Africa in addition to used it every bit a superior weapon to pushed away the aboriginal tribes making to possible for them to occupy their land.

Ovambo men. Circa 1914

Colonial History

The Ovambo were discipline to colonial invasion from to a greater extent than than i European province at once. The Portuguese extended their colony inward Republic of Angola every bit far southward every bit northern Ovamboland, whilst the Germans, in addition to afterwards the South Africans, extended their influence over Namibia (formerly South West Africa) every bit far every bit southern Ovamboland. The borderline betwixt the 2 colonies thus ran direct through the pump of the Ovambo region, disrupting the lives of the people there. Thus the Ovakwanyama were discipline to different in addition to often conflicting administrative policies in addition to law. The occupation was compounded yesteryear the fact that the precise location of the border could non initially live agreed yesteryear the European powers.

Ovambo old human being smoking pipe. Circa 1910

According to Estermann (1976:52), Portugal in addition to Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany drew the southern Republic of Angola border inward 1886,

thus locating the Ovakwanyama, Ombadja, Dombondola, Kafima in addition to Evale on the Portuguese side, and

leaving other Ovambo inward northern Namibia. In 1890, however, the international boundary was adjusted, the novel line dividing the Kwanyama kingdom inward 2 in addition to leaving precisely i 3rd of their number inward northern Namibia. The border has seen a farther 3 adjustments, each fourth dimension involving major displace of refugees to in addition to fro, fleeing i or other of the colonial administrations (Totemeyer 1978:6, 35, 100, cited inward Aarni 1982:23).

Group of Ovambo men inward traditional dress. Circa 1910

Loeb (1962:37) informs us that inward 1926 the status of the neutral zone betwixt Republic of Angola in addition to Ovamboland

was submitted to arbitration in addition to the zone awarded to Angola. The Assistant Native Commissioner’s

H.Q. for the South African authorities was moved from Namakunde to Oshikango (see Maps) precisely over the border. Loeb maintains that 40,000 Ovakwanyama, wishing to remain nether Union rule, moved southward to bring together the 20,000 already inward Namibia, leaving 20,000 behind inward Angola. Three quarters of the population were thus living inward the smaller of the 2 Ovakwanyama regions, which moreover was characterised yesteryear poorer grazing in addition to woods areas. Border in addition to colonial controls became increasingly restrictive, which farther hampered the indigenous economic scheme in addition to civilization - the Portuguese, for example, refusing to allow the Namibian Kwanyama over the border to see their usual cattle grazing out-posts (Loeb 1962:43).

Ovamboland. Oshikango August 1935. Kwanyama "Tribal" coming together amongst Chief Native Commissioner in addition to visitors

Traders, explorers in addition to missionaries were the mainstay of early on European penetration, amongst the Portuguese in addition to the Dutch visiting every bit early on every bit the 1400s in addition to 1700s respectively. It was non until the 1880s, however, that colonial dominion inward Namibia was formally established nether the Germans. At this fourth dimension the Ovambo were niggling affected, beingness so far north; dissimilar the Nama in addition to the Herero who waged a bitter state of war of resistance against the Germans from 1904-7, suffering devastating blows to their population in addition to economic scheme (Katjavivi 1988:5, 7-11).

The colonial province of affairs changed dramatically during the First World War, when the British requested

South African forces to invade Namibia in addition to oust the Germans. This direct affected the Ovambo, every bit from 1915 the ‘Northern Sector’ (Ovamboland, the Kaokoveld, Okavango in addition to Caprivi) became to a greater extent than firmly administered yesteryear the Union authorities than it ever had been nether High German rule. Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany lost Namibia inward 1919 every bit a effect of the Treaty of Versailles, in addition to inward 1921 the League of Nations entrusted Namibia every bit a Mandate to the Union of South Africa, to live administered every bit an integral portion of it. The League of Nations was replaced yesteryear the United Nations inward 1946, in addition to at that topographic point so began a long dispute betwixt this arrangement in addition to the South African authorities over the Mandate for Namibia. South Africa refused to recognise United Nations say-so in addition to insisted that the Mandate had lapsed amongst the dissolution of the League of Nations, thus allowing them to proceed amongst a constitutional evolution of Namibia (Tuupainen 1970:11; Katjavivi 1988:13). All intervening efforts of the International Court of Justice, the UN, in addition to the indigenous peoples (e.g. SWAPO4) of the province proved relatively unsuccessful until the recent events leading to Namibia’s Independence inward 1989.

North of the Namibian border, the Portuguese entered Kwanyama dry ground around the cease of the seventeenth century (Lima 1977:31), in addition to from 1844 long distance merchandise networks based on telephone substitution of ivory in addition to slaves for firearms were established. The establishment of to a greater extent than formal colonial influence was achieved much to a greater extent than slowly. From 1859 the Portuguese occupied a fort inward Humbe, their regional uppercase beingness Mossamedes. They intended to occupy Ovamboland inward monastic tell to protect southern Republic of Angola from High German encroachment from the south, in addition to British encroachment from the east, but due to fiscal crises inward both the colony in addition to inward Lisbon it was a protracted affair (Hayes 1988:2-3).

Two Owambo women from Namibia inward traditional dress. Circa 1910

During the 1890s in addition to 1900s the Portuguese had armed services brushes amongst the Ovambo but were non peculiarly successful. The imminent armed services confrontation amongst Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany lastly justified the Portuguese authorities inward sending a largely European column to Ovamboland inward 1915. They were defeated yesteryear the Germans inward a border skirmish related to the outbreak of state of war inward Europe, in addition to retreated to the highlands. The Germans were unable to follow upwards this victory, howev er, every bit they were attacked in addition to defeated yesteryear South African forces - an trial which changed the whole nature of the Portuguese expedition, in addition to the chance was used to lastly subjugate the Ovakwanyama. King Mandume of Ukwanyama strongly resisted the colonising attempts of the Portuguese, in addition to had tried to turn Portugal’s preoccupation amongst Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany to his political advantage, only to live thwarted yesteryear the intervention of South African forces. They forced Mandume to cease hostilities in addition to pick out protection against the Portuguese, inward homecoming for provisions for his famine stricken land - also paid for inward the cast of a migrant labour render (Clarence-Smith & Moorsom 1977:108).

Kwanyama (Ovambo) daughter inward headdress, Oshikuku. circa 1930

King Mandume had lost 5,000 people during battles amongst the Portuguese, in addition to was forced to flee to

Kwanyama province inward northern Namibia - which is when South Africa stepped in. Katjavivi (1988:1719) maintains that South African intervention sprang from their want to command northern Namibia in addition to laid the national boundary - hence their liason amongst the Portuguese. Henceforth, Ovamboland was watched closely yesteryear the South African administration, because the Ukwambi every bit good every bit the Ovakwanyama resisted the say-so of Native Commissioner Hahn5. By the 1930s the province of affairs had developed inward such a way that the South Africans began to experience undermined, so they bombed the Ukwambi expanse inward monastic tell to supress resistance.

Chief Ipumbu was deposed yesteryear the Union inward 1932 in addition to banished, so the chieftaincy was abolished and

replaced yesteryear a council of headmen appointed yesteryear the Government.

Ovambo human being in addition to his wife. Circa 1910

As pointed out yesteryear Clarence-Smith in addition to Moorsom (1977:108), colonial strategy inward Ovamboland was

concerned higher upwards all amongst securing an abundant in addition to reliable migrant labour forcefulness - especially for fundamental in addition to southern Namibia. The Germans had been really keen on the utilization of Ovambo every bit labourers on the extensive White-owned farms, in addition to inward the novel mines in addition to other industries. The labour forcefulness was initially drawn from indigenous communities farther south, but amongst the opening of Tsumeb copper mine inward 1906 in addition to the Luderitz diamond mine inward 1908, to a greater extent than Ovambo in addition to other northern peoples were recruited on fixed term contracts. By 1910 some 10,000 Ovambo contract workers had come upwards southward for the mines, fisheries in addition to railways.

Things were no meliorate nether the South African government. White farmers were allocated the best

dry ground in addition to Namibians were relocated yesteryear the Native Reserves Commission to the to a greater extent than northern semi-arid

regions, which were unsuitable for sustaining a much increased indigenous population. Moving to the

White areas every bit migrant labourers was thus presented every bit the only feasible solution to the occupation of population force per unit of measurement area in addition to express natural resources (land shortage in addition to deforestation were an acuate occupation yesteryear the

mid twentieth century) (Clarence-Smith & Moorsom 1977:108; Katjavivi 1988:12, 14-15).

Ovambo people inward their village. Circa 1910

The stagnation of the economic scheme of southern Republic of Angola correct upwards to the belatedly 1960s meant the mines of Namibia became the principal centre of emloyment for the population over a broad expanse of southern Republic of Angola (Clarence-Smith & Moorsom 1977:108). Estermann (1976:130-131) attributes the southward time period of migrant labourers to the fact that immature Ovambo men, unoccupied since the prohibition of warfare yesteryear the the colonial Administrations after 1915, saw migrant labour every bit an choice pursuit. It tended to live the smaller Ovambo kingdoms who starting fourth dimension sent men south, but soon all contributed to the operate force.

Ovambo adult woman inward traditional dress. Circa 1910

Many who moved southward had often begun every bit voluntary workers at the mission stations. Loeb (1962:38)

writes that only men formed the migrant labour force, women in addition to children beingness forced to remain inward their

identify areas in addition to the men ordered to homecoming at to the lowest degree every 2 years.

The workers from Ovamboland were land amidst the most exploited, every bit compared amongst labourers

recruited from areas of southward Namibia. Ovambo were recruited yesteryear the Northern Labour Organisation

agency (established 1925), in addition to were destined mainly for Tsumeb copper mine in addition to farm work. Recruits

were given a rudimentary medical examine in addition to so divided into 3 categories of fitness: (a) for

secret operate inward the mines, (b) for surface operate at the mines or heavy farm labour, in addition to (c) for lighter

farm operate every bit sheep in addition to cattle herdsmen. Workers had no selection inward the affair at all, in addition to hours, payment

in addition to working weather condition were never specified (Katjavivi 1988:15-16).

Ovambo people

Economy

The domestic economic scheme of the Ovambo is organised principally around agriculture in addition to pastoralism:

the old beingness the sphere of women, in addition to the latter that of men. The ground of their diet is millet (Pennistetum spicatum) called oilia, which agency ‘the regulation food’. It withstands drought longer than other cereals, thrives inward piteous soils in addition to stores for 2-3 years. Sorghum vulgare (oiliavala) is also grown; it is less hardy in addition to requires meliorate growing conditions, but is to a greater extent than highly prized.

Each married adult woman has her ain grain fields in addition to vegetable garden adjoining the ehumbo, in addition to co-wives operate together on the grain land of their husband. The hubby must clear each of his wives’ fields prior to planting inward Oct or Nov each year. Every ehumbo is equipped amongst its’ ain communal threshing in addition to pounding areas (Estermann 1976:132-4).

Because of the extensive flooding which tin turn over during the moisture season, crop fields are established

on specially prepared raised mounds in addition to thus fed but non annihilated yesteryear the ooshana (Hahn 1928:34). Loeb (1948:16) argues that the utilization of these raised beds has prevented European introduction of the plough, in addition to inward turn handicapped the missionaries inward introducing monogamy: agriculture requiring many wiv es to hoe a plot of Earth in addition to harvest the crops. In add-on to grain, various curcubits in addition to peanuts: osimbutufukwa (Arachis hypogaea) in addition to osifukwa (Voandzeia subterranea) are also grown.

The Owambo engage inward herding of cattle (engobe) which is the responsibleness of men. The manly individual monarch manages the largest herds in addition to those of other men vary inward size depending on socio-economic status. Some men, ovanahambo, are without herds of their ain in addition to expect after the herds of others. Such a human being is entrusted amongst most 40-50 caput of cattle which he takes to established grazing posts during the dry out season; he is usually immature in addition to single All herdsmen know the grasses preferred yesteryear cattle - those that fatten them easily. H5N1 number of herbal remedies for cattle in addition to for the herdsmen themselves are also known, in addition to sure enough herdsmen specialise inward castration (Estermann 1976:136-137). Cattle are an extremely prestigious commodity, reflecting the wealth of the lineage (Hahn 1928:35)

Apart from cattle herding, most Owambo households ain a few goats in addition to cattle, in addition to occasionally a few pigs” (2). Also, “most houses have got chickens” in addition to “when the rains come, the rivers to the N inward Republic of Angola overflow in addition to overflowing the area, bringing fish, birds, in addition to frogs.”

They brand in addition to sell basketry in addition to pottery.

Ovambo farmers

Sexual Division of Production

Males are responsible for edifice households in addition to granaries (omaanda), clearing waterholes in addition to fields, Fe production, the industry of all wooden items in addition to shroud goods, tabular array salt procurement in addition to hunting. Females are concerned amongst most kid care, all nutrient preparation, the production of baskets in addition to pots, thatching of dwellings, the gathering of wild fruit in addition to vegetables in addition to the collection of H2O (Hahn 1928:25; Estermann 1976:143-5).

Owambo adult woman amongst her child

“It is the labor of the immature men to attend to the goats in addition to cattle, taking them to discovery grazing areas during the day, in addition to bringing them dorsum to the identify inward the evening.”

Beautiful Ovambo girl

Fishing is a articulation enterprise, although the methods adopted yesteryear men in addition to yesteryear women differ. Women actively fish amongst tall, conical baskets inward the oshana pools, whereas men build traps across the narrower water-courses, consisting of weirs (olua) amongst conical baskets (omidiva) inward the apertures (Estermann 1976:142).

Ovambo people

Land tenure:

“ If someone wanted to leave of absence some of his belongings to his married adult woman or children, he could sell it to them

for a nominal price. After he had informed his maternal kin of the transaction, they could no longer claim that item portion of the husband’s belongings after his death. Today, the Namibian constitution protects the window in addition to the children from such inheritance mistreatments. When a adult woman died, her belongings was inherited yesteryear her children, woman parent or other to a greater extent than distant matrilineal relatives”

Ovambo youth

Ovambo Settlement in addition to Social Structure

Each Ovambo grouping (kingdom) occupies its’ ain expanse inside the Ovambo part every bit a whole. Estermann (1976:51) writes that tracts of no-man’s-land, several kilometres inward depth, used to separate i kingdom from another. The establishment of homes was traditionally prohibited inside these zones of woods or bush, which were quite discernible inward the 1920s. By the 1950s (Estermann’s fourth dimension of writing), however, people were starting to occupy the buffer zones, leading to their virtual obscurity.

The expanse occupied yesteryear i grouping is known every bit oshilongo (country) falling traditionally nether the jurisdiction of the manly individual monarch (ohamba) or paramount chief. However, inward monastic tell to homecoming it to a greater extent than manageable, the oshilongo is sub-divided into districts - omikunda (omukunda sing.) - which are governed yesteryear omalenga, district heads in addition to counsellors of the king. They are appointed yesteryear the manly individual monarch in addition to are responsible to him. Women every bit good every bit men could live district-heads, for illustration the king’s woman parent ever had her ain large district some distance from the king. About 15-20 households were established inside an omukunda, amongst distances betwixt them ranging from 500 m upwards to 3 km or to a greater extent than (Loeb 1962:42; Tuupainen 1970:16; Williams 1988:460).

The Ovambo household (ehumbo) is a self-contained economical unit, although cooperation between

them during weeding in addition to harvesting is common, every bit is the sharing of cattle herding betwixt morn in addition to eventide milking (Williams 1988:48). It is a large, roughly circular, construction composed of several huts in addition to living areas separated from i some other yesteryear tall wooden or millet stem palisades. Palisades also cast intricate connecting passageways which allow access to the various areas. In the centre is a large coming together expanse (olupale), in addition to around the exterior are fenced areas for the cattle.

Ovambo wedding

The entire construction is enclosed inside a thick wooden palisade most 6-10 ft inward elevation (Hahn 1928:10; Williams 1988:45). It is occupied yesteryear a polygamous household unit of measurement unit comprising usually a husband, 2-4 wives in addition to all their children. It was non uncommon, however, for other kin members to reside at that topographic point every bit good - peculiarly newly married couples amongst no ehumbo of their own. Each married adult woman has her ain cooking facilities in addition to nutrient storage expanse inward her living quarters, in addition to her children alive amongst her until old plenty to conjoin (girls) or displace into the cattle pens amongst other adolescent boys. Ovambo spousal human relationship is preferentially based on clan exogamy in addition to kingdom endogamy, although marriages betwixt members of 2 different Ovambo kingdoms are non uncommon. The scheme of descent is matrilineal.

dancing Owambo people

Political system/Structure

Each tribe has a principal that is responsible for the tribe, although many have got converted to running tribal affairs amongst a council of headmen. Members of the imperial household unit of measurement of the Owamboland are known every bit aakwanekamba in addition to only those who belong to this household unit of measurement yesteryear nascence have got a claim to chieftainship. Because descent is matrilineal, these relations must autumn on the mother's side. The chief's ain sons have got no claim inward the imperial family. They grow upwards every bit regular members of the tribe.”

The importance of the manly individual monarch every bit guardian in addition to benefactor of his province is reflected inward the symbolism of

the nations sacred fire, omilo guoshilongo, built only of omufyati (Colophospermum mopane) wood in addition to which permanently smouldered inward the imperial residence. It was believed that terrible misfortune would befall the whole province if this flaming were allowed to decease out during the king’s lifetime, in addition to so 2 specially appointed elders, atonateli yomilo, were charged amongst constantly tending it. The flaming symbolised the life of the king, which inward turn symbolised the life of the nation; only when the manly individual monarch died was the flaming allowed to extinguish naturally in addition to a novel i kindled for his successor. All imperial subjects established their ain domestic fires amongst embers taken from the sacred fire, the monastic tell inward which they were received depending on status (e.g. the omalenga received theirs before other householders) (Hahn 1928:17-18).

The manly individual monarch in addition to his omalenga aimed to ensure economical in addition to social stability throughout the kingdom:

settling disputes, for example. The manly individual monarch also managed the kingdom’s economical year, yesteryear ritually inaugurating the agricultural in addition to herding seasons, fruit picking in addition to angling seasons, the annual expeditions for tabular array salt or iron, in addition to the national large game hunts. Dates for house-moving in addition to for major ceremonies similar the efundula woman individual transition rites, are also given yesteryear the manly individual monarch (Loeb 1948:71-75; A. & D. Powell-Cotton 1937a).

Not all kings, however, proved to live benefactors of their people, in addition to at that topographic point are reports of autocratic, despotic kings who ignored the advice of their elders in addition to terrorised their subjects (e.g. view Hahn 1928:8). Such kings were often eventually displaced yesteryear competitor candidates amongst pop back upwards (Clarence-Smith 1979:79). Though, to claim, every bit many missionary in addition to colonial administrative sources have, that all Ovambo kings were brutal despots, is both slanderous in addition to misleading. The catholic missionary Estermann, for example, writes: "There is no incertitude that the most perfect in addition to absolute despotism prevailed almost everywhere" (1976:124), yet this sentiment is based on the memoirs of South African soldiers similar W.B. de Witt, who clearly had a vested involvement inward denouncing the indigenous scheme of authorities inward monastic tell to justify imposition of colonial rule.

It is truthful that Ovambo kingdoms did non ever peacefully co-exist in addition to were non ever internally

stable, but the disputes over cattle, dry ground in addition to H2O rights, in addition to refugees seeking assylum, were non the production of internal dynamics alone. Rather, every bit argued yesteryear Katjavivi (1988:3-4), such conflict tin live seen every bit the production of wider socio-economic changes, whereby external stimuli (trade in addition to contact amongst Europeans) have got interacted amongst internal social dynamics. The effect was intensification of social stratification during the belatedly nineteenth century, which saw the strengthening of a dominant ruling elite (chiefly omalenga) who exacted tribute (cattle, grain) from the people, in addition to who encouraged the evolution of ivory in addition to slave trading. Tribute in addition to slaves were traded amongst Europeans for prestigious commodities similar horses in addition to guns.

Eventually, the traditional Ovambo cast of authorities was replaced yesteryear a colonial scheme of indirect

rule, imposed yesteryear the Portuguese inward southern Republic of Angola in addition to yesteryear the South Africans inward northern Namibia. Loeb (1948:19) states that nether the Mandate of South Africa the Ovambo inward Namibia were governed yesteryear groups of headmen, or a single chief, who were advised in addition to directed yesteryear Government officials. Only one-half of the kingdoms soundless had kings inward 1948. In Ukwanyama kingship ended inward 1917, when King Mandume was shot yesteryear Union forces; headmen in addition to sub-headmen replaced the monarchy. Chieftainship was hereditary in addition to continued to live based on matrilineal succession (as amidst the Ondonga, Ongandjera in addition to Ukwaludhi, for example), whereas headmen were precisely appointed yesteryear Government administrators (Tuupainen 1970:17).

Inheritance patterns

“Each tribe has a principal that is responsible for the tribe, although many have got converted to running tribal affairs amongst a council of headmen. Members of the imperial household unit of measurement of the Owamboland are known every bit aakwanekamba in addition to only those who belong to this household unit of measurement yesteryear nascence have got a claim to chieftainship. Because descent is matrilineal, these relations must autumn on the mother's side. The chief's ain sons have got no claim inward the imperial family. They grow upwards every bit regular members of the tribe.”

Parent-offspring interactions in addition to conflict:

Conflict non mentioned. Parents seem to live closed to their children. “The traditional identify is built every bit a grouping of huts surrounded yesteryear a fence of large vertical poles. Some families also build a Western-style cement block edifice inside the home. Each hut to a greater extent than often than non has a different purpose, such every bit a bedroom, storeroom, or kitchen. Most families collect H2O from a nearby world tap.”

Ovambo elderberry from Namibia

Religious Belief

Traditionally, the Owambo people lived a life that was highly influenced yesteryear their mystico-religious influences. They non only believed inward expert in addition to evil spirits but also they are influenced yesteryear nifty superstitions. Most members of the Owambo tribe believe inward a supreme spirit, known every bit Kalunga. This spirit is known to pick out the cast of a human being in addition to displace invisibly amidst the people. This spirit is really of import to the tribe.

When the tribe is visited amongst a famine or pestilence it is the responsibleness of the Kalunga to assist the people along. Beliefs amidst the Owambo people centre around their belief inward Kalunga. For example, when a tribe fellow member wants to go inward the chief's kraal, they must starting fourth dimension take away their sandals. It is said that if this individual does non take away their sandals it volition convey decease to i of the imperial inmates in addition to throw the kraal into mourning. Another belief deals amongst burning flaming inward the chief's kraal. If the flaming burns out, the principal in addition to the tribe volition disappear. An of import ceremony takes identify at the cease of the harvest, where the entire community has a feast in addition to celebrates.

The Ovambo believed economical success to live closely boundary upwards amongst the well-being of the king. He

was usually refered to every bit omwene wosilongo (holder/guardian of the land), in addition to was believed to guarantee fertility in addition to prosperity to the land because of his lineage connections amongst the powerful imperial ancestral spirits, every bit good every bit his association amongst Kalunga the Creator (Loeb 1962:41). Major calamities, such every bit drought in addition to pestilence, were usually attributed to the wrath of the imperial ancestors who had been made angry yesteryear the unsociable deportment of the living. The manly individual monarch in addition to his imperial elders (ovakulunhu) were responsible for communicating amongst the imperial ancestors on the nation’s behalf, in addition to vice versa.

Owambo people

Passage rituals (birth, death, puberty, seasonal)

“Rituals dealt amongst the transition betwixt girlhood in addition to womanhood inward Ovambo societies on the northern floodplain, grappling amongst issues of sexual practice in addition to death, generation in addition to regeneration, in addition to its implications were understood to screen the entire social body.” Male circumcision has been present. “Cows play a peculiarly of import role inward funeral rituals, too. When an Ovambo human being dies, his body must remain inward the theatre for at to the lowest degree i hateful solar daytime before burial, during which fourth dimension all his pets must live killed.

Traditional Ovambo compounds, called kraals, have got gates used yesteryear both cattle in addition to humans. At death, the Ovambo believe that the possessor may non top through this gate, or the cattle volition decease in addition to the kraal volition come upwards to ruin. H5N1 novel hole is cutting for him to top through. H5N1 bull is slaughtered, cooked without crude oil or flavoring of whatsoever kind, in addition to a portion is eaten yesteryear everyone inward the village. Then the kraal in addition to all its contents must live moved at to the lowest degree 50 feet (15 meters). The cattle are non permitted to residue on the same world that witnessed the decease of their owner.”

A immature Ovanmbo adult woman inward a niggling viallage close Oshakati, inward Namibia. miguel-pereira

Male Circumcision

According to information provided yesteryear a High German author Hermann Tonjes (1949), spell Owambo communities historically used to practise circumcision, it was applied to adults, but reserved for nobility, the wealthy in addition to to those inward high purpose serving the King. During those days, traditional circumcisers used to accuse substantial fees for their services. There were also some cases of decease due to circumcision. Young men who qualified for circumcision (“etanda” inward Oshiwambo) were escorted yesteryear their fathers to the identify where the circumcision was to pick out place, known every bit “oshombo” or “ontanda”. Circumcision was seen to live a physical in addition to spiritual intervention. In terms of the latter, circumcision linked the immature human being to the spiritual world of his ancestors to secure his fertility. Male initiation rituals, “etanda”, or circumcision belonged to the recognised tradition of all Owambo societies of Northern Namibia in addition to it is only from Ongandjera that nosotros have got no descriptions of it. At some indicate inward fourth dimension at that topographic point does seem to have got been circumcision at that topographic point too, judging from the scream of the calendar month of July, “mupita omulumentu”, which translates every bit “the coming out of men” (elc Nameja, 1385:1934). This was the fourth dimension of twelvemonth when circumcision camps were held inward other Owambo societies. H5N1 number of neighbouring communities of the Owambo also undertook the practice; the Nyaneka-Nkhumbi, the pastoralist groups of the Herero, the Chokwe, the Zimba, the Hakavona, the Kwanyoka, the Himba in addition to the Kuvale (Estermann, 1981:32 in addition to 1979:50). These neighbours were historically linked to the Owambo. The Nyaneka-Nkhumbi are held to live ‘the progenitors’ of sure enough Owambo kingdoms, including Uukwambi, Ombalantu in addition to Ongandjera (Williams, 1991:30, 31). In 1949, Seppo Teinonen, a Finnish theologian, compiled the available information on circumcision amidst the Owambo. His résumé, presented below, shows that at that topographic point had been a nifty bargain of variation inward the custom. Male initiation was called “ohango jaalumentu”. According to Tönjes it was abolished inward Uukwanyama inward the years 1885–1890 in addition to before than that inward Ondonga. Hans Schinz, who travelled inward the expanse inward 1884–1887, said, circumcision was inward do inward Ondonga before (Teinonen 1949). For several reasons, Teinonen found it hard to give an exact description of the ritual every bit really niggling has been written on discipline matter. Most of the information is secondary, in addition to the practices vary from i gild to some other (Teinonen1949:24).

Adornment

Body paint: Other tribes inward this expanse utilization ochre, a reddish pigment extracted from Fe ore in addition to smear it all over their bodies.

Piercings: “Women habiliment elaborate braids in addition to copper or leather bands around their necks, making their figures look really elongated.”

Scarification: “Women habiliment elaborate braids in addition to copper or leather bands around their necks, making their figures look really elongated.”

Kwanyama daughter inward headdress, Oshikuku

Adornment (beads, feathers, lip plates, etc.): “Women habiliment elaborate braids in addition to copper or leather bands around their necks, making their figures look really elongated.”

Owambo braid hairstyle. Circa 1920

Death in addition to afterlife beliefs:

“At death, the Ovambo believe that the possessor may non top through this gate, or the cattle volition decease in addition to the kraal volition come upwards to ruin. H5N1 novel hole is cutting for him to top through.”

source:dice.missouri.edu › docs › niger-congo‎
lucy.ukc.ac.uk › csacpub › davies_thesis

Jen inward Ovambo traditional attire holding manus amongst her friend. http://jeninnamibia.blogspot.com/

Ovambo woman

are an amalgamation of various agricultural Bantu Info For You OVAMBO (OWAMBO) PEOPLE: THE AGRICULTURAL AND POWERFUL BANTU PEOPLE OF NAMIBIA AND ANGOLA AND THE LARGEST ETHNIC GROUP IN NAMIBIA

"Ovambo women, Ondonga, South West Africa" | From the publication "The nighttime continent; Africa, landscape in addition to people" Hugo Adolf Bernatzik, 1931

For centuries the Ngandjera in addition to Kwaluudhi have got occupied the western regions of the expanse formerly known every bit Ovamboland. In the yesteryear the coiffures worn yesteryear their girls in addition to women were of such stunning beauty that they were known far beyond their tribal areas.

As a effect of the increasing activities of missionaries, migrant labour in addition to the influences of the Administration, the old clothes pattern gradually disappeared in addition to already during the 1960s really niggling was left of it. The oshikoma in addition to iipando headdress of Ngandjera women was soundless worn during the 1970s inward the cast of wigs.

ca. 1940s | Photo: A. Schertz, Collection Antje Otto

Ovambo woman. Circa 1910

Two Mbalantu (Wambo group) women whose braids have got been lengthened to their ankles through the utilization of sinew (eefipa) extensions. Namibia, | © M. Schettler, 1940s

source:http://www.pinterest.com/MonikaEttlin/africa-pre-1975-southern-africa/