Info For You Lot Toposa People: Nilotic Agro-Pastoral Vehement Warriors Of Sudan Together With Eastward Africa
"Kitacakari nyakook ewonit ngibaren." (An empty tum tin brand a mortal lose his or her cattle). Meaning, when the tum is empty the legs teach weak in addition to y'all can't run after your animals. (English)
Toposa ( Sudan ) Proverb
Toposa adult woman with her babe South Sudan
The Toposa are an agro-pastoral in addition to Nilotic-speaking people living inward the south-eastern corner of the Republic of Sudan, on the borders to Ethiopia, Kenya, in addition to Uganda, numbering an estimated 800,000.
The Toposa are portion of an ethnic cluster called Ateker or Karimojong cluster, comprising of the Karimojong, the Jie, the Dodos, the Turkana, the Toposa, the Jiye, in addition to the Nyangatom, who all Pb a similar way of life, solely modified past times their political in addition to ecological situation.
Toposa warrior chieftain
The Turkana, for example, living inward a much to a greater extent than arid environment, practise solely niggling agriculture in addition to take away hold to a groovy extent substituted their cattle past times camels. In fact, it is non solely the Ateker sharing a similar way of life, but many neighbouring peoples inward the expanse similar the Didinga, Longarim, Oromo, Samburu, Rendille, Hamar, Dassanetch, Murle, in addition to Konso, just to cite a few.
They take away hold traditionally lived past times herding cattle, sheep in addition to goats, in addition to inward the past times were involved inward the ivory trade. They take away hold a tradition of constant low-level warfare, usually cattle raids, against their neighbors.
During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005) the Toposa helped the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) at times, in addition to at other times helped the Government of Sudan. After the war, sporadic clashes with neighboring tribes soundless remain a problem. The Toposa way of life is tardily beingness modernized, at the toll of eroding the traditional social organization.
Toposa people
Locataion in addition to environment
The Toposa people alive inward Greater Kapoeta, beside the Singaita in addition to Lokalyen rivers, in addition to take away hold a ritual centre at Loyooro River. For seasonal grazing they migrate to Moruangipi in addition to sometimes E into the Ilemi Triangle.
Toposa adult woman from Ethiopia
Toposa people also alive inward the southeast of Jonglei State. Their main settlements include Kapoeta, Riwoto in addition to Narus. The ground is semi-arid in addition to rugged, with hills in addition to ridges separated past times shallow plains in addition to seasonal streams. Vegetation is limited to shrubs in addition to brusk grass.
Toposa village
The Toposa mainly rely on cattle, sheep in addition to goats, from which they obtain milk, blood, meat in addition to leather. During the moisture flavor the animals graze close the villages. When the rains end, the men choose the herds to dry out flavor pasturage so tardily convey them back, grazing along the way, to teach inward in the hamlet when the adjacent rainy flavor starts. Some areas of expert pasturage cannot live used because of lack of drinking water.
The women also engage inward limited agriculture inward the river valleys. The main crop is sorghum, grown on fertile clay soils. Depending on weather in that location may live severe shortages or large surpluses. The Toposa province has low, unpredictable rainfall. The streams are torrential, flowing solely inward the rainy season.
Language
Toposa people speaks a linguistic communication known every bit Toposa. Toposa (also Akara, Kare, Kumi, Taposa, Topotha) is a Nilo-Saharan linguistic communication (Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic) spoken inward South Sudan past times the Toposa people.
Toposa kids
Mutually intelligible linguistic communication varieties include Jiye of South Sudan, Nyangatom of Ethiopia, Karimojong, Jie in addition to Dodos of Republic of Uganda in addition to Turkana of Kenya. Teso (spoken inward both Republic of Kenya in addition to Uganda) is lexically to a greater extent than distant.
Portrait of toposa man, South Sudan
Figure 4 shows at the top extinct generation-sets every bit they are remembered past times informants in addition to those
generation-sets shortly existing. Ngibokorá are the fathers of Ngitukoí, Ngitukoí are the fathers of Ngipyéi, in addition to so on. There is 1 striking characteristic inward the diagram: The sons of Ngibokói are split, in addition to this schism continues into the adjacent generations, causing what nosotros may telephone band 2 generation-set lines. It is precisely this splitting-up of a generation, which volition live at the focus of our interest.
Male Toposa are born into the generation-set below their fathers, in addition to each generation-set consists of a number of consecutive age-sets. I shall occupation the English linguistic communication terminology, every bit inward the Toposa linguistic communication in that location are no analytic price for either “generation-set” or “age-set”. The solely by in addition to large accepted term is nyanakét (pl. nganaketá), which tin live translated every bit “suckling group”, i.e. boys who take away hold suckled their mothers’ breasts during the same fourth dimension (on average 3 years). Some Toposa occupation words similar nyadír (a business inward the nyakirikét, the ritual meat feast), nyakión (the “table” made of leaves inward the nyakirikét) for generation-sets, nyetwál (division) or nyasepíc (group) for age-sets, but none of these price are accepted all over the area. Nyanakét is sometimes also used for age-sets. Several (around five) consecutive nganaketá are set together into 1 age-set. All nganaketá, age-sets, in addition to generation-sets take away hold distinctive names, by in addition to large derived from wild animals, from cattle colours, or the shapes of their horns. The cry of a generation-set is ordinarily equal to the 1 of its firstly in addition to oldest age-set, or it is the cry the generation-set has acquired at nyasapán.
Nyasapán is a succession ceremony where entire generation-sets are initiated in addition to promoted to the highest rank inward the Toposa society. At whatever 1 time, solely 1 generation-set tin live inward this position. When they retire, their sons volition live promoted in addition to take away hold nyasapán, in addition to so on. Formerly, i.e. inward the early on times of the generation-set scheme when the overlap inward historic catamenia betwixt the generations was non every bit marked every bit it is now, nyasapán meant beingness promoted into the status of grown-up men, beingness allowed to get married in addition to having all the ritual, social, in addition to political power. There was, however, already some historic catamenia overlap, in addition to nyasapán was eagerly awaited past times those men of the successor generation who were already old – some of them fifty-fifty had died already earlier achieving the highest status, in addition to they would exert force per unit of measurement area inward monastic enjoin to brand nyasapán locomote on for them, thus beingness allowed to get married in addition to laid upward families. As the few remaining men of the “outgoing” generation did non desire to lose their privileges, in that location was strife for quite a patch until the remaining members of the older generation became also few in addition to also weak to defend their position, retired, in addition to gave nyasapán to
their sons.
Some fourth dimension ago, with the growing historic catamenia overlap in addition to the increased number of “overaged”, i.e. older men inward a lower generation-set, the Toposa take away hold disengaged a man’s personal standing from his membership inward the generation-set system. He may get married in addition to take away hold a identify unit of measurement regardless of his laid membership. Today, all existing generation-sets (bold inward figure 4) take away hold their elders. But still, beingness an elderberry of the highest generation-set gives extra prestige, in addition to the most venerated men in addition to having the highest ritual standing today are the oldest men of the initiated Ngidongo20 in addition to Ngikaléso.
When nyasapán takes place, all members of this generation are initiated, live it old men or just
newly-born babies. Everyone has either to live introduce or at to the lowest degree live represented past times a symbol, normally
a rock – stones play a prominent occupation inward Toposa belief, every bit already mentioned above. Nyasapán
is obtained from the fathers’ generation-set. In practice, representatives of the generation-set
inward query locomote to the river Loyoro, to the expanse where the Ngikor live, 1 of the Toposa local sections
who are said to take away hold brought the sacred rock in addition to the nyasapán from Karamoja. Bulls are
speared inward favour of the elders, in addition to the initiands, with other ceremonies, are smeared past times the elders
with nyakujít, the cleansing content of the bulls’ stomachs. Then they all locomote domicile in addition to extend
the nyasapán they take away hold received to their brothers who had non been introduce inward the ceremony at the
river Loyoro.
When a generation is initiated, i.e. receives nyasapán, no members of the “outgoing” generation tin live initiated whatever more. But because of the historic catamenia overlap betwixt generations, in that location are soundless children born belonging to this older generation. These would so live “downgraded” 1 generation in addition to live initiated together with their succeeding generation.
In most societies, in that location is a conflictual relation betwixt fathers in addition to sons, in addition to an emotionally unopen relation betwixt grandfathers in addition to grandsons. Among the Toposa (and most of their neighbours), this is institutionalised inward the shape of 2 alternations. Toposa generation-sets are alternately in addition to additionally called Ngimór (Stones) or Ngirisáe (Leopards). Generation-set names of 1 alternation should (theoretically) live of similar animals. In some instances, a generation-set is solely known past times the cry of its alternation – reckon the generation-set listing on the left. Ngimór are “right” in addition to Ngirisáe are “left”, that is, inward their traditional meat feast nyakirikét where people sit down inward a half-circle, they sit down according to their alternation, with the oldest human at the correct or left end, respectively, in addition to the others inward descending monastic enjoin of their age. In daily life, alternations make non take away hold much relevance, whereas generation-sets in addition to age-sets are omni-present in addition to of import features.
Whenever males gather, may it live for entertainment, ceremonies, discussions, meat-eating, cattleraiding, war, or defence, they would make this within their group, and, depending on the occasion, it would live their age- in addition to generation-sets ordering in addition to grading in addition to also uniting them. It has to live mentioned that oft inward practice, in addition to sometimes confusing for the outsider, age-set in addition to generationset names would live used interchangeably. Men tend to aggregate inward their age-set, if plenty members of this age-set are around, but it would soundless live inward the minds of the people that a certainly age-set is portion of its generation-set, and, thus, if solely 1 age-set is present, it tin live referred to with its age-set or generation-set name.
Women from a local tribe sit down inward an opened upward marketplace inward Kapoeta inward Budy county, eastern Equatoria State, southward Sudan, Apr 4, 2010. (REUTERS/Goran Tomasevic)
If nosotros assume that a nyanakét (“suckling group”) has an historic catamenia bridge of around 3 years, in addition to an age-set is composed of 5 nganaketá, so an age-set would take away hold an historic catamenia bridge of around fifteen years.
If a generation-set had half-dozen age-sets, it would comprehend an historic catamenia bridge of ninety years. This, however, is solely an approximation, every bit the Toposa make non operate their scheme with fixed numbers or take away hold it governed past times certainly fourth dimension intervals every bit other ethnic groups make – inward its most intricate shape the Borana with their Gada (cf. Legesse 1973) system.
The Toposa generation-set scheme is non governed past times a laid of fixed rules but reflects the social relations
within the Toposa society, in addition to these are never just simple, every bit anywhere else. There is harmony but also strife in addition to stress, especially betwixt older in addition to younger men, every bit has been mentioned above, in addition to a few to a greater extent than examples volition live given below. Tension exists betwixt members of dissimilar generation-sets but also within the same generation-set or fifty-fifty age-set, in addition to my declaration is that these tensions shape the real layout of the Toposa generation-set scheme – in addition to at the same fourth dimension the conflicts betwixt old in addition to immature are channelled in addition to neutralised past times the “system”. To illustrate this, nosotros should await into how novel generation-sets in addition to age-sets emerge.
When the sons of a certainly generation “A” are born, they are, every bit long every bit they are young, referred to every bit “sons of A”. When the sons of Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 teach numerous plenty in addition to the oldest of them are youngsters, the elders volition create upward one's hear to give a cry to this generation, in addition to henceforth they volition live known every bit the generation “B”. Thus, a novel generation-set has emerged.
Toposa traditional attire
The Toposa developed unopen relations with Swahili traders, in addition to intermarriage was common. The Toposa linguistic communication became a glossa franca to the W of Lake Rudolf in addition to throughout most of Eastern Equatoria. The merchandise road betwixt Mbale inward what is at nowadays Republic of Uganda in addition to Maji ran through Toposa territory, non because it was the shortest route, but because it had dependable year-round H2O in addition to donkeys could live readily obtained to send ivory. Another road ran from Maji past times way of Obawok, North Lafit, Lafon in addition to the Badigeru swamp to the Nile. The ivory merchandise brought arms in addition to ammunition from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia into Toposa territory, in addition to these were used inward articulation cattle raids with the Swahili on neighbouring people.
The authorities of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan "pacified" the Toposa territory inward 1926/1927. Around the same time, the British East African authorities established posts inward northern Turkanaland to the south. With steadily tightening restrictions, past times the early on 1930s the Toposa were the main remaining traders inward ivory inward the southern Sudanese lowlands. The Toposa province remained portion of Sudan when that province became independent inward 1956. The First Sudanese Civil War, which lasted from 1955 until 1972, had some impact on the Toposa. The Second Sudanese Civil War, breaking out inward 1983, had a massive impact.
Portrait of toposa man, South Sudan
Figure 4 shows at the top extinct generation-sets every bit they are remembered past times informants in addition to those
generation-sets shortly existing. Ngibokorá are the fathers of Ngitukoí, Ngitukoí are the fathers of Ngipyéi, in addition to so on. There is 1 striking characteristic inward the diagram: The sons of Ngibokói are split, in addition to this schism continues into the adjacent generations, causing what nosotros may telephone band 2 generation-set lines. It is precisely this splitting-up of a generation, which volition live at the focus of our interest.
Male Toposa are born into the generation-set below their fathers, in addition to each generation-set consists of a number of consecutive age-sets. I shall occupation the English linguistic communication terminology, every bit inward the Toposa linguistic communication in that location are no analytic price for either “generation-set” or “age-set”. The solely by in addition to large accepted term is nyanakét (pl. nganaketá), which tin live translated every bit “suckling group”, i.e. boys who take away hold suckled their mothers’ breasts during the same fourth dimension (on average 3 years). Some Toposa occupation words similar nyadír (a business inward the nyakirikét, the ritual meat feast), nyakión (the “table” made of leaves inward the nyakirikét) for generation-sets, nyetwál (division) or nyasepíc (group) for age-sets, but none of these price are accepted all over the area. Nyanakét is sometimes also used for age-sets. Several (around five) consecutive nganaketá are set together into 1 age-set. All nganaketá, age-sets, in addition to generation-sets take away hold distinctive names, by in addition to large derived from wild animals, from cattle colours, or the shapes of their horns. The cry of a generation-set is ordinarily equal to the 1 of its firstly in addition to oldest age-set, or it is the cry the generation-set has acquired at nyasapán.
Nyasapán is a succession ceremony where entire generation-sets are initiated in addition to promoted to the highest rank inward the Toposa society. At whatever 1 time, solely 1 generation-set tin live inward this position. When they retire, their sons volition live promoted in addition to take away hold nyasapán, in addition to so on. Formerly, i.e. inward the early on times of the generation-set scheme when the overlap inward historic catamenia betwixt the generations was non every bit marked every bit it is now, nyasapán meant beingness promoted into the status of grown-up men, beingness allowed to get married in addition to having all the ritual, social, in addition to political power. There was, however, already some historic catamenia overlap, in addition to nyasapán was eagerly awaited past times those men of the successor generation who were already old – some of them fifty-fifty had died already earlier achieving the highest status, in addition to they would exert force per unit of measurement area inward monastic enjoin to brand nyasapán locomote on for them, thus beingness allowed to get married in addition to laid upward families. As the few remaining men of the “outgoing” generation did non desire to lose their privileges, in that location was strife for quite a patch until the remaining members of the older generation became also few in addition to also weak to defend their position, retired, in addition to gave nyasapán to
their sons.
Some fourth dimension ago, with the growing historic catamenia overlap in addition to the increased number of “overaged”, i.e. older men inward a lower generation-set, the Toposa take away hold disengaged a man’s personal standing from his membership inward the generation-set system. He may get married in addition to take away hold a identify unit of measurement regardless of his laid membership. Today, all existing generation-sets (bold inward figure 4) take away hold their elders. But still, beingness an elderberry of the highest generation-set gives extra prestige, in addition to the most venerated men in addition to having the highest ritual standing today are the oldest men of the initiated Ngidongo20 in addition to Ngikaléso.
When nyasapán takes place, all members of this generation are initiated, live it old men or just
newly-born babies. Everyone has either to live introduce or at to the lowest degree live represented past times a symbol, normally
a rock – stones play a prominent occupation inward Toposa belief, every bit already mentioned above. Nyasapán
is obtained from the fathers’ generation-set. In practice, representatives of the generation-set
inward query locomote to the river Loyoro, to the expanse where the Ngikor live, 1 of the Toposa local sections
who are said to take away hold brought the sacred rock in addition to the nyasapán from Karamoja. Bulls are
speared inward favour of the elders, in addition to the initiands, with other ceremonies, are smeared past times the elders
with nyakujít, the cleansing content of the bulls’ stomachs. Then they all locomote domicile in addition to extend
the nyasapán they take away hold received to their brothers who had non been introduce inward the ceremony at the
river Loyoro.
When a generation is initiated, i.e. receives nyasapán, no members of the “outgoing” generation tin live initiated whatever more. But because of the historic catamenia overlap betwixt generations, in that location are soundless children born belonging to this older generation. These would so live “downgraded” 1 generation in addition to live initiated together with their succeeding generation.
In most societies, in that location is a conflictual relation betwixt fathers in addition to sons, in addition to an emotionally unopen relation betwixt grandfathers in addition to grandsons. Among the Toposa (and most of their neighbours), this is institutionalised inward the shape of 2 alternations. Toposa generation-sets are alternately in addition to additionally called Ngimór (Stones) or Ngirisáe (Leopards). Generation-set names of 1 alternation should (theoretically) live of similar animals. In some instances, a generation-set is solely known past times the cry of its alternation – reckon the generation-set listing on the left. Ngimór are “right” in addition to Ngirisáe are “left”, that is, inward their traditional meat feast nyakirikét where people sit down inward a half-circle, they sit down according to their alternation, with the oldest human at the correct or left end, respectively, in addition to the others inward descending monastic enjoin of their age. In daily life, alternations make non take away hold much relevance, whereas generation-sets in addition to age-sets are omni-present in addition to of import features.
Whenever males gather, may it live for entertainment, ceremonies, discussions, meat-eating, cattleraiding, war, or defence, they would make this within their group, and, depending on the occasion, it would live their age- in addition to generation-sets ordering in addition to grading in addition to also uniting them. It has to live mentioned that oft inward practice, in addition to sometimes confusing for the outsider, age-set in addition to generationset names would live used interchangeably. Men tend to aggregate inward their age-set, if plenty members of this age-set are around, but it would soundless live inward the minds of the people that a certainly age-set is portion of its generation-set, and, thus, if solely 1 age-set is present, it tin live referred to with its age-set or generation-set name.
Women from a local tribe sit down inward an opened upward marketplace inward Kapoeta inward Budy county, eastern Equatoria State, southward Sudan, Apr 4, 2010. (REUTERS/Goran Tomasevic)
If nosotros assume that a nyanakét (“suckling group”) has an historic catamenia bridge of around 3 years, in addition to an age-set is composed of 5 nganaketá, so an age-set would take away hold an historic catamenia bridge of around fifteen years.
If a generation-set had half-dozen age-sets, it would comprehend an historic catamenia bridge of ninety years. This, however, is solely an approximation, every bit the Toposa make non operate their scheme with fixed numbers or take away hold it governed past times certainly fourth dimension intervals every bit other ethnic groups make – inward its most intricate shape the Borana with their Gada (cf. Legesse 1973) system.
The Toposa generation-set scheme is non governed past times a laid of fixed rules but reflects the social relations
within the Toposa society, in addition to these are never just simple, every bit anywhere else. There is harmony but also strife in addition to stress, especially betwixt older in addition to younger men, every bit has been mentioned above, in addition to a few to a greater extent than examples volition live given below. Tension exists betwixt members of dissimilar generation-sets but also within the same generation-set or fifty-fifty age-set, in addition to my declaration is that these tensions shape the real layout of the Toposa generation-set scheme – in addition to at the same fourth dimension the conflicts betwixt old in addition to immature are channelled in addition to neutralised past times the “system”. To illustrate this, nosotros should await into how novel generation-sets in addition to age-sets emerge.
When the sons of a certainly generation “A” are born, they are, every bit long every bit they are young, referred to every bit “sons of A”. When the sons of Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 teach numerous plenty in addition to the oldest of them are youngsters, the elders volition create upward one's hear to give a cry to this generation, in addition to henceforth they volition live known every bit the generation “B”. Thus, a novel generation-set has emerged.
For an extended catamenia of time, the novel generation B would non live sub-divided into age-sets, in that location would live just this immature generation called B. However, every bit Tornay (1981: 164, 1995, 2001) has already pointed out, in that location is ever strife inward such a grouping every bit the older ones would attempt to command the younger ones in addition to also harass them, boss them around, in addition to if the grouping is becoming also big, the youngest would fifty-fifty non teach their percentage of meat inward the meat feast nyakirikét. The immature ones would so attempt to intermission away, forming a grouping of their ain with their ain name. If they are non potent plenty inward numbers, they may non succeed immediately. But after some fourth dimension of turmoil in addition to stress, when they take away hold grown inward number in addition to teach stronger, their fathers would also live keen to settle the situation, in addition to they would live allowed to shape their ain age-set with its ain name. And, of course, this procedure of fission would locomote along throughout the generation, every bit long every bit members of this generation are born.
In the Riwoto department of the Toposa. Here, within the Ngingoletyáng generation a grouping calling themselves Ngikosowá tried to intermission away from their older brothers but were forced to return. Some years afterward they tried it in 1 lawsuit to a greater extent than using a dissimilar name, Ngikunikó, in addition to this fourth dimension they succeeded. In other parts of the country, both Ngikosowá in addition to Ngikunikó exist, Ngikuniko beingness a split-off from Ngikosowá.
The higher upward explains why the cry of a generation-set in addition to its firstly age-set is equal, in addition to at the same fourth dimension it shows how novel age-sets come upward into existence: past times fission caused past times strife in addition to conflict. New age-sets are non created after a certainly fixed fourth dimension span, but they come upward into beingness every bit the final result of conflict situations within the society. .
Contrary to age-sets, novel generation-sets make non emerge through conflict. Every manlike mortal Toposa merely belongs to the generation-set next the 1 of his father. But nosotros take away hold already seen that the generation of sons of Ngibokói in addition to the next generations are split into two; non just the usual partitioning into age-sets but a split of the generation.
The explanations for this split brought frontward past times the Toposa themselves were differing. They claim that in that location was quarreling at nyakirikét well-nigh the meat. This seems to live a criterion explanation (cf. Lamphear 1976: 29) for such stress. Another explanation brought upward was a non specified job betwixt the Ngibokói in addition to their older Ngimór sons. And finally, the most frequent argue given was that the immature Ngimór (Later called Nguwaná.) were non reasonable, did non desire to locomote to the cattle camps, preferred to dance, in addition to abducted the girls whom their older brothers wanted to marry. The older Ngimór fought
in addition to chased away their younger brothers, in addition to when their fathers wanted to settle the contend in addition to expressed
their sympathy for the younger ones, the older brothers fifty-fifty quarreled in addition to fought with their fathers, leaving a deep rift betwixt the 2 groups. Ngibokói decided never to give nyasapán, the initiation into the leading status, to their older sons Ngimór.
Religious belief
The Toposa make non take away hold an elaborate religious belief. They soundless believe inward the existence of a Supreme Being in addition to the spirits of the departed ancestors. The Toposa Supreme Being is "Nakwuge." Nakwuge is a creator God who lives inward the sky in addition to is indifferent to human though he is ”believed to determine the length of a man’s life.
The Toposa believe that men originally lived with "Nakwuge" inward the sky, but many slid downwards a rope to earth. The rope so broke, separating them from heaven. They pray in addition to brand sacrifices for these spirits every bit they communicate with them through a medium. This is done inward instance of serious disaster e.g. droughts, epidemics affecting their animals, etc. The Toposa believe that the chiefs, especially the paramount chiefs are nearer to God past times virtue of their wisdom.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Torit has been actively proselytizing with the Toposa, with some success.
Arts, Music, Literature, Handicraft
The Toposa civilization is orally transmitted through songs, dance, music, poems in addition to folklore. Being pastoralists, they take away hold perfected their fine art of state of war in addition to cattle raiding. They are able to spy in addition to get together data well-nigh the enemy, water, pastures, etc. with precision. The immature men choose groovy attention in addition to beauty of their hair.
The Toposa Ethnogenesis in addition to the Generation-Set System
The Toposa migrated inward 2 main wings, 1 arriving to a greater extent than from the West in addition to the other 1 to a greater extent than from the East. Still today, the Toposa perceive themselves every bit belonging to either the Toposa of the West (Ngitoposa kalo to) or the Toposa of the East (Ngitoposa kalo kide). It is said that the Toposa migration has started from the Karimojong cattle camps. Most in all likelihood all similar migrations with the neighbouring ethnic
groups take away hold started inward this way – the same is known of the Turkana, for example.
The traditional social scheme of the Toposa tin rightly live called gerontocratic. The elders exercise the overall authority, in addition to the immature oft experience oppressed in addition to deprived. There was conflict in addition to stress betwixt the old in addition to the immature warriors. The elders retire in addition to became Karamojong in addition to the immature warriors at the cattle camps would take away hold run away with the cattle in addition to their girls in addition to would take away hold founded a novel community at a distant place, at nowadays beingness themselves at the top of the hierarchy.
There was a wide-spread drought inward Karamoja, in addition to inward the cattle camp, immature people, most in all likelihood of the Ngibokorá generation-set, did the unthinkable: they speared in addition to ate a certainly ox called Loyongolem (“with a large hump”) – at to the lowest degree that is the explanatory version recalled past times some elders (Lopim 1996: 4). Whatever truly happened, in that location was strife betwixt the elders in addition to their sons, the elders cursed them, in addition to the sons went off with portion of the cattle in addition to their women. It must take away hold been a huge cattle military camp with far to a greater extent than people than a grouping that could consume 1 ox. Historically, it seems to live clear that the to-be-Toposa took off inward several streams in addition to past times dissimilar routes.
They must take away hold migrated all around the area, coming every bit far every bit Mount Mogilla inward what is at nowadays northern Republic of Kenya in addition to also to the mountains inward the real East of what is at nowadays south-eastern Sudan. This mount attain is by in addition to large referred to every bit Moruakipi, the ‘mountain of the water’, but it is also said that this is a distortion of Moruangipyéi, which way ‘the mount of Ngipyéi’, i.e. the mount formerly populated past times the Ngipyéi generation-set. The procedure of migration must take away hold taken 3 generations in addition to thus around 150 years. Apparently it was solely the sons of Ngipyéi, the Ngibokói, who finally settled inward the introduce Toposa habitats.
Toposa woman
Now when the immature Ngibokorá broke away from the Karimojong, with solely 2 generations beingness inward existence, i.e. the Ngibokorá in addition to their children, the demographic overlap was reset to zero. Thus, demographically the scheme must take away hold run smoothly. But every bit the Ngibokorá were at odds with their fathers,
they had a job of legitimacy.
When they had broken away from their people, they were cursed past times their fathers in addition to thus they were non probable to have nyasapán from them, i.e. they were non initiated into the seat of beingness the legitimate leaders of the Toposa. This continued for the adjacent 2 generations, the Ngitukoí in addition to the Ngipyéi. It was solely the 4th generation, the Ngibokói, who were able to brand peace with the Karimojong. It was some of the Ngikor territorial department in addition to from the Ngiraanga clan who went there, received nyasapán, in addition to they also brought the sacred rock to its introduce location.
Conflict, Drought, in addition to Social System Engineering
As a affair of fact, the Toposa history started with conflict inward the real beginning. The existence of the Toposa is a final result of stress betwixt Karimojong elders in addition to their rebellious sons. There is solely a delicate residuum of ability betwixt elders in addition to their grown-up sons. When the immature men are inward the cattle camps, they take away hold all the way to start a novel life independently from their autocratic fathers, in addition to it is mainly the belief inward the elders’ curse that keeps them connected to their group. Other factors, however, may override the ability of the curse, in addition to inward the Toposa instance this seems to take away hold been a prolonged drought period.
Drought is the major stress element for the Toposa in addition to their neighbours. As a Turkana has set it:
"The drought is always, fifty-fifty long years ago. The livestock dies of drought, fifty-fifty people die
because of the drought. (...) During the drought nosotros consume [wild fruits as] Edapal, Edung, Ebei,
Elamac, Ngitir [… in addition to others]. That is the nutrient of the Turkana. (...) Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 long drought comes,
in addition to all of the livestock dies. Even earlier our fathers this happened. When it rains, it rains
heavily. (...) Long ago, some years, all livestock got finished. People went to Marille [Dass-
anetch], they went upward to Dongiro [Nyangatom]. They ate their sleeping hides, they ate the
leather of the ass carriers. Drought comes in addition to passes.” (Icum inward Lopuseki, 2.7.1987)
Drought is portion of the people’s lives, in addition to they aspect upward it almost every other year. Once every vii to 10 years it is a disaster, bringing life almost to an end. Normally, people are able to teach by with it, but in that location are also centennial catastrophic droughts that override whatever coping strategy. It is these drought catastrophes that also take away hold an impact on the generation-set system, inward an indirect way.
During a catastrophic drought, most of the people’s animals would die. Thus, when in that location are no animals available, no beast bride wealth tin live raised past times immature men, which is, however, essential for an orderly matrimony with the Toposa in addition to their neighbours.
But immature people would non halt making honey in addition to begetting children, in addition to the non-existence of bride wealth animals would maybe fifty-fifty encourage promiscuity – in that location would live no other way anyway. This would locomote along for many years until the herds would live rebuilt in addition to bride wealth could live given again, resulting inward proper marriages. In the meanwhile, the children born out of wedlock would live deemed to live the offspring of the girls’ fathers, every bit explained above.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature human would ordinarily take away hold sexual practice with a daughter of his ain generation, i.e. her manlike mortal parent would live a generation higher upward him. If the daughter would at nowadays take away hold a boy, this man child would teach a fellow member of the generation-set below his social manlike mortal parent but non below his procreator, i.e. the boy’s generation-set would live the same every bit the 1 of his physical father. This has consequences for the generation-set system. In the Toposa case, I found that 1 of these catastrophic droughts occurred at the fourth dimension when the Ngibokói were young, in addition to for quite some years their physical sons were paradoxically, inward generation-set terms, in 1 lawsuit to a greater extent than Ngibokói instead of Ngimór. Ngibokói had produced Ngibokói.
Figure 5: Toposa in addition to Turkana generation-sets
Toposa Turkana
Ngibokorá Ngipalajám
Ngitukói Nginyá
Ngipyéi Ngipyéi
Ngibokói Ngiputiró
Ngimór - Nguwaná Ngimór
Ngidongó - Ngikaléso Ngirisáe
Ngimór - Ngingoletyáng Ngimór
Ngitaamó - Ngikurukwá Ngirisáe
Toposa women
Sudan Civil war
During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005) the Toposa helped the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) at times, in addition to at other times helped the Government of Sudan. The Toposa took a pragmatic approach, ostensibly siding with whoever gave them the most nutrient in addition to weapons. The SPLA alternated betwixt violence in addition to a to a greater extent than conciliatory approach to the Toposa. In 1985–1986 the SPLA attacked the civilian population of the Toposa, which it deemed "hostile". From 1987 the SPLA began an attempt to improve relations with the civilians. By 1988 some of the SPLA fighters were Toposa.
The Sudan Armed Forces sought to exploit traditional tensions betwixt the Toposa in addition to the Dinka people, to whom many of the SPLA leaders belonged, past times supplying arms in addition to ammunition to the Toposa. The firearms were used both to protect in addition to increment wealth inward animals, in addition to became a symbol of wealth inward themselves. During the 1990s the authorities of Sudan issued at to the lowest degree 50,000 little arms to the Toposa. In 1992 an AK-47 supplied past times the authorities could live traded for 10 cows, or the SPLA would provide G3 rifles inward telephone substitution for the AK-47s. Raids past times the at nowadays well-armed Toposa on their neighbors, such every bit the Suri people of Ethiopia, increased drastically. Internally Displaced People (IDPs) moving through Toposa territory were dependent area to harassment past times Toposa militia or bandits.
Kapoeta, a town inward Toposa country, had been captured past times the SPLA on 25 Feb 1988. The authorities armed the Toposa so they could contend the SPLA in addition to also contend their traditional rivals the Lotuko people. In March 1992, Toposa militia staged attacks on relief columns attempting to convey supplies into Kapoeta. Refugees escaping from Pochalla, which had fallen to the Sudanese government, were attacked past times Toposa militia every bit they made their way to Kapoeta. On 28 May 1992, the authorities regained Kapoeta inward a surprise attack. The Toposa militia, with their noesis of the terrain, played a primal role. The evacuated civilians from Kapeota moved southward to Narus, in addition to from in that location over 20,000 went on to Lokichokio inward Kenya, including 12,500 unaccompanied minors.
According to Amnesty International, the SPLA started a policy of "deliberate in addition to arbitrary killing of civilians of Toposa ethnicity around Kapoeta ... inward retaliation for the involvement of Toposa pro-government militia inward the capture of Kapoeta in addition to subsequent attacks on refugees fleeing the town". By the belatedly 1990s, serious efforts were beingness made to bring down ethnic tensions.
The Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources sponsored harmonization workshops in addition to meetings to resolve in addition to foreclose conflicts with pastorialist communities such every bit the Toposa in addition to their neighbors. The participants inward a Didinga-Turkana-Toposa-Nyangatom women's workshop inward Feb 2000 undertook responsibleness for discouraging farther livestock rustling in addition to raiding betwixt the communities. The occupation of women, willing to cross the boundaries in addition to unilaterally initiate peace talks, is without precedent in addition to has been crucial. The Catholic Diocese of Torit was active inward resolving conflicts with the Toposa, in addition to conflicts betwixt the Toposa, Didinga in addition to Boya, in addition to the Toposa Development Authority had been established to promote evolution in addition to peacebuilding with the Toposa.
Recent Developments
There has been a long history of conflict betwixt the Toposa of Namorunyang in addition to the Didinga of Budi County. In the dry out flavor the Toposa would drive their cattle to the Didinga Hills for H2O in addition to pasture until the rains began inward Toposa land. In the past, this do was carried out past times understanding betwixt the 2 communities, with a gift beingness made inward telephone substitution for the correct to access the pasturage.
Toposa girl, South Sudan
With the proliferation of guns in addition to breakdown of monastic enjoin during the civil war, the traditional protocols were ignored in addition to violence became common. In May 2007 Toposa tribesmen of Namorunyang raided the Ngauro Payam of Budi County, attacked a grouping that were resting after working inward a collectively-owned field, in addition to took 300 caput of cattle in addition to 400 goats or sheep. 49 women, 4 children in addition to 5 men were killed, patch others were wounded.
Nadapal, just across the edge inward Kenya, is a fertile expanse inward which many Toposa took refuge during the civil war. With the halt of the conflict, some Kenyans wanted the Toposa of the Nadapal expanse to render to South Sudan. The Toposa resisted, perhaps inward portion because they felt that tribes such every bit the Dinka in addition to Nuer resented the Toposa backing of the Government of Sudan during the civil war, in addition to they would thus live treated every bit an unwelcome minority inward Eastern Equatoria. There were ongoing clashes betwixt the Toposa in addition to Turkana inward this area. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 May 2010 study said the fighting betwixt Toposa in addition to Turkana had claimed over forty lives in addition to well-nigh 4,000 livestock had been stolen.It also said that George Echom, Deputy Governor of Eastern Equatorial State, had claimed that Nadapal belonged to South Sudan.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 1982 study said in that location were 105,000 speakers of the Toposa language, including 95000 along both sides of the Zingietta in addition to Lokalyen rivers, in addition to 10,000 inward Ethiopia. More recent reports give a much higher population. In recent times, improvements take away hold been made inward wellness care, H2O furnish in addition to veterinarian services. Many of the Toposa children at nowadays attend schoolhouse inward Narus in addition to Natinga. These changes are profoundly affecting the traditional social organization. Women are starting to choose a to a greater extent than prominent occupation inward resolving disputes. The Governor of Eastern Equatoria, who took occupation inward May 2010, is onetime Brigadier General Louis Lobong Lojore. He is a Toposa from Kapoeta East County.
Proverbs
Kitacakari nyakook ewonit ngibaren. (Toposa)
An empty tum tin brand a mortal lose his or her cattle; that is, when the tum is empty the legs teach weak in addition to y'all can't run after your animals. (English) Toposa ( Sudan ) Proverb
Background, Explanation, Meaning in addition to Everyday Use
The Toposa community lives inward Southern Sudan, Eastern Equatorial, Kapwota County in addition to is a community that herds animals. In their traditional customs, the Toposa showed friendship betwixt people past times giving each other a bull or caprine animal or pike or cowbell, i.e. a mortal may locomote to his friend in addition to inquire for these things. Before giving these things, the friend must also feed the mortal who is bespeak for these things.
Here is a story: One fourth dimension a human went to his friend who gave him 10 goats, but did non feed him earlier he drove the goats away. On the way home, the human who was driving the 10 goats got hungry. He saw vultures dropping from the sky in addition to sitting on the trees. The human idea in that location is a dead beast inward the expanse in addition to hoped to teach some food. He ran to where the vultures were, but could non detect whatever meat. When he returned, he found that his animals had disappeared.
Ejok nyitoan ewok nyakung. (Toposa)
The mortal who has a low-cal articulatio genus tin last longer. (English)
Background, Explanation, Meaning in addition to Everyday Use
Years agone during a traditional battle the Toposa warrior would handgrip his shield inward his left paw in addition to his pike inward his correct hand. He would kneel on his correct or left articulatio genus to steady himself to hurl his pike in addition to to teach leverage to force off from his dorsum foot. This crouching seat also made him a smaller target. It was unwise to remain also long inward this one-half kneeling seat since it gave the enemy fourth dimension to advance in addition to mayhap kill the Toposa warrior who remained inward this defensive in addition to vulnerable pose.
So the Toposa proverb: The mortal who has a low-cal articulatio genus tin last longer. By getting upward rapidly from his one-half kneeling seat the warrior could brand a strategic retreat, that is, withdraw for the fourth dimension being. Another Toposa saying says: The mortal who fights in addition to runs away volition alive to contend some other battle. There are times in addition to reasons non to fight. So also the universal saying inward English: Discretion is the improve portion of valor.
Toposa people at their farm
By getting upward rapidly the warrior could also displace into some other fighting strategy: advancing forward, dodging from side to side, leaping about, etc. He had to live quick on his feet. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 "heavy knee" was a sign of beingness slow in addition to non adaptable. But a "light knee" gave him to a greater extent than flexibility in addition to creative fighting options. Also the standing in addition to moving warrior could to a greater extent than easily dodge an enemy's spear. See the universal saying inward English: It is difficult to hitting a moving target.
These Toposa proverbs were used past times the elders to propose the warriors on how to occupation dissimilar tactics in addition to strategies to contend against other ethnic groups such every bit the Turkana people who liked to pocket the cattle of the Toposa. Also the people inward Southern Sudan who wanted to migrate to some other geographical expanse used these proverbs.
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Toposa ( Sudan ) Proverb
Toposa adult woman with her babe South Sudan
The Toposa are portion of an ethnic cluster called Ateker or Karimojong cluster, comprising of the Karimojong, the Jie, the Dodos, the Turkana, the Toposa, the Jiye, in addition to the Nyangatom, who all Pb a similar way of life, solely modified past times their political in addition to ecological situation.
Toposa warrior chieftain
The Turkana, for example, living inward a much to a greater extent than arid environment, practise solely niggling agriculture in addition to take away hold to a groovy extent substituted their cattle past times camels. In fact, it is non solely the Ateker sharing a similar way of life, but many neighbouring peoples inward the expanse similar the Didinga, Longarim, Oromo, Samburu, Rendille, Hamar, Dassanetch, Murle, in addition to Konso, just to cite a few.
Toposa girl,South Sudan
They take away hold traditionally lived past times herding cattle, sheep in addition to goats, in addition to inward the past times were involved inward the ivory trade. They take away hold a tradition of constant low-level warfare, usually cattle raids, against their neighbors.
During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005) the Toposa helped the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) at times, in addition to at other times helped the Government of Sudan. After the war, sporadic clashes with neighboring tribes soundless remain a problem. The Toposa way of life is tardily beingness modernized, at the toll of eroding the traditional social organization.
Toposa people
Locataion in addition to environment
The Toposa people alive inward Greater Kapoeta, beside the Singaita in addition to Lokalyen rivers, in addition to take away hold a ritual centre at Loyooro River. For seasonal grazing they migrate to Moruangipi in addition to sometimes E into the Ilemi Triangle.
Toposa adult woman from Ethiopia
Toposa people also alive inward the southeast of Jonglei State. Their main settlements include Kapoeta, Riwoto in addition to Narus. The ground is semi-arid in addition to rugged, with hills in addition to ridges separated past times shallow plains in addition to seasonal streams. Vegetation is limited to shrubs in addition to brusk grass.
Toposa village
The Toposa mainly rely on cattle, sheep in addition to goats, from which they obtain milk, blood, meat in addition to leather. During the moisture flavor the animals graze close the villages. When the rains end, the men choose the herds to dry out flavor pasturage so tardily convey them back, grazing along the way, to teach inward in the hamlet when the adjacent rainy flavor starts. Some areas of expert pasturage cannot live used because of lack of drinking water.
The women also engage inward limited agriculture inward the river valleys. The main crop is sorghum, grown on fertile clay soils. Depending on weather in that location may live severe shortages or large surpluses. The Toposa province has low, unpredictable rainfall. The streams are torrential, flowing solely inward the rainy season.
Toposa girl
Language
Toposa people speaks a linguistic communication known every bit Toposa. Toposa (also Akara, Kare, Kumi, Taposa, Topotha) is a Nilo-Saharan linguistic communication (Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic) spoken inward South Sudan past times the Toposa people.
Toposa kids
Mutually intelligible linguistic communication varieties include Jiye of South Sudan, Nyangatom of Ethiopia, Karimojong, Jie in addition to Dodos of Republic of Uganda in addition to Turkana of Kenya. Teso (spoken inward both Republic of Kenya in addition to Uganda) is lexically to a greater extent than distant.
Portrait of toposa man, South Sudan
Figure 4 shows at the top extinct generation-sets every bit they are remembered past times informants in addition to those
generation-sets shortly existing. Ngibokorá are the fathers of Ngitukoí, Ngitukoí are the fathers of Ngipyéi, in addition to so on. There is 1 striking characteristic inward the diagram: The sons of Ngibokói are split, in addition to this schism continues into the adjacent generations, causing what nosotros may telephone band 2 generation-set lines. It is precisely this splitting-up of a generation, which volition live at the focus of our interest.
Male Toposa are born into the generation-set below their fathers, in addition to each generation-set consists of a number of consecutive age-sets. I shall occupation the English linguistic communication terminology, every bit inward the Toposa linguistic communication in that location are no analytic price for either “generation-set” or “age-set”. The solely by in addition to large accepted term is nyanakét (pl. nganaketá), which tin live translated every bit “suckling group”, i.e. boys who take away hold suckled their mothers’ breasts during the same fourth dimension (on average 3 years). Some Toposa occupation words similar nyadír (a business inward the nyakirikét, the ritual meat feast), nyakión (the “table” made of leaves inward the nyakirikét) for generation-sets, nyetwál (division) or nyasepíc (group) for age-sets, but none of these price are accepted all over the area. Nyanakét is sometimes also used for age-sets. Several (around five) consecutive nganaketá are set together into 1 age-set. All nganaketá, age-sets, in addition to generation-sets take away hold distinctive names, by in addition to large derived from wild animals, from cattle colours, or the shapes of their horns. The cry of a generation-set is ordinarily equal to the 1 of its firstly in addition to oldest age-set, or it is the cry the generation-set has acquired at nyasapán.
Nyasapán is a succession ceremony where entire generation-sets are initiated in addition to promoted to the highest rank inward the Toposa society. At whatever 1 time, solely 1 generation-set tin live inward this position. When they retire, their sons volition live promoted in addition to take away hold nyasapán, in addition to so on. Formerly, i.e. inward the early on times of the generation-set scheme when the overlap inward historic catamenia betwixt the generations was non every bit marked every bit it is now, nyasapán meant beingness promoted into the status of grown-up men, beingness allowed to get married in addition to having all the ritual, social, in addition to political power. There was, however, already some historic catamenia overlap, in addition to nyasapán was eagerly awaited past times those men of the successor generation who were already old – some of them fifty-fifty had died already earlier achieving the highest status, in addition to they would exert force per unit of measurement area inward monastic enjoin to brand nyasapán locomote on for them, thus beingness allowed to get married in addition to laid upward families. As the few remaining men of the “outgoing” generation did non desire to lose their privileges, in that location was strife for quite a patch until the remaining members of the older generation became also few in addition to also weak to defend their position, retired, in addition to gave nyasapán to
their sons.
Some fourth dimension ago, with the growing historic catamenia overlap in addition to the increased number of “overaged”, i.e. older men inward a lower generation-set, the Toposa take away hold disengaged a man’s personal standing from his membership inward the generation-set system. He may get married in addition to take away hold a identify unit of measurement regardless of his laid membership. Today, all existing generation-sets (bold inward figure 4) take away hold their elders. But still, beingness an elderberry of the highest generation-set gives extra prestige, in addition to the most venerated men in addition to having the highest ritual standing today are the oldest men of the initiated Ngidongo20 in addition to Ngikaléso.
When nyasapán takes place, all members of this generation are initiated, live it old men or just
newly-born babies. Everyone has either to live introduce or at to the lowest degree live represented past times a symbol, normally
a rock – stones play a prominent occupation inward Toposa belief, every bit already mentioned above. Nyasapán
is obtained from the fathers’ generation-set. In practice, representatives of the generation-set
inward query locomote to the river Loyoro, to the expanse where the Ngikor live, 1 of the Toposa local sections
who are said to take away hold brought the sacred rock in addition to the nyasapán from Karamoja. Bulls are
speared inward favour of the elders, in addition to the initiands, with other ceremonies, are smeared past times the elders
with nyakujít, the cleansing content of the bulls’ stomachs. Then they all locomote domicile in addition to extend
the nyasapán they take away hold received to their brothers who had non been introduce inward the ceremony at the
river Loyoro.
When a generation is initiated, i.e. receives nyasapán, no members of the “outgoing” generation tin live initiated whatever more. But because of the historic catamenia overlap betwixt generations, in that location are soundless children born belonging to this older generation. These would so live “downgraded” 1 generation in addition to live initiated together with their succeeding generation.
In most societies, in that location is a conflictual relation betwixt fathers in addition to sons, in addition to an emotionally unopen relation betwixt grandfathers in addition to grandsons. Among the Toposa (and most of their neighbours), this is institutionalised inward the shape of 2 alternations. Toposa generation-sets are alternately in addition to additionally called Ngimór (Stones) or Ngirisáe (Leopards). Generation-set names of 1 alternation should (theoretically) live of similar animals. In some instances, a generation-set is solely known past times the cry of its alternation – reckon the generation-set listing on the left. Ngimór are “right” in addition to Ngirisáe are “left”, that is, inward their traditional meat feast nyakirikét where people sit down inward a half-circle, they sit down according to their alternation, with the oldest human at the correct or left end, respectively, in addition to the others inward descending monastic enjoin of their age. In daily life, alternations make non take away hold much relevance, whereas generation-sets in addition to age-sets are omni-present in addition to of import features.
Whenever males gather, may it live for entertainment, ceremonies, discussions, meat-eating, cattleraiding, war, or defence, they would make this within their group, and, depending on the occasion, it would live their age- in addition to generation-sets ordering in addition to grading in addition to also uniting them. It has to live mentioned that oft inward practice, in addition to sometimes confusing for the outsider, age-set in addition to generationset names would live used interchangeably. Men tend to aggregate inward their age-set, if plenty members of this age-set are around, but it would soundless live inward the minds of the people that a certainly age-set is portion of its generation-set, and, thus, if solely 1 age-set is present, it tin live referred to with its age-set or generation-set name.
Women from a local tribe sit down inward an opened upward marketplace inward Kapoeta inward Budy county, eastern Equatoria State, southward Sudan, Apr 4, 2010. (REUTERS/Goran Tomasevic)
If nosotros assume that a nyanakét (“suckling group”) has an historic catamenia bridge of around 3 years, in addition to an age-set is composed of 5 nganaketá, so an age-set would take away hold an historic catamenia bridge of around fifteen years.
If a generation-set had half-dozen age-sets, it would comprehend an historic catamenia bridge of ninety years. This, however, is solely an approximation, every bit the Toposa make non operate their scheme with fixed numbers or take away hold it governed past times certainly fourth dimension intervals every bit other ethnic groups make – inward its most intricate shape the Borana with their Gada (cf. Legesse 1973) system.
The Toposa generation-set scheme is non governed past times a laid of fixed rules but reflects the social relations
within the Toposa society, in addition to these are never just simple, every bit anywhere else. There is harmony but also strife in addition to stress, especially betwixt older in addition to younger men, every bit has been mentioned above, in addition to a few to a greater extent than examples volition live given below. Tension exists betwixt members of dissimilar generation-sets but also within the same generation-set or fifty-fifty age-set, in addition to my declaration is that these tensions shape the real layout of the Toposa generation-set scheme – in addition to at the same fourth dimension the conflicts betwixt old in addition to immature are channelled in addition to neutralised past times the “system”. To illustrate this, nosotros should await into how novel generation-sets in addition to age-sets emerge.
When the sons of a certainly generation “A” are born, they are, every bit long every bit they are young, referred to every bit “sons of A”. When the sons of Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 teach numerous plenty in addition to the oldest of them are youngsters, the elders volition create upward one's hear to give a cry to this generation, in addition to henceforth they volition live known every bit the generation “B”. Thus, a novel generation-set has emerged.
Toposa traditional attire
The Toposa developed unopen relations with Swahili traders, in addition to intermarriage was common. The Toposa linguistic communication became a glossa franca to the W of Lake Rudolf in addition to throughout most of Eastern Equatoria. The merchandise road betwixt Mbale inward what is at nowadays Republic of Uganda in addition to Maji ran through Toposa territory, non because it was the shortest route, but because it had dependable year-round H2O in addition to donkeys could live readily obtained to send ivory. Another road ran from Maji past times way of Obawok, North Lafit, Lafon in addition to the Badigeru swamp to the Nile. The ivory merchandise brought arms in addition to ammunition from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia into Toposa territory, in addition to these were used inward articulation cattle raids with the Swahili on neighbouring people.
The authorities of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan "pacified" the Toposa territory inward 1926/1927. Around the same time, the British East African authorities established posts inward northern Turkanaland to the south. With steadily tightening restrictions, past times the early on 1930s the Toposa were the main remaining traders inward ivory inward the southern Sudanese lowlands. The Toposa province remained portion of Sudan when that province became independent inward 1956. The First Sudanese Civil War, which lasted from 1955 until 1972, had some impact on the Toposa. The Second Sudanese Civil War, breaking out inward 1983, had a massive impact.
Portrait of toposa man, South Sudan
Figure 4 shows at the top extinct generation-sets every bit they are remembered past times informants in addition to those
generation-sets shortly existing. Ngibokorá are the fathers of Ngitukoí, Ngitukoí are the fathers of Ngipyéi, in addition to so on. There is 1 striking characteristic inward the diagram: The sons of Ngibokói are split, in addition to this schism continues into the adjacent generations, causing what nosotros may telephone band 2 generation-set lines. It is precisely this splitting-up of a generation, which volition live at the focus of our interest.
Male Toposa are born into the generation-set below their fathers, in addition to each generation-set consists of a number of consecutive age-sets. I shall occupation the English linguistic communication terminology, every bit inward the Toposa linguistic communication in that location are no analytic price for either “generation-set” or “age-set”. The solely by in addition to large accepted term is nyanakét (pl. nganaketá), which tin live translated every bit “suckling group”, i.e. boys who take away hold suckled their mothers’ breasts during the same fourth dimension (on average 3 years). Some Toposa occupation words similar nyadír (a business inward the nyakirikét, the ritual meat feast), nyakión (the “table” made of leaves inward the nyakirikét) for generation-sets, nyetwál (division) or nyasepíc (group) for age-sets, but none of these price are accepted all over the area. Nyanakét is sometimes also used for age-sets. Several (around five) consecutive nganaketá are set together into 1 age-set. All nganaketá, age-sets, in addition to generation-sets take away hold distinctive names, by in addition to large derived from wild animals, from cattle colours, or the shapes of their horns. The cry of a generation-set is ordinarily equal to the 1 of its firstly in addition to oldest age-set, or it is the cry the generation-set has acquired at nyasapán.
Nyasapán is a succession ceremony where entire generation-sets are initiated in addition to promoted to the highest rank inward the Toposa society. At whatever 1 time, solely 1 generation-set tin live inward this position. When they retire, their sons volition live promoted in addition to take away hold nyasapán, in addition to so on. Formerly, i.e. inward the early on times of the generation-set scheme when the overlap inward historic catamenia betwixt the generations was non every bit marked every bit it is now, nyasapán meant beingness promoted into the status of grown-up men, beingness allowed to get married in addition to having all the ritual, social, in addition to political power. There was, however, already some historic catamenia overlap, in addition to nyasapán was eagerly awaited past times those men of the successor generation who were already old – some of them fifty-fifty had died already earlier achieving the highest status, in addition to they would exert force per unit of measurement area inward monastic enjoin to brand nyasapán locomote on for them, thus beingness allowed to get married in addition to laid upward families. As the few remaining men of the “outgoing” generation did non desire to lose their privileges, in that location was strife for quite a patch until the remaining members of the older generation became also few in addition to also weak to defend their position, retired, in addition to gave nyasapán to
their sons.
Some fourth dimension ago, with the growing historic catamenia overlap in addition to the increased number of “overaged”, i.e. older men inward a lower generation-set, the Toposa take away hold disengaged a man’s personal standing from his membership inward the generation-set system. He may get married in addition to take away hold a identify unit of measurement regardless of his laid membership. Today, all existing generation-sets (bold inward figure 4) take away hold their elders. But still, beingness an elderberry of the highest generation-set gives extra prestige, in addition to the most venerated men in addition to having the highest ritual standing today are the oldest men of the initiated Ngidongo20 in addition to Ngikaléso.
When nyasapán takes place, all members of this generation are initiated, live it old men or just
newly-born babies. Everyone has either to live introduce or at to the lowest degree live represented past times a symbol, normally
a rock – stones play a prominent occupation inward Toposa belief, every bit already mentioned above. Nyasapán
is obtained from the fathers’ generation-set. In practice, representatives of the generation-set
inward query locomote to the river Loyoro, to the expanse where the Ngikor live, 1 of the Toposa local sections
who are said to take away hold brought the sacred rock in addition to the nyasapán from Karamoja. Bulls are
speared inward favour of the elders, in addition to the initiands, with other ceremonies, are smeared past times the elders
with nyakujít, the cleansing content of the bulls’ stomachs. Then they all locomote domicile in addition to extend
the nyasapán they take away hold received to their brothers who had non been introduce inward the ceremony at the
river Loyoro.
When a generation is initiated, i.e. receives nyasapán, no members of the “outgoing” generation tin live initiated whatever more. But because of the historic catamenia overlap betwixt generations, in that location are soundless children born belonging to this older generation. These would so live “downgraded” 1 generation in addition to live initiated together with their succeeding generation.
In most societies, in that location is a conflictual relation betwixt fathers in addition to sons, in addition to an emotionally unopen relation betwixt grandfathers in addition to grandsons. Among the Toposa (and most of their neighbours), this is institutionalised inward the shape of 2 alternations. Toposa generation-sets are alternately in addition to additionally called Ngimór (Stones) or Ngirisáe (Leopards). Generation-set names of 1 alternation should (theoretically) live of similar animals. In some instances, a generation-set is solely known past times the cry of its alternation – reckon the generation-set listing on the left. Ngimór are “right” in addition to Ngirisáe are “left”, that is, inward their traditional meat feast nyakirikét where people sit down inward a half-circle, they sit down according to their alternation, with the oldest human at the correct or left end, respectively, in addition to the others inward descending monastic enjoin of their age. In daily life, alternations make non take away hold much relevance, whereas generation-sets in addition to age-sets are omni-present in addition to of import features.
Whenever males gather, may it live for entertainment, ceremonies, discussions, meat-eating, cattleraiding, war, or defence, they would make this within their group, and, depending on the occasion, it would live their age- in addition to generation-sets ordering in addition to grading in addition to also uniting them. It has to live mentioned that oft inward practice, in addition to sometimes confusing for the outsider, age-set in addition to generationset names would live used interchangeably. Men tend to aggregate inward their age-set, if plenty members of this age-set are around, but it would soundless live inward the minds of the people that a certainly age-set is portion of its generation-set, and, thus, if solely 1 age-set is present, it tin live referred to with its age-set or generation-set name.
Women from a local tribe sit down inward an opened upward marketplace inward Kapoeta inward Budy county, eastern Equatoria State, southward Sudan, Apr 4, 2010. (REUTERS/Goran Tomasevic)
If nosotros assume that a nyanakét (“suckling group”) has an historic catamenia bridge of around 3 years, in addition to an age-set is composed of 5 nganaketá, so an age-set would take away hold an historic catamenia bridge of around fifteen years.
If a generation-set had half-dozen age-sets, it would comprehend an historic catamenia bridge of ninety years. This, however, is solely an approximation, every bit the Toposa make non operate their scheme with fixed numbers or take away hold it governed past times certainly fourth dimension intervals every bit other ethnic groups make – inward its most intricate shape the Borana with their Gada (cf. Legesse 1973) system.
The Toposa generation-set scheme is non governed past times a laid of fixed rules but reflects the social relations
within the Toposa society, in addition to these are never just simple, every bit anywhere else. There is harmony but also strife in addition to stress, especially betwixt older in addition to younger men, every bit has been mentioned above, in addition to a few to a greater extent than examples volition live given below. Tension exists betwixt members of dissimilar generation-sets but also within the same generation-set or fifty-fifty age-set, in addition to my declaration is that these tensions shape the real layout of the Toposa generation-set scheme – in addition to at the same fourth dimension the conflicts betwixt old in addition to immature are channelled in addition to neutralised past times the “system”. To illustrate this, nosotros should await into how novel generation-sets in addition to age-sets emerge.
When the sons of a certainly generation “A” are born, they are, every bit long every bit they are young, referred to every bit “sons of A”. When the sons of Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 teach numerous plenty in addition to the oldest of them are youngsters, the elders volition create upward one's hear to give a cry to this generation, in addition to henceforth they volition live known every bit the generation “B”. Thus, a novel generation-set has emerged.
For an extended catamenia of time, the novel generation B would non live sub-divided into age-sets, in that location would live just this immature generation called B. However, every bit Tornay (1981: 164, 1995, 2001) has already pointed out, in that location is ever strife inward such a grouping every bit the older ones would attempt to command the younger ones in addition to also harass them, boss them around, in addition to if the grouping is becoming also big, the youngest would fifty-fifty non teach their percentage of meat inward the meat feast nyakirikét. The immature ones would so attempt to intermission away, forming a grouping of their ain with their ain name. If they are non potent plenty inward numbers, they may non succeed immediately. But after some fourth dimension of turmoil in addition to stress, when they take away hold grown inward number in addition to teach stronger, their fathers would also live keen to settle the situation, in addition to they would live allowed to shape their ain age-set with its ain name. And, of course, this procedure of fission would locomote along throughout the generation, every bit long every bit members of this generation are born.
In the Riwoto department of the Toposa. Here, within the Ngingoletyáng generation a grouping calling themselves Ngikosowá tried to intermission away from their older brothers but were forced to return. Some years afterward they tried it in 1 lawsuit to a greater extent than using a dissimilar name, Ngikunikó, in addition to this fourth dimension they succeeded. In other parts of the country, both Ngikosowá in addition to Ngikunikó exist, Ngikuniko beingness a split-off from Ngikosowá.
The higher upward explains why the cry of a generation-set in addition to its firstly age-set is equal, in addition to at the same fourth dimension it shows how novel age-sets come upward into existence: past times fission caused past times strife in addition to conflict. New age-sets are non created after a certainly fixed fourth dimension span, but they come upward into beingness every bit the final result of conflict situations within the society. .
Contrary to age-sets, novel generation-sets make non emerge through conflict. Every manlike mortal Toposa merely belongs to the generation-set next the 1 of his father. But nosotros take away hold already seen that the generation of sons of Ngibokói in addition to the next generations are split into two; non just the usual partitioning into age-sets but a split of the generation.
The explanations for this split brought frontward past times the Toposa themselves were differing. They claim that in that location was quarreling at nyakirikét well-nigh the meat. This seems to live a criterion explanation (cf. Lamphear 1976: 29) for such stress. Another explanation brought upward was a non specified job betwixt the Ngibokói in addition to their older Ngimór sons. And finally, the most frequent argue given was that the immature Ngimór (Later called Nguwaná.) were non reasonable, did non desire to locomote to the cattle camps, preferred to dance, in addition to abducted the girls whom their older brothers wanted to marry. The older Ngimór fought
in addition to chased away their younger brothers, in addition to when their fathers wanted to settle the contend in addition to expressed
their sympathy for the younger ones, the older brothers fifty-fifty quarreled in addition to fought with their fathers, leaving a deep rift betwixt the 2 groups. Ngibokói decided never to give nyasapán, the initiation into the leading status, to their older sons Ngimór.
Religious belief
The Toposa make non take away hold an elaborate religious belief. They soundless believe inward the existence of a Supreme Being in addition to the spirits of the departed ancestors. The Toposa Supreme Being is "Nakwuge." Nakwuge is a creator God who lives inward the sky in addition to is indifferent to human though he is ”believed to determine the length of a man’s life.
Toposa woman
The Toposa believe that men originally lived with "Nakwuge" inward the sky, but many slid downwards a rope to earth. The rope so broke, separating them from heaven. They pray in addition to brand sacrifices for these spirits every bit they communicate with them through a medium. This is done inward instance of serious disaster e.g. droughts, epidemics affecting their animals, etc. The Toposa believe that the chiefs, especially the paramount chiefs are nearer to God past times virtue of their wisdom.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Torit has been actively proselytizing with the Toposa, with some success.
Arts, Music, Literature, Handicraft
The Toposa civilization is orally transmitted through songs, dance, music, poems in addition to folklore. Being pastoralists, they take away hold perfected their fine art of state of war in addition to cattle raiding. They are able to spy in addition to get together data well-nigh the enemy, water, pastures, etc. with precision. The immature men choose groovy attention in addition to beauty of their hair.
The Toposa Ethnogenesis in addition to the Generation-Set System
The Toposa migrated inward 2 main wings, 1 arriving to a greater extent than from the West in addition to the other 1 to a greater extent than from the East. Still today, the Toposa perceive themselves every bit belonging to either the Toposa of the West (Ngitoposa kalo to) or the Toposa of the East (Ngitoposa kalo kide). It is said that the Toposa migration has started from the Karimojong cattle camps. Most in all likelihood all similar migrations with the neighbouring ethnic
groups take away hold started inward this way – the same is known of the Turkana, for example.
The traditional social scheme of the Toposa tin rightly live called gerontocratic. The elders exercise the overall authority, in addition to the immature oft experience oppressed in addition to deprived. There was conflict in addition to stress betwixt the old in addition to the immature warriors. The elders retire in addition to became Karamojong in addition to the immature warriors at the cattle camps would take away hold run away with the cattle in addition to their girls in addition to would take away hold founded a novel community at a distant place, at nowadays beingness themselves at the top of the hierarchy.
There was a wide-spread drought inward Karamoja, in addition to inward the cattle camp, immature people, most in all likelihood of the Ngibokorá generation-set, did the unthinkable: they speared in addition to ate a certainly ox called Loyongolem (“with a large hump”) – at to the lowest degree that is the explanatory version recalled past times some elders (Lopim 1996: 4). Whatever truly happened, in that location was strife betwixt the elders in addition to their sons, the elders cursed them, in addition to the sons went off with portion of the cattle in addition to their women. It must take away hold been a huge cattle military camp with far to a greater extent than people than a grouping that could consume 1 ox. Historically, it seems to live clear that the to-be-Toposa took off inward several streams in addition to past times dissimilar routes.
They must take away hold migrated all around the area, coming every bit far every bit Mount Mogilla inward what is at nowadays northern Republic of Kenya in addition to also to the mountains inward the real East of what is at nowadays south-eastern Sudan. This mount attain is by in addition to large referred to every bit Moruakipi, the ‘mountain of the water’, but it is also said that this is a distortion of Moruangipyéi, which way ‘the mount of Ngipyéi’, i.e. the mount formerly populated past times the Ngipyéi generation-set. The procedure of migration must take away hold taken 3 generations in addition to thus around 150 years. Apparently it was solely the sons of Ngipyéi, the Ngibokói, who finally settled inward the introduce Toposa habitats.
Toposa woman
Now when the immature Ngibokorá broke away from the Karimojong, with solely 2 generations beingness inward existence, i.e. the Ngibokorá in addition to their children, the demographic overlap was reset to zero. Thus, demographically the scheme must take away hold run smoothly. But every bit the Ngibokorá were at odds with their fathers,
they had a job of legitimacy.
When they had broken away from their people, they were cursed past times their fathers in addition to thus they were non probable to have nyasapán from them, i.e. they were non initiated into the seat of beingness the legitimate leaders of the Toposa. This continued for the adjacent 2 generations, the Ngitukoí in addition to the Ngipyéi. It was solely the 4th generation, the Ngibokói, who were able to brand peace with the Karimojong. It was some of the Ngikor territorial department in addition to from the Ngiraanga clan who went there, received nyasapán, in addition to they also brought the sacred rock to its introduce location.
Conflict, Drought, in addition to Social System Engineering
As a affair of fact, the Toposa history started with conflict inward the real beginning. The existence of the Toposa is a final result of stress betwixt Karimojong elders in addition to their rebellious sons. There is solely a delicate residuum of ability betwixt elders in addition to their grown-up sons. When the immature men are inward the cattle camps, they take away hold all the way to start a novel life independently from their autocratic fathers, in addition to it is mainly the belief inward the elders’ curse that keeps them connected to their group. Other factors, however, may override the ability of the curse, in addition to inward the Toposa instance this seems to take away hold been a prolonged drought period.
Toposa people
Drought is the major stress element for the Toposa in addition to their neighbours. As a Turkana has set it:
"The drought is always, fifty-fifty long years ago. The livestock dies of drought, fifty-fifty people die
because of the drought. (...) During the drought nosotros consume [wild fruits as] Edapal, Edung, Ebei,
Elamac, Ngitir [… in addition to others]. That is the nutrient of the Turkana. (...) Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 long drought comes,
in addition to all of the livestock dies. Even earlier our fathers this happened. When it rains, it rains
heavily. (...) Long ago, some years, all livestock got finished. People went to Marille [Dass-
anetch], they went upward to Dongiro [Nyangatom]. They ate their sleeping hides, they ate the
leather of the ass carriers. Drought comes in addition to passes.” (Icum inward Lopuseki, 2.7.1987)
Toposa woman parent in addition to child
Drought is portion of the people’s lives, in addition to they aspect upward it almost every other year. Once every vii to 10 years it is a disaster, bringing life almost to an end. Normally, people are able to teach by with it, but in that location are also centennial catastrophic droughts that override whatever coping strategy. It is these drought catastrophes that also take away hold an impact on the generation-set system, inward an indirect way.
Toposa woman
During a catastrophic drought, most of the people’s animals would die. Thus, when in that location are no animals available, no beast bride wealth tin live raised past times immature men, which is, however, essential for an orderly matrimony with the Toposa in addition to their neighbours.
But immature people would non halt making honey in addition to begetting children, in addition to the non-existence of bride wealth animals would maybe fifty-fifty encourage promiscuity – in that location would live no other way anyway. This would locomote along for many years until the herds would live rebuilt in addition to bride wealth could live given again, resulting inward proper marriages. In the meanwhile, the children born out of wedlock would live deemed to live the offspring of the girls’ fathers, every bit explained above.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature human would ordinarily take away hold sexual practice with a daughter of his ain generation, i.e. her manlike mortal parent would live a generation higher upward him. If the daughter would at nowadays take away hold a boy, this man child would teach a fellow member of the generation-set below his social manlike mortal parent but non below his procreator, i.e. the boy’s generation-set would live the same every bit the 1 of his physical father. This has consequences for the generation-set system. In the Toposa case, I found that 1 of these catastrophic droughts occurred at the fourth dimension when the Ngibokói were young, in addition to for quite some years their physical sons were paradoxically, inward generation-set terms, in 1 lawsuit to a greater extent than Ngibokói instead of Ngimór. Ngibokói had produced Ngibokói.
Figure 5: Toposa in addition to Turkana generation-sets
Toposa Turkana
Ngibokorá Ngipalajám
Ngitukói Nginyá
Ngipyéi Ngipyéi
Ngibokói Ngiputiró
Ngimór - Nguwaná Ngimór
Ngidongó - Ngikaléso Ngirisáe
Ngimór - Ngingoletyáng Ngimór
Ngitaamó - Ngikurukwá Ngirisáe
Toposa women
Sudan Civil war
During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005) the Toposa helped the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) at times, in addition to at other times helped the Government of Sudan. The Toposa took a pragmatic approach, ostensibly siding with whoever gave them the most nutrient in addition to weapons. The SPLA alternated betwixt violence in addition to a to a greater extent than conciliatory approach to the Toposa. In 1985–1986 the SPLA attacked the civilian population of the Toposa, which it deemed "hostile". From 1987 the SPLA began an attempt to improve relations with the civilians. By 1988 some of the SPLA fighters were Toposa.
The Sudan Armed Forces sought to exploit traditional tensions betwixt the Toposa in addition to the Dinka people, to whom many of the SPLA leaders belonged, past times supplying arms in addition to ammunition to the Toposa. The firearms were used both to protect in addition to increment wealth inward animals, in addition to became a symbol of wealth inward themselves. During the 1990s the authorities of Sudan issued at to the lowest degree 50,000 little arms to the Toposa. In 1992 an AK-47 supplied past times the authorities could live traded for 10 cows, or the SPLA would provide G3 rifles inward telephone substitution for the AK-47s. Raids past times the at nowadays well-armed Toposa on their neighbors, such every bit the Suri people of Ethiopia, increased drastically. Internally Displaced People (IDPs) moving through Toposa territory were dependent area to harassment past times Toposa militia or bandits.
Kapoeta, a town inward Toposa country, had been captured past times the SPLA on 25 Feb 1988. The authorities armed the Toposa so they could contend the SPLA in addition to also contend their traditional rivals the Lotuko people. In March 1992, Toposa militia staged attacks on relief columns attempting to convey supplies into Kapoeta. Refugees escaping from Pochalla, which had fallen to the Sudanese government, were attacked past times Toposa militia every bit they made their way to Kapoeta. On 28 May 1992, the authorities regained Kapoeta inward a surprise attack. The Toposa militia, with their noesis of the terrain, played a primal role. The evacuated civilians from Kapeota moved southward to Narus, in addition to from in that location over 20,000 went on to Lokichokio inward Kenya, including 12,500 unaccompanied minors.
Toposa people
According to Amnesty International, the SPLA started a policy of "deliberate in addition to arbitrary killing of civilians of Toposa ethnicity around Kapoeta ... inward retaliation for the involvement of Toposa pro-government militia inward the capture of Kapoeta in addition to subsequent attacks on refugees fleeing the town". By the belatedly 1990s, serious efforts were beingness made to bring down ethnic tensions.
The Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources sponsored harmonization workshops in addition to meetings to resolve in addition to foreclose conflicts with pastorialist communities such every bit the Toposa in addition to their neighbors. The participants inward a Didinga-Turkana-Toposa-Nyangatom women's workshop inward Feb 2000 undertook responsibleness for discouraging farther livestock rustling in addition to raiding betwixt the communities. The occupation of women, willing to cross the boundaries in addition to unilaterally initiate peace talks, is without precedent in addition to has been crucial. The Catholic Diocese of Torit was active inward resolving conflicts with the Toposa, in addition to conflicts betwixt the Toposa, Didinga in addition to Boya, in addition to the Toposa Development Authority had been established to promote evolution in addition to peacebuilding with the Toposa.
Toposa woman
Recent Developments
There has been a long history of conflict betwixt the Toposa of Namorunyang in addition to the Didinga of Budi County. In the dry out flavor the Toposa would drive their cattle to the Didinga Hills for H2O in addition to pasture until the rains began inward Toposa land. In the past, this do was carried out past times understanding betwixt the 2 communities, with a gift beingness made inward telephone substitution for the correct to access the pasturage.
Toposa girl, South Sudan
With the proliferation of guns in addition to breakdown of monastic enjoin during the civil war, the traditional protocols were ignored in addition to violence became common. In May 2007 Toposa tribesmen of Namorunyang raided the Ngauro Payam of Budi County, attacked a grouping that were resting after working inward a collectively-owned field, in addition to took 300 caput of cattle in addition to 400 goats or sheep. 49 women, 4 children in addition to 5 men were killed, patch others were wounded.
Toposa adult woman carrying her baby
Nadapal, just across the edge inward Kenya, is a fertile expanse inward which many Toposa took refuge during the civil war. With the halt of the conflict, some Kenyans wanted the Toposa of the Nadapal expanse to render to South Sudan. The Toposa resisted, perhaps inward portion because they felt that tribes such every bit the Dinka in addition to Nuer resented the Toposa backing of the Government of Sudan during the civil war, in addition to they would thus live treated every bit an unwelcome minority inward Eastern Equatoria. There were ongoing clashes betwixt the Toposa in addition to Turkana inward this area. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 May 2010 study said the fighting betwixt Toposa in addition to Turkana had claimed over forty lives in addition to well-nigh 4,000 livestock had been stolen.It also said that George Echom, Deputy Governor of Eastern Equatorial State, had claimed that Nadapal belonged to South Sudan.
Toposa adult woman in addition to a man
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 1982 study said in that location were 105,000 speakers of the Toposa language, including 95000 along both sides of the Zingietta in addition to Lokalyen rivers, in addition to 10,000 inward Ethiopia. More recent reports give a much higher population. In recent times, improvements take away hold been made inward wellness care, H2O furnish in addition to veterinarian services. Many of the Toposa children at nowadays attend schoolhouse inward Narus in addition to Natinga. These changes are profoundly affecting the traditional social organization. Women are starting to choose a to a greater extent than prominent occupation inward resolving disputes. The Governor of Eastern Equatoria, who took occupation inward May 2010, is onetime Brigadier General Louis Lobong Lojore. He is a Toposa from Kapoeta East County.
Toposa adult woman bearing Toposa tribal marks
Proverbs
Kitacakari nyakook ewonit ngibaren. (Toposa)
An empty tum tin brand a mortal lose his or her cattle; that is, when the tum is empty the legs teach weak in addition to y'all can't run after your animals. (English) Toposa ( Sudan ) Proverb
Background, Explanation, Meaning in addition to Everyday Use
The Toposa community lives inward Southern Sudan, Eastern Equatorial, Kapwota County in addition to is a community that herds animals. In their traditional customs, the Toposa showed friendship betwixt people past times giving each other a bull or caprine animal or pike or cowbell, i.e. a mortal may locomote to his friend in addition to inquire for these things. Before giving these things, the friend must also feed the mortal who is bespeak for these things.
Here is a story: One fourth dimension a human went to his friend who gave him 10 goats, but did non feed him earlier he drove the goats away. On the way home, the human who was driving the 10 goats got hungry. He saw vultures dropping from the sky in addition to sitting on the trees. The human idea in that location is a dead beast inward the expanse in addition to hoped to teach some food. He ran to where the vultures were, but could non detect whatever meat. When he returned, he found that his animals had disappeared.
Toposa woman
Ejok nyitoan ewok nyakung. (Toposa)
The mortal who has a low-cal articulatio genus tin last longer. (English)
Background, Explanation, Meaning in addition to Everyday Use
Years agone during a traditional battle the Toposa warrior would handgrip his shield inward his left paw in addition to his pike inward his correct hand. He would kneel on his correct or left articulatio genus to steady himself to hurl his pike in addition to to teach leverage to force off from his dorsum foot. This crouching seat also made him a smaller target. It was unwise to remain also long inward this one-half kneeling seat since it gave the enemy fourth dimension to advance in addition to mayhap kill the Toposa warrior who remained inward this defensive in addition to vulnerable pose.
So the Toposa proverb: The mortal who has a low-cal articulatio genus tin last longer. By getting upward rapidly from his one-half kneeling seat the warrior could brand a strategic retreat, that is, withdraw for the fourth dimension being. Another Toposa saying says: The mortal who fights in addition to runs away volition alive to contend some other battle. There are times in addition to reasons non to fight. So also the universal saying inward English: Discretion is the improve portion of valor.
Toposa people at their farm
By getting upward rapidly the warrior could also displace into some other fighting strategy: advancing forward, dodging from side to side, leaping about, etc. He had to live quick on his feet. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 "heavy knee" was a sign of beingness slow in addition to non adaptable. But a "light knee" gave him to a greater extent than flexibility in addition to creative fighting options. Also the standing in addition to moving warrior could to a greater extent than easily dodge an enemy's spear. See the universal saying inward English: It is difficult to hitting a moving target.
Toposa woman
These Toposa proverbs were used past times the elders to propose the warriors on how to occupation dissimilar tactics in addition to strategies to contend against other ethnic groups such every bit the Turkana people who liked to pocket the cattle of the Toposa. Also the people inward Southern Sudan who wanted to migrate to some other geographical expanse used these proverbs.
Toposa girls
Toposa girls
Toposa adult woman cleaning sorghum
Toposa adult woman smoking pipe
Toposa girl
Toposa woman
Toposa girl
Two Toposa women inward their finery
Toposa woman,narus,South Sudan
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