Info For You Lot Mende People: Sierra Leone`S Educated Together With Highly Politically-Oriented People
Njaa ngla leweni wכ ndoma lכ woma. (Mende)
The Canis familiaris was beaten past times the pelting because of love. (Literal English linguistic communication Translation)
Love is blind. (Figurative English linguistic communication Translation)
Mende (Sierra Leone) Proverb
"Background, Explanation, Meaning in addition to Everyday UseInfluenza A virus subtype H5N1 Canis familiaris volition non worry virtually going after his or her lover inwards the rain, still heavy that pelting mightiness be. This is seen to a greater extent than inwards the mating season. Among the Mende people inwards Sierra Leone this facial expression is used to tease someone who is deeply inwards love. Such a mortal volition sacrifice personal liberties including one's livelihood only to hold a human relationship to a lover.
Love betwixt a human being in addition to a adult woman when intense tin endure seen inwards serious dimensions. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman would non heed becoming pregnant if that is what gender activity with a husband-lover would imply. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 direct parallel saying to the to a higher seat saying tin endure rendered inwards English linguistic communication similar this: "A adult woman volition non heed becoming pregnant inwards the course of study of pleasing her lover." Our chosen saying is a deeper version of this thought."
Mende people from Sierra Leone
Mende people are a sub-set of Mande-ethnolinguistic grouping which belong to the larger Niger-Congo phylum living mainly inwards Sierra Leone with a little representation inwards the neighbouring Liberia. The Mende is the 2nd largest tribe after their neighbours in addition to Sierra Leone`s aboriginals; the Temne people. Some people believe that both Mende in addition to Temne have got same population in addition to together shape the 2 largest tribes inwards Sierra Leone.
The Mende are predominantly found inwards the Southern Province in addition to the Eastern Province, piece the Temne are found primarily inwards the Northern Province in addition to the Western Area, including the upper-case missive of the alphabet urban center of Freetown. Some of the major cities with important Mende populations include Bo, Kenema, Kailahun in addition to Moyamba.
The Mende are divided into 2 groups: The halemo are members of the hale or hugger-mugger societies, in addition to kpowa are people who have got never been initiated into the hale. The Mende believe that all humanistic in addition to scientific powerfulness is passed downward through the hugger-mugger societies.
Mende Man, Julius Maada Bio, old Head of State of Sierra Leone
The Mende people have got a real interesting historical past. During the tiptop of the slave trade, several Mende people groups were sold foremost to a Portuguese trader in addition to afterward to the articulation owners of a Cuban plantation. The Cuban slave owners tried to carry the Mende people to some other part of Republic of Cuba aboard a slave ship called the Amistad. En route the Mende in addition to other slaves mutinied in addition to took command of the ship inwards hopes of beingness able to canvas her dorsum to Africa in addition to freedom. Hampered past times the remaining sailors, the Mende were captured past times a U.S. Coast Guard vessel off of Long Island, New York. While the Cuban slave owners asserted that the Mende men were slaves in addition to thus property, a Connecticut courtroom pronounced them costless in addition to helped assist the Mende inwards getting dorsum to their homeland.
Statue of Sengbe Pieh,hero of Amistad ship rebellion at New Haven,CT,USA
Sierra Leone's politics have got been dominated past times the Mende, on the 1 hand, in addition to the Temne in addition to their long-time political allies, the Limba, on the other. The Mende back upwards the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), piece the Temnes in addition to Limbas back upwards the All People's Congress political party (APC).
Location
The Vai people refer to Mende people as Huro or Wuro. Mende-speaking people occupy southern in addition to eastern Sierra Leone, in addition to at that topographic point is a little grouping inwards Liberia. Their territory falls inside the pelting wood belt that spans West Africa. The terrain consists of fertile hills to the north; inwards the southward in addition to coastal areas at that topographic point are plains in addition to swamps. The narrow strip of coastland forms the western in addition to southwestern boundary betwixt the Mende in addition to the Sherbro-Bullom, the Krim, in addition to the Vai. The easternmost component division of Sierra Leone in addition to the northeast are populated past times the Kissi in addition to the Kron peoples, respectively. The Jong, Sewa, in addition to Moa rivers flowing from the to a greater extent than hilly northern part of Sierra Leone intersect Mende territory inwards the west, center, in addition to east.
Mende people. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
Language
Mende people speak Mende language. Mende (ˈmɛndi/ (Mɛnde yia) is a major linguistic communication of Sierra Leone, with some speakers inwards neighboring Liberia. It is spoken past times the Mende people in addition to past times other ethnic groups as a regional lingua franca inwards southern Sierra Leone.
Mende is a tonal linguistic communication belonging to the Mande branch of the Niger–Congo linguistic communication family. Early systematic descriptions of Mende were past times F. W. Migeod and Kenneth Crosby.
Beautiful Mende lady from Sierra Leone
In 1921, Kisimi Kamara invented a syllabary for Mende he called Kikakui (Kikaku). The script achieved widespread utilisation for a time, but has largely been replaced with an alphabet based on the Latin script, in addition to the Mende script is considered a "failed script". The Bible was translated into Mende in addition to published inwards 1959, inwards Latin script. Within Mende, 3 major dialect groups are distinguished: Kpa-Mende inwards the west, Sewa-Mende inwards the center, in addition to Ko-Mende inwards the east.
It was used extensively inwards the movies Amistad in addition to Blood Diamond.
History
The Mende people are descendants of the thirteenth-century Republic of Mali eipre that migrated from the Sudan (Mali empire) to settle inwards Sierra Leone. The oral traditions of the Mende tell of a peaceful migration into the expanse that may have got spanned the menstruum from 200 to 1500 AD. Linguistic in addition to cultural traits propose that the Mende are descendants of the thirteenth-century Republic of Mali Empire. Before the eighteenth century Mende territory did non extend to its nowadays coastal areas, in addition to territorial increment resulted from wars.
Mende man, Sir Milton Margai, Sierra Leone's foremost prime number government minister from 1961 to 1964.
Through wars in addition to raids in addition to subjugation in addition to enslavement of other peoples, the Mende assimilated other groups, such as the Sherbro in addition to the Vai. Mende cultural expansion in addition to domination, referred to as "mendenization," continued through the colonial era, although to a greater extent than peacefully as Mende settlements spread inwards the trading areas. This geographic mobility explains aspects of Mende cultural diversity, peculiarly dialectic differences.
Cultural in addition to physical differences with the Mende propose that immigrants may have got originated from to a greater extent than than 1 source. This could also endure a outcome of intermarriage with the peoples who had already lived inwards the area. Artistic traditions link them closely to the coastal Bullom peoples, a phenomenon which most probable resulted from the Mende borrowing ideas they found to endure useful inwards their ain way as understood past times the 'Mende People' website.
Mende Chief
Ethnologists seat 3 unlike sub-groups. The Kpa-Mende endure to the due west inwards the coastal bush, piece the Sewa Mende are inwards the telephone commutation forests. The Ko-Mende (or Kolo Mende) also endure inwards the forests but to a greater extent than oftentimes than non to the N of the Sewa. (Olson, 1996).
Mende people,Sierra Leone
Settlements
Occupational activities as hunting, fishing, in addition to agriculture favored the original settlements of little groups that eventually became villages in addition to towns. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 chiefdom consists of sections, with each department made upwards of a grouping of villages in addition to towns. The ever-present possibility of onslaught favored placing houses unopen together behind a stockade. Traditional houses, normally with 1 story, were circular or rectangular in addition to were strongly built of wattle in addition to mud daub with a palm thatch roof. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 rectangular theatre normally has a veranda in addition to 2 or 3 rooms. With the availability of cement in addition to corrugated sheeting since the 1900s, most novel houses inwards towns in addition to some inwards remote villages have got cement block walls in addition to "pan" roof covering.
Mende people inwards Sierra Leone
Economy
Subsistence. The Mende are an agricultural people who engage inwards gardening to a greater extent than or less their homes in addition to rice farming inwards the outer lands. Rice is the staple crop, in addition to community life is organized to a greater extent than or less its production, storage, in addition to distribution. Supplementary nutrient crops include cassava, yams, sesame, in addition to millet. Palm nuts are harvested for vegetable oil, in addition to raffia palms are tapped for wine. Garden crops include chili peppers, eggplant, in addition to tomatoes. Families lift some poultry in addition to hold domestic animals for meat. Fishing is done mainly inwards the 3 large rivers that intersect the Mende territory.
Mende women making palm oil
Commercial Activities
In the local markets families sell excess nutrient products in addition to purchase those they lack. Traders purchase salt, cocoa, coffee, ginger, groundnuts, in addition to kola nuts. Other marketplace products are palm oil, palm kernels, palm wine, in addition to raffia. Commercial activities have got increased as towns in addition to urban markets have got grown, in addition to a variety of novel products, including imported materials, have got go available. Some trading towns originated with the evolution of railroads in addition to motor roads. The hawking of nutrient in addition to a variety of little items at the parks in addition to stations has go a pop commercial practise to supplement seat unit of measurement income.
Mende elderberry inwards Mende village
Industrial Arts
Craft products include various forms of earthenware, clothes, mats, twine, in addition to brooms. Blacksmiths create hoes, machetes, in addition to other Fe implements. Implements associated with angling are nets, hooks, in addition to dugout canoes. Sculpted objects include masks used for initiation ceremonies, ritual objects such as icons of spiritual entities, in addition to "medicine" objects. There are various musical instruments, including drums, wooden xylophones, other stringed instruments, in addition to decorated gourd rattlers. Stringed beads in addition to shell rattlers are worn past times dancers.
Trade
Traditonally, the commodities traded were essentially agricultural products: rice, coffee, in addition to palm oil. Other of import items of merchandise were implements in addition to objects used for farming in addition to fishing. These products were exported to northern neighbors, who supplied beef in addition to beef products in addition to tabular array salt to the Mende. Before the introduction of a cash economy, merchandise was local in addition to was carried out past times the elementary commutation of products. Trading activities afterward expanded to involve most of the neighboring areas in addition to farther regions in addition to to include salt, gold, in addition to diamonds.
Mende market
Division of Labor
Rice farming is telephone commutation inwards the economy, in addition to men, women, in addition to children contribute labor to the seat unit of measurement farm. Clearing the solid reason of vegetation inwards preparation for farming is typically "men's work." In a large household the senior married adult woman organizes the junior women for rice planting in addition to cooking nutrient for the piece of work group. It is women's project to thresh, clean, in addition to parboil rice.
Mende adult woman tossing rice
Young men also engage inwards rice planting in addition to create fences to protect the farm from rats. Children aid with weeding. Men climb palms to cutting the fruit in addition to tap wine, in addition to women collect the fruit in addition to press the oil. Women fish the inland rivers in addition to spin thread, in addition to men engage inwards weaving in addition to blacksmithing. Today many men leave of absence the hamlet to piece of work inwards mines. Both men in addition to women engage inwards clerical, professional, in addition to trading activities, but most domestic chores are still done past times women.
Coretta Scott King, has Mende ancestry:http://www.africanancestry.com/blog/category/reveals/
Land Tenure
The paramount primary is the principal custodian of all the solid reason inwards the chiefdom. He is assisted inwards administering it past times elders who are the descendants of the settlers who foremost cultivated the land. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 foremost solid reason cultivator gained the right of occupation, which was inherited past times his descendants after his death. The paramount chief, the chiefs, in addition to the subchiefs exercise solid reason ownership authority; the ease of the people inwards the community are landholders with only temporary rights of personal business in addition to utilisation of land. When his demand for it ceases, the solid reason used past times a landholder reverts to the community.
Mende people
Kinship
Kin Groups in addition to Descent. The basic kinship establishment is the household mawe. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 human being in addition to his wives in addition to children constitute a little household. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 large household may have got 2 or to a greater extent than adults with consanguinous kinship, their wives in addition to children, in addition to relatives such as mothers in addition to sisters.
Mende family
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 household is patrilineal as good as patrilocal, in addition to wives go members of the household through marriage. Male siblings in addition to their wives in addition to children settle inwards compounds (kuwui). Leadership of a chemical compound is inherited past times the oldest manful mortal inwards the lineage. Several compounds in addition to the households of slaves constitute a village, in addition to an aggregation of villages makes upwards a town. Towns in addition to villages brand upwards a department of a chiefdom.
Mende people. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
Kinship Terminology. Mende kinship involves a bifurcated merging designing with Iroquois patrilineal cousin terminology. Parents have got the same kin terms as some uncles in addition to aunts, in addition to other relatives are terminologically distinguished from parents. Collateral uncles in addition to aunts are good distinguished, whereas parallel cousins are classed together.
Mende Kamajors tribal hunters
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. Marriage is normally exogamous in addition to patrilocal. Young men who have got reached maturity in addition to tin render bride-wealth in addition to women past times adolescence are eligible for marriage. Marriage is a sign of social progress, in addition to celibacy is considered an anomaly. Marriage tin endure contracted at a real early on age, but its consummation requires initiation into the poro club for a human being in addition to the sande club for a woman. Polygyny is a pop practise that enhances a man's social prestige. It enables the human being to pick out attention of his sexual needs when 1 married adult woman is breast-feeding a infant in addition to sexual intercourse with her is forbidden. Economically, polygyny provides labor for rice farming in addition to other "women's work," such as domestic chores, running cottage industries, in addition to participating inwards trading. The senior wife, who enjoys observe from the junior wives in addition to is her husband's confidant, is responsible for organizing the other wives for work. Thus, spousal human relationship is an agricultural asset as good as a upper-case missive of the alphabet investment. Divorce traditionally was non common, but exceptional circumstances could atomic number 82 the married adult man to dissolve the spousal human relationship in addition to demand a refund of the bride-wealth. These circumstances included desertion, compulsive infidelity, insulting the husband's parents, in addition to practicing witchcraft or sorcery. Persistent abuse past times a married adult man could atomic number 82 to divorce when the relatives of the adult woman demanded her homecoming to their family. After a divorce children normally remain with their manful mortal parent if they are past times the historic menstruum of breast-feeding.
Mende girl
Domestic Unit
The mawe, consisting of a husband, his wives, their children, in addition to the husband's parents, constitutes a basic domestic, social, in addition to farming unit. The numerical composition of the household tin vary to include to a greater extent than older men in addition to grandchildren, in addition to the smaller conjugal unit of measurement of a human being in addition to his married adult woman in addition to children is non considered typical. The domestic unit of measurement provides nutrient in addition to shelter for the members, in addition to serves as the primary establishment of education, bringing upwards children in addition to teaching them the values in addition to techniques of Mende culture.
Mende people
Inheritance
In traditional Mende club solid reason is the principal item of inheritance, in addition to since solid reason holding is house-hold-based, the patrilineal shape of inheritance is prevalent. After a man's decease the immediate heirs to his solid reason are his brothers inwards monastic enjoin of age. His sons come upwards side past times side in addition to and so his daughters. In the absence of brothers, sons, in addition to daughters, a matrilinial nephew becomes the heir.
Kamajor Tribal HuntersIn the civil state of war prior to the 1992 coup, the Kamajors organised themselves into self defence units in addition to protected villages in addition to towns against onslaught past times the rebels in addition to rogue units of the nation's army. They oftentimes provided the only reliable defence. | Location: Kamajors, Sierra Leone.01 Apr 1996,Jon Spaull
After the nephew's decease the solid reason reverts to the descendants of the original owners. Since the introduction of a Western legal system, this practise has been challenged, in addition to sometimes sons claim their father's solid reason from their paternal uncles.
Mende girl
Socialization
Mothers are the principal agents inwards kid rearing, foremost with breast-feeding. If the woman parent becomes real sick, whatever other relative with milk tin pick out over. Usually tied to the dorsum with lappa, a large slice of cloth, children are carried past times the woman parent as she works.
Mende sisters
Older siblings human activity as baby-sitters. Through imitation children larn the names in addition to proper addresses in addition to titles of their relatives. There is a pop practise of sending children of virtually the historic menstruum of vi to distant relatives, who are to a greater extent than strict than parents inwards teaching them virtually household chores, full general responsibilities, in addition to goodness behavior. At virtually historic menstruum 13 girls in addition to boys are ready to endure initiated into the sande in addition to poro societies. The initiation physical care for is the traditional seat where immature people larn cultural mores in addition to prepare for adult life as wives in addition to husbands. In spite of Western education, initiation is still carried out, sometimes inwards modified forms.
Sociopolitical Organization
Social Organization. At the apex of Mende social institutions is the ruling class, which consists of the paramount chief, a descendant of the founder of the territory. The paramount primary enjoys the highest social recognition, in addition to the department chiefs are subordinate to him. Village in addition to town heads are respected for their historic menstruum in addition to leadership inwards their lineages.
Mende Sande initiate
Secret, ritual, in addition to medical societies such as humui, Njayei, poro in addition to sande play vital roles inwards the maintenance in addition to transmission of societal norms in addition to values. Initiation in addition to spousal human relationship confer special status in addition to recognition. The seat unit of measurement or household is the basic social in addition to productive unit of measurement in addition to plays the primary grouping role. The private also relates to the kindred, lineage, village, in addition to town inwards graded monastic enjoin of rights in addition to obligations. Men who have got wealth through successful rice tillage in addition to are married to several women have got a distinguished recognition as "big men" in addition to stand upwards for a distinct social stratum.
Political Organization
A section, consisting of a town in addition to villages, is the basic political unit. Political leadership resides with the department primary or sub-chief, who normally is the oldest mortal in addition to the most suitable inwards the manful mortal line, the descendant of a victorious warrior in addition to founder of the settlement. Women also tin endure chiefs. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 paramount primary rules over several sections.
Mende Chief in addition to his sub-chiefs
Political claims are also based on beingness a descendant of the founder of the territory or chiefdom. The paramount primary governs with the assistance of a council consisting of a speaker, subchiefs, championship holders, in addition to hamlet heads. The primary in addition to the council exercise political in addition to judicial powers. They brand decisions on matters of world interest, adjudicate solid reason disputes, in addition to punish lawbreakers. The social duty of the poro club traditionally included the maintenance of police pull in addition to monastic enjoin inwards the chiefdom. Since the belatedly nineteenth century Mende political civilization has been influenced past times Western systems, as inwards the establishment of the "bench," whose members serve as jurors.
Social Control
Accusations of witchcraft are a major source of conflict in addition to social tension inwards traditional Mende society. Other accusations may derive from medical malpractice or sorcery, sexual offences, dispute over inheritance, in addition to other situations probable to endanger communal values.
Mende missy with a baby. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
To maintain communal values or assure conformity in addition to to guarantee that tendencies toward unsafe forms of individualism in addition to aggressive behaviour are brought nether control, Mende civilization has customs, rules, standards, morals, in addition to sanctions. The seat unit of measurement in addition to the hugger-mugger societies are schools where immature people larn these cultural values. Mechanism of social command is exemplified inwards heads of groups entrusted with authorisation to bargain with domestic disputes, the native courtroom nether the chief, in addition to religious specialists who prescribe in addition to supervise rituals for redressing private or grouping violations.
Mende adult woman in addition to her baby
Conflicts
For much of their history from the sixteenth until the early on eighteenth century the Mende were aggressors against their neighbors: the Bullom-Sherbro, Vai, in addition to Gola. Mende fighters participated inwards the wars in addition to revolts of the colonial period, which ended inwards 1961 with the independence of Sierra Leone. The civil state of war inwards Republic of Liberia inwards early on 1990 brought many Liberian Mende into Sierra Leone as refugees, in addition to many of their settlements were inwards Mende territory.
Mende Kamajors
In the Sierra Leone civil war, after the overthrow of Ahmed Tejan Kabbah's authorities past times Major Jonny Paul Koroma inwards May 1997, Mende involvement was pronounced. The civil war, likewise having colonial roots, also resulted from various grouping interests, especially inwards controlling the diamond business. Kamajors, the reputed traditional hunters, who are mostly Mende, made upwards the major component division of the Revolutionary United Front's footing forces that fought against authorities forces. With the intervention of Nigerian-led international troops in addition to British in addition to United Nations forces, fighting subsided inwards 2001. Pockets of anti-government forces still be inwards the forests in addition to proceed to threaten the fragile cease-fire.
Mende missy drinking H2O from a bore-hole tap
Religion
Religious Beliefs. Ngewo, the supreme beingness inwards Mende religion, is the creator of the universe in addition to everything inwards it. After creating the world, Ngewo went upwards to sky in addition to rarely intervenes straight inwards human affairs, although cypher goodness or evil tin occur without his permission.
'Sehgura players, Sierra Leone - The Sehgura is a little hollow gourd covered loosely past times a netting of country-grown cotton, upon which are strung split hard shells of seeds. The long halt of the netting is held inwards the left paw in addition to the curt cervix of the gourd inwards the right. The audio is caused past times the hard seeds striking the gourd, in addition to tin endure modulated at volition past times the netting beingness relaxed or tightened'
Ancestral spirits are venerated, in addition to prayers to Ngewo are channeled through them. Other categories of natural, occupational, in addition to evil spirits (Ngafanga) exist. Through sacrifices in addition to other rituals, oftentimes conducted past times specialists, people propitiate the spirits in addition to inquire for their protection in addition to blessings. Mende traditional organized faith has declined since the advent of Western Christianity. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 electrical current religious characteristic is an eclectic style to mix elements of traditional organized faith with those of Christianity.
Mende Bondo devil
Religious Practitioners
In a variety of functions in addition to situations individuals in addition to groups relate to halei (power), which is connected with Ngewo. Most religious functions are hereditary, but the spirit that superintends whatever business office must institute through signs that the private has a calling. Priests of the various nature in addition to occupational deities offering sacrifices to them in addition to through them to Ngewo. Diviners are traditional diagnosticians of illness in addition to misfortune in addition to view beyond the nowadays in addition to interpret omens. The healing Dr. also exercises priestly functions inwards ritual healing. He prepares protective charms against the harmful activities of angry or malevolent spirits in addition to their agents. Other ritual societies conduct special rituals for the healing of particular types of wounds in addition to to cleanse the solid reason of defilements. Among the religious specialists are the leaders of hugger-mugger societies, who exercise some religious roles during the initiation of their members.
Mende people
Ceremonies
Birth ceremonies, which pick out several forms, denote the arrival of novel members of the community. They oftentimes require sacrifices to the deity through whose benevolence the kid is born. The poro in addition to sande initiation ceremonies are educational in addition to are arranged inwards stages for the ordered maturing of immature people.
Mende Sande hugger-mugger club initiates
Marriage ceremonies involve community participation in addition to are essential for conjugal prosperity in addition to stability. Rituals of farm piece of work procure blessings of fertility in addition to prosperity for the crops in addition to purify the farm of whatever defilements resulting from the violation of taboos. There are ceremonies for the installation of chiefs in addition to for judicial procedures inwards the courts. Other ceremonies pertain to initiation of the members of "medicine societies" in addition to the efficacy of their work. The rite of "crossing the water" is component division of the in conclusion rite of passage, performed as a funerary rite to ensure ancestral status for the deceased. Ancestors are remembered with ceremonies involving prayers in addition to sacrifices; the "red rice" ceremony is used to appease their anger.
Mende Sande
Secret society
Poro society
The greatest sins a Mende human being tin commit is to give away the secrets of their tribe. The Poro club is the manful mortal equivalent to the Sande society. When inducted into this society, Mende boys are initiated into manhood. Many of their rituals parallel those of the Sande society.
Poro hugger-mugger society
The Poro prepares men for leadership inwards the community, so they mightiness attain wisdom, have got responsibility, in addition to gain power. It begins with the child's grade of discovery, followed past times extensive preparation in addition to service. During the seven-year initiation period, the immature men converse with each other using a hugger-mugger linguistic communication in addition to passwords, known only to other Poro members. The fellow member ever knows in addition to understands what is beingness said. This is component division of the mystery of this hugger-mugger society.
Mende poro devil
At the beginning, immature men aged 20 are called into the club in addition to are trained past times the grouping to a higher seat them, along with a few elders. There is much piece of work to endure done during the initiation process. Dancing the masks is component division of this work, but non the most of import part. Only through piece of work does the trip the low-cal fantastic of the mask go meaningful.
Poro
Sande society
All Mende women when they arrive at puberty get down the initiation physical care for into the Sande society. The goals of this hugger-mugger club are to learn immature Mende women the responsibilities of adulthood. The girls are taught to endure hard working in addition to modest inwards their behavior, especially towards their elders. Sande influences every aspect of a Mende woman's life; it is nowadays before nativity in addition to still nowadays after.
Black in addition to white photographic impress showing 4 immature women, initiated into the Sande society, wearing traditional pilus styles which bare resemblance to those depicted on many Sowei masks. One missy has her human face upwards painted, 2 other girls have got scarification marks over their brow in addition to stomach. All the girls also deport similar body adornment, or jewellery, across the pectus in addition to circular the neck. Written inwards pencil on the dorsum of the epitome is Fig. 63, p.211 / Bundu [Sande] girls, Vassa Country . Published as Figure 63 inwards T. J. Alldridge, 1901, The Sherbro in addition to Its Hinterland )
Sande is the guardian of women; their protector in addition to guide through life. It is Sande that grants a adult woman with an identity in addition to a personality. The Sande club is concerned with defining what it is to endure human in addition to of discovering the ways of promoting love, justice, in addition to harmony. It is a moral philosophy that focuses on the perpetual refinement of the individual.
Mende Sande initiate, Sierra Leone
Sande leaders serve as models to women inwards the community. They exemplify the highest of Mende ideals, in addition to they have got the duty of enforcing positive social relationships in addition to of removing whatever impairment that mightiness come upwards to women inwards their community. "This is Sande; women together inwards their womanhood, inwards a costless commutation of words in addition to actions with sisters. Where ever 2 or 3 women are gathered together, at that topographic point is the spirit of Sande."
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature Mende Sande (Bondu) missy all dressed inwards white in addition to with clay dried on her skin. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
Sande groups conduct masked performances that embody the Sande guardian spirit, who is associated with H2O in addition to rivers. Descriptions of the club in addition to its masquerade events have got been made past times visitors since the seventeenth century.
Mende Sande (Bondo) initiates in addition to Mende Devil. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
Sande hierarchy
The Sande club is organized past times a hierarchy a number of positions all around. The sowie are the highest-ranking leaders of the group. It is their project to model to the Mende women the most of import of Mende social values. It is also their duty to enforce proper social relationships in addition to to take away anything that mightiness endure harmful to the women inwards their community.
Bondo Leader (in Mende Sowei) Mama Hokey (on right) with Bondo Devil. Mama Hawa is on left. Moiyatu is behind in addition to partially obscured past times Mama Hokey. This photograph was taken inwards the dorsum of #55 Dama Road inwards 1970. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
The sowie have got command over sure sacred knowledge that is essential to the evolution of success in addition to happiness inwards an individual, in addition to also to the well-being of the community. They are the experts of the Sande women in addition to have got access to spirit ancestors in addition to forces of nature.
Mende Sande (Bondu) elders next Bondo devil. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
The rank below sowie is ligba. There are 2 grades inside ligba; Ligba Wa (senior) in addition to Ligba Wulo (junior). In whatever grouping at that topographic point is only 1 Ligba Wa, she is an executive officeholder inwards Sande. Before a adult woman tin pick out a leadership role inwards artistic activities she must endure eligible at to the lowest degree as a Ligba Wulo.
Mama Hokey on the left inwards the ruby docket (blouse) in addition to light-green caput apparel leading as the Kendwi Devil is paraded to a greater extent than or less Tokpombu.
© past times Republic of Chad Finer
An ordinary fellow member is referred to as nyaha. The give-and-take indicates that the Sande initiation makes a adult woman of a child, in addition to every adult woman into a wife. An initiate inwards preparation is called mbogdoni. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 non-member is kpowa. As a substantive kpowa agency "an ignoramus, stupid, retarded, a fool" as a verb it agency "to go insane or deranged.
Mama Hokey on the left inwards the ruby docket (blouse) in addition to light-green caput apparel leading as the Kendwi Devil is paraded to a greater extent than or less Tokpombu.
© past times Republic of Chad Finer
Arts
Much Mandé fine art is inwards the shape of jewelry in addition to carvings. The masks associated with the fraternal in addition to sorority associations of the Marka in addition to the Mendé are in all likelihood the best-known, in addition to finely crafted inwards the region. The Mandé also create beautifully woven fabrics which are pop throughout western Africa, in addition to gilded in addition to silvery necklaces, bracelets, armlets, in addition to earrings.
Nomali figure of Mende people
The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed capable of beingness heard past times spirits, ringing inwards both worlds, that of the ancestors in addition to the living.
Mende dress-making
Mandé hunters oftentimes have on a unmarried bell that tin endure easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand, oftentimes have on multiple bells, referring to concepts of community, since the bells band harmoniously together.
Mende woman mortal figure
Mende masks
Masks are the collective Mind of Mende community; viewed as 1 body, they are the Spirit of the Mende people.
Mende mask
The Mende masked figures are a reminder that human beings have got a dual existence; they endure inwards the concrete world of flesh in addition to stuff things in addition to the spirit world of dreams, faith, aspirations in addition to imagination.
The features of a Mende mask convey Mende ideals of woman mortal morality in addition to physical beauty.
Mende devil
They are odd because the masks are worn past times women. The aeroplane on top of the caput represents a woman's natural intuition that lets her view in addition to know things that others can't. The high or broad brow represents goodness luck or the sharp, contemplative heed of the ideal Mende woman. Downcast eyes symbolize a spiritual nature in addition to it is through these little slits that a adult woman wearing the mask would await out of. The little oral fissure signifies the ideal woman's serenity in addition to humble character.
Mende helmet mask
The markings on the cheeks are representative of the decorative scars girls have as they pace into womanhood. The scars are a symbol of her new, harder life. The cervix rolls are an indication of the wellness of an ideal women. They have got also been called symbols of the designing of concentric, circular ripples the Mende spirit makes when emerging from the water. In the Mende civilization full-figured women are beautiful.
Mende mask showing intricate hairstyle
The intricate hairstyles disclose the unopen ties inside a community of women. The holes at the base of operations of the mask are where the ease of the costume is attached. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman who wears these masks must non expose whatever component division of her body or a vengeful spirit may pick out possession of her. Women oftentimes encompass their bodies with masses of raffia or dark cloth.
Mende mask
When a missy becomes initiated into the Sande society, the village's master copy woodcarver creates a special mask only for her. Helmet masks are made from a department of tree trunk, oftentimes of the kpole (cotton) tree, in addition to and so carved in addition to hollowed to check over the wearer’s caput in addition to face. The woodcarver must hold off until he has a dream that guides him to brand the mask a sure way for the recipient. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 mask must endure kept hidden inwards a hugger-mugger seat when no 1 is wearing it.
Mende sowei mask
These masks appear non only inwards initiation rituals but also at of import events such as funerals, arbitrations in addition to the installation of chiefs. Examples of these masks appear inwards museums.Various Mende masks, specifically Sowei Masks, were the focus of a 2013 exhibition inwards the British Museum, exploring the Sowei traditions.
Sande hugger-mugger club mask
Dancing
Learning trip the low-cal fantastic is a harsh dependent acre that every Mende missy must tackle. Girls practise for hours at a fourth dimension until they driblet from exhaustion. Ndoli jowei, the proficient inwards dancing, is inwards accuse of teaching immature Mende girls to dance.
Mende Girls performing traditional dance. Source michaelwuitchik
When girls brand a error inwards the steps, they are whipped with a switch until they acquire it right. Often girls are awoken inwards the middle of the nighttime to practise the dance; sometimes they are forced to remain awake for nearly 48 hours dancing almost the entire time. By the halt of their cruel training, the girls have got transformed into immature adult woman who are tough in addition to confident fifty-fifty inwards the harshest of conditions. They are inwards bang-up physical shape in addition to have got endurance in addition to stamina.
The Mende Bondo initiation Danceat Foindu Nongowa. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
Gonde is also a Ndoli jowei, but rather than the harsh enforcer she is the comic relief. Gonde becomes a friend to the initiates, amusing them to aid them forget the hard ordeals they are going through. She coaches the girls who are slowly inwards dancing, encouraging the girls to piece of work hard. "Gonde is a funny, lovable grapheme who lightens the gloom in addition to reminds everyone that Sande is non ever so deadly serious."
The Sande (Bondo) spirit or devil dances with a few women from the hamlet as others watch, Tokpombu inwards the Nongowa Chiefdom,Sierra Leone. 1969 © past times Republic of Chad Finer
Ndoli jowei is the principal spirit for celebration, although she also appears on other occasions likewise celebrations. In Sande initiation at that topographic point are 3 major events inwards which the ndoli jowei appear publicly. The foremost occurs 1–3 days after the initiates have got been taken into the bush to endure circumcised. This lawsuit is known as yaya gbegbi. At this fourth dimension the ndoli jowei comes into town with a grouping of Sande women piece the initiates remain inwards the bush recovering from their operations. The women come upwards into town to tell men they have got initiated people into Sande. They go through the town waving leaves in addition to gathering nutrient in addition to other supplies that they need. Ndoli jowei does non trip the low-cal fantastic on this occasion because it is non yet fourth dimension for celebration. She is at that topographic point only as a reminder of the powerful medicine which has been summoned past times the Sande session. This validates the unruly behaviour of the Sande women. The side past times side fourth dimension ndoli jowei appears is at a small-scale feast called Kpete gbula yombo le or Sowo mba yili gbi. At this occasion, an proclamation is made to inform people of the appointment for the gani celebration; which is the in conclusion lawsuit of the Sande initiation that ndoli jowei appears at. At this time, the novel initiates are brought into town for the foremost fourth dimension since the initiation physical care for began; accompanied past times ndoli jowei. This is a happy occasion where dances are performed past times both the maskers in addition to the initiates.
Mende Sande Secret Society initiates dancing. Courtesy michaelwuitchik
Color symbolism
Hojo is a white clay that Mende women utilisation to grade their territory. The clay comes from the H2O similar many other aspects of Sande. Its smooth, shiny surface reflects light, making it eye-catching. Hojo is found inwards a scale of colors from beige to pure white. The pure white Hojo is to a greater extent than rare, found only deep beneath the surface of the water. Hojo in addition to Sande are parallel inwards that they are both good hidden in addition to secretive inwards its purest form.
Sande (Bondo) initiates. agustinosrecoletos.
White is the color of Sande. To the Mende, the pureness of white signifies the cleanliness in addition to absence of imperfections. "It shows a 'harmlessness'; it is void of all things satanic in addition to is thus 'a positive in addition to helpful color. White is symbolic of the spirit world in addition to also of the hugger-mugger parts of club where people aim for the highest standards.
Newly initiated Sande (Bondo) Secret club missy with her body painted with white clay.© past times Republic of Chad Finer
Objects in addition to people who are marked with Hojo are nether Sande protection in addition to control. They are dependent to authorisation of Sande police pull in addition to punishment. Initiates are colored with this white clay to demonstrate that they are belongings of Sande. This signifies that they are nether the protection of Sande in addition to should non endure fooled with. Sowei, the guess of women, wears white to stand upwards for clear thinking in addition to justice.
Throwing cowries to determine the call of the mask
Hair
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 woman's pilus is a sign of femininity. Both thickness in addition to length are elements that are admired past times the Mende. Thickness agency the adult woman has to a greater extent than private strands of pilus in addition to the length is proof of strength. It takes time, attention in addition to patience to grow a beautiful, total caput of hair. Ideas virtually pilus root women to nature, the way pilus grows is compared to the way forests grow.
School missy with her Mende hairstyle. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
The vegetation on world is the "hair" on the caput of Mother Nature inwards the same way the pilus on the caput of a adult woman is her "foliage." (Boone) Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman with long, thick pilus illustrates a life force, she may endure blessed with a light-green pollex giving her the powerfulness to have got a promising farm in addition to many good for yous children.
Mende adult woman with her beautiful hairstyle
Hairstyles are real of import inwards Mende society. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Mende woman's pilus must endure good groomed, clean, in addition to oiled. Hair must endure tied downward nether strict command in addition to shaped into intricate, elegant styles for the sake of beauty in addition to gender activity appeal. Dirty, disheveled pilus is a sign of insanity. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman who does non groom in addition to maintain her pilus has neglected the community's standards of behavior. Only a adult woman inwards mourning tin permit her pilus loose. The Mende finds unarranged "wild" pilus immoral in addition to connects it to wild behavior.
Sande (bondo) Devil. Girl with Sande club hairstyle. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
Body alterations
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 key chemical ingredient of Sande initiation is the clitoridectomy, or woman mortal circumcision. This surgery is supposed to foreshadow the hurting a Mende adult woman experiences during childbirth. The daze of this experience also tests a Mende woman's physical endurance. The shared hurting of the clitoridectomy creates permanent bonds with the initiates. Vows that limited a social bond are taken after the operation; these vows are a metaphor for the back upwards the women volition have got during the pains of childbirth.
Girls for initiation. agustinosrecoletos.
This physical care for is considered necessary to alter Mende children, who are considered to endure of neutral gender activity before the procedure, to heterosexual, gendered adults. Circumcision is thought to take away the female's balance of maleness.
Neck rings
The cervix rings at the base of operations of the mask are an exaggeration of actual cervix creases. Mende people consider a beautiful cervix to endure 1 with rings: they are a sign of beauty because they propose wealth, high status, in addition to are sexually attractive. The rings signal prosperity in addition to wholesome living, in addition to are given past times God to demonstrate his affection for a fortunate few. As well, the rings signal a human relationship with the divine: the Sowo itself is a deity from the waters, in addition to the cervix rings stand upwards for the concentric waves that are formed on still H2O past times Sowo's caput breaking through the surface. The spirit comes from the water, in addition to what the human optic sees on the necks of women "is human inwards form, but divine inwards essence", as portrayed inwards the mask.
Mende Sande hugger-mugger club women showing necklace
Medicine. The halei (medicine man) in addition to several "medicine societies" bargain with illness, which tin have got physical or spiritual causes. The spiritual causes include private moral deficiencies in addition to the malevolent activities of spirits in addition to their agents. The diviner discovers the create of an illness or misfortune. The medicine human being or healing Dr. prepares medicines in addition to administers them. Medicines are prepared from herbs in addition to other natural substances. Protective medicine tin consist of charms in addition to inoculation with "power substances." When medicine is prepared in addition to consecrated, it is believed to endure impregnated with efficacy. Since the advent of scientific medicine in addition to Christianity inwards Mende society, the utilisation of traditional medicine has been on the decline, especially inwards towns in addition to cities.
Death in addition to Afterlife
Death is oftentimes imputed to witchcraft or activities of spirits in addition to their agents. However, decease inwards old historic menstruum is accepted as natural, in addition to inquiries into other causes are non necessary. Natural decease is non considered a calamity, but the decease of a immature mortal is considered a "bad death."
Based on the status of the deceased in addition to the gender, unlike funerary rites apply. The rites of passage ensure that a dead mortal who has the moral qualifications "crosses the river" in addition to becomes an ancestor. Ancestors proceed to endure as spirits in addition to their earthly relatives hold their retentiveness endure inwards rituals.
The Mende are a well-documented illustration of a non-western, pre-industrial club inwards which, at to the lowest degree historically, women were non politically subordinate to men. In the pre-colonial era, the Mende had woman mortal chiefs in addition to state of war leaders.
Mende Bondo hugger-mugger club women of Sierra Leone. Circa 1970. © past times Republic of Chad Finer
One such woman mortal chief, Madam Yoko (1849–1906), was the leader of the vast Kpa Mende Confederacy. She was formally recognized past times the British as a Paramount Chief inwards 1894, ruling an expanse that was eventually divided into 14 chiefdoms. Although it is impossible to know the extent to which other Mende women rose to leadership positions comparable to Madam Yoko's, historians believe that perhaps 15 to 20 percentage of the local leaders with whom the British negotiated at the fourth dimension of colonial consolidation were women. The designing continues to this day. According to MacCormack, "Contemporary women paramount chiefs are as prominent, in addition to their political influence at nowadays extends into national in addition to international arenas. In 1988, 13 of the 146 paramount chiefs were female."
The Yassi Society (1900)- The Yassi is a club professedly for women, but it does non object to giving "medicinal treatment" to men of the Poro order. The Minseri images through which the spells are worked are kept inwards the Yassi hut, which is non inwards the bush but inwards the town or village. With them is kept the special Yassi medicine, inwards the presence of which the prophetess of the club has to endure uncovered. In the centre of the to a higher seat illustration the Yassi drum tin endure seen, in addition to on the left 3 Kambehs, or members of the 2nd degree'
MacCormack farther notes, "There is a style inwards Western civilization to define women as weak in addition to needing protection, since they deport children. In West Africa the same biological facts are given a unlike cultural interpretation. The bearing of children demonstrates that women are strong in addition to active agents inwards a society, capable of holding political office." Lynda Rose Day, some other authorisation on Mende woman mortal chiefs, writes that "Women ascent naturally to leadership positions when they are senior wives inwards large polygynous households, when they are the oldest living relatives of a large landholding descent group, or when they are heads of local Sande chapters. Mothers with many children are seen as strong, capable authorisation figures."
Politics
It is good known inwards Sierra Leone that the Mendes, along with the Krios in addition to Sherbros, are educationists. They are considered to favor learning than doing business. To them, instruction comes first. They are also known to command observe in addition to possess leadership qualities. The politics of Sierra Leone have got traditionally been dominated past times the Mende. The Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), which is 1 of the 2 major political political party inwards the country, is predominantly based with the Mende people. The SLPP gets most of its back upwards inwards Mende- predominate south-east part of Sierra Leone. Most of the country's top authorities positions have got been held past times the Mende. Sierra Leone's foremost Prime government minister Sir Milton Margai, who led the province to independence from the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland on Apr 27, 1961 was a prominent fellow member of the Mende ethnic group.
Mende man, Sir Milton Margai, Sierra Leone's foremost prime number government minister from 1961 to 1964, dancing with Queen Elizabeth inwards Freetown,Sierra Leone inwards 1961 when the Queen visited
Other prominent Sierra Leonean politicians from the Mende ethnic grouping include the country's 2nd prime number government minister Sir Albert Margai, who was also the younger blood brother of Milton Margai; old commander of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces in addition to old Sierra Leone's caput of province Brigadier David Lansana; old Head of State of Sierra Leone Brigadier General Julius Maada Bio; old Sierra Leone's vice president Albert Joe Demby; old Sierra Leone's vice president in addition to attorney full general Solomon Berewa; old Sierra Leone's vice president government minister of Justice in addition to Attorney General Francis Minah; old Sierra Leone's attorney full general in addition to 1 of the founding members of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) Banja Tejan-Sie. Samuel Hinga Norman, who was Sierra Leone's government minister of Defense in addition to old leader of the militant grouping the Civil Defense Forces (commonly known as the Kamajors). Sierra Leonean political leader Charles Margai, who is the leader of 1 of the country's main opposition political party the People's Movement for Democratic Change (PMDC). He is also the boy of old prime number government minister Albert Margai in addition to the nephew of Milton Margai; in addition to old Sierra Leone's government minister of finance John Oponjo Benjamin, who is currently the National Leader of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP)
(Story of a Mende Song)
Producer/Directors: Alvaro Toepke in addition to Angel Serrano
Spain, 1998, 52 minutes
In English linguistic communication in addition to Mende with subtitles
The storey begins inwards the early on 1930s with Lorenzo Turner, an African American linguist who cataloged to a greater extent than than 3,000 names in addition to words of African origin with the Gullah people of coastal South Carolina in addition to Georgia. Turner also made the spectacular uncovering that some Gullahs could recite texts inwards African languages handed downward for generations. Among these linguistic gems, Turner’s widow recalls, he especially cherished a five-line vocal that he learned from Amelia Dawley, a adult woman from a remote Georgia angling village. Although Amelia did non know which linguistic communication the vocal was in, a Sierra Leonean graduate pupil inwards the USA recognized it as Mende, his native tongue. Amelia’s vocal is almost for sure the longest text inwards an African linguistic communication known to have got been preserved past times a dark seat unit of measurement inwards the United States.
These dramatic clues were taken upwards over again inwards the 1980s past times Joseph Opala, an American anthropologist lecturing at Sierra Leone’s Fourah Bay College. Studying Bunce Island, an 18th century British slave castle inwards Sierra Leone, Opala discovered that it sent many of its African captives to South Carolina in addition to Georgia where American rice planters were willing to pay high prices for slaves from the African “Rice Coast,” including Sierra Leone. The modern Gullah people, the descendants of those rice-growing slaves, have got preserved to a greater extent than of their African civilization than whatever other dark community inwards the United States. In 1989, Opala helped organize a gala Homecoming past times a Gullah grouping anxious to run across their long-lost brothers in addition to sisters inwards Sierra Leone. That moving journeying was documented inwards an before California newsreel release, Family Across the Sea.
Realizing history in addition to linguistics were pointing the same way — toward a link betwixt Sierra Leone in addition to the Gullah — Opala turned to American ethnomusicologist Cynthia Schmidt to aid him regain Turner’s recording of Dawley’s song. Obtaining it from a music archive inwards the United States, they presented a re-create to a Sierra Leone music grouping that performed it for the Homecoming grouping in addition to their African hosts. Both were astonished that a vocal inwards Mende had come upwards from coastal Georgia. Then, after the Homecoming, Opala, Schmidt in addition to Sierra Leonean linguist Tazieff Koroma laid out to regain Amelia’s vocal inwards Sierra Leone. “If it came from Mende province 200 years ago,” Opala says, “then the inquiry was: Would it still be at that topographic point today? Would nosotros endure able to regain it inwards Mende province today?”
Their project was formidable. The Mende are the largest ethnic grouping inwards Sierra Leone, numbering inwards the millions, but fortunately Koroma recognized a dialect give-and-take inwards the song, pointing to a specific area. The researchers played the recording inwards hamlet after village, but after no 1 recognized it, they were at the dot of giving up. Then, Schmidt found a adult woman named Baindu Jabati inwards the remote interior hamlet of Senehun Ngola. Jabati knew a vocal with strikingly similar lyrics, an ancient Mende funeral dirge performed during a graveside ceremony called teijami, or “crossing the river.” “Her grandmother taught her the song,” she said, “a women’s song, as nativity in addition to decease rites are women’s responsibilities inwards Mende culture.” Jabati’s grandmother had made the uncanny prediction that at that topographic point would endure a homecoming inwards their hamlet 1 day, a homecoming of lost family, in addition to that the old funeral vocal would link them to their returned kinsmen.
Mende diasporan
Recognizing that the vocal “could hateful a bang-up bargain to someone inwards America,” as Schmidt says, she in addition to Opala traveled to Georgia inwards 1990 where, with the aid of a fellow member of the Homecoming group, they found Amelia’s daughter, Mary Moran, in addition to so 69. To their relief, Mary still knew the old vocal that, inwards the context of American plantation life, had go a play vocal mothers sang for their little children. Thus, at that topographic point was change, but also continuity — the vocal had passed downward through women on both sides. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 2nd Homecoming was planned, but had to endure postponed because of Sierra Leone’s devastating rebel state of war that left millions homeless, including Baindu, herself. Finally, Mary in addition to her seat unit of measurement arrived inwards Sierra Leone inwards 1997, in addition to after a painful see to Bunce Island, were received with jubilation inwards Senehun Ngola.
To grade the occasion, Baindu in addition to the other hamlet women recreated the ancient teijami ceremony, which had non been performed inwards Senehun Ngola since virtually 1920, when Islam in addition to Christianity took root inwards the area. Although Baindu knew the old song, she relied on 90-year-old blind primary Nabi Jah to demonstrate her how the funeral ceremony, of which the vocal was a part, was originally performed. Mary’s homecoming was, thus, a catalyst for Mende people to rediscover their ain past. When Opala asked Nabi Jah why a Mende adult woman exiled 200 years agone would have got taken that particular vocal to America, in addition to non another, he said the respond was obvious. “It was the most valuable thing she could take,” he said. “Just past times singing it, it would connect her to all her ancestors who were buried with it inwards Africa in addition to to their continued blessings.” Then he quoted a Mende proverb: “You know who a mortal actually is past times the linguistic communication they vociferation in.”
The Language You Cry In shows the bang-up benefits of multi-disciplinary research, inwards this instance involving history, linguistics, anthropology, in addition to ethnomusicology. It is also a striking illustration of scholars working with their informants as colleagues. The “research subjects,” African in addition to American, were non only observed, but actively recruited into researching in addition to interpreting their ain history as a “usable past.” Meaning, thus, emerged from the deliberate clash of nowadays in addition to past. As nosotros sentry Mary in addition to Baindu reunited inwards a tearful rendition of the ancient vocal they share, nosotros realize what 20th century scholarship in addition to media technology tin contribute to restoring seat unit of measurement bonds seemingly shattered forever past times the Middle Passage in addition to African Diaspora.
Ah wakuh muh monuh kambay yah lee luh lay kah
Ha suh wileego seehai yuh gbangah lilly
Ha suh wileego dwelin duh kwen
Ha suh willeego seehi yuh kwendaiyah
the grave is non yet finished; permit his pump endure perfectly at peace.
Everyone come upwards together, permit us piece of work hard;
the grave is non yet finished; permit his pump endure at peace at once.
Sudden decease commands everyone’s attention,
similar a firing gun.
Sudden decease commands everyone’s attention,
oh elders, oh heads of the family.
Sudden decease commands everyone’s attention,
similar a distant drum beat.
Mende woman, Mariama Elaiza Webby, Sierra Leonean model
SOURCE:http://www.unt.edu/news/song.htm#song
Madam Yoko
Madam Yoko or Mammy Yoko (ca. 1849–1906was a leader of the Mende people inwards Sierra Leone. Combining advantageous lineage, shrewd spousal human relationship choices in addition to the powerfulness afforded her from the hugger-mugger Sande society, Yoko became a leader of considerable influence. She expanded the Mende Kingdom in addition to at the fourth dimension of her death, she was the ruler of the vast Kpa Mende Confederacy.
Madam Yoko, originally called Soma, was born to a greater extent than or less 1849 inwards the Gbo Chiefdom. She changed her call to Yoko at her Sande initiation ceremony, during which fourth dimension she became known for her graceful dancing. Yoko's foremost marriage, which was unsuccessful, was to a human being named Gongoima. After leaving Gongoima, Yoko's 2nd married adult man was Gbenjei, Chief of Taiama. Although Yoko remained childless, Gbenjei made her his bang-up wife, giving her economical powerfulness inside her household.
Following Gbenjei's death, Yoko married Gbanya Lango. In 1875, Gbanya was detained past times British colonial officials inwards Taiamawaro. Yoko went straight to Governor Rowe to appeal for her husband's release. Rowe was impressed with Yoko's appeal in addition to Gbanya was flogged, in addition to and so released. Following this incident, Gbanya made Yoko his bang-up married adult woman in addition to began sending her on diplomatic missions. With the Sande, Yoko was able to wield important power, non only with women, but Mende club as a whole. As a leader inwards this women's hugger-mugger society, she made political alliances in addition to took younger initiates as "wards" — afterward marrying them into other aristocratic lineages inwards an imitation of the trajectory of her ain ascent to power. In 1878, next her tertiary husband's death, Yoko became the primary of Senehun. By 1884 she was officially recognised as "Queen of Senehun". This recognition came non only from her ain people, but also from the British. She died inwards 1906, rumoured to have got committed suicide. Having no descendants of her own, she was succeeded past times her blood brother Lamboi
THE AMISTAD REVOLT (CASE OF SENGBE PIEH AND OTHERS)
INTRODUCTION
In 1839, slaves aboard a ship called the Amistad revolted to secure their liberty piece beingness transported from 1 Cuban port to another. Their leader was Sengbe Pieh, a immature Mende man, but popularly known inwards USA history as Joseph Cinque. The slaves had been kidnapped mostly from the neighborhood of the Colony of Sierra Leone in addition to sold to Castilian slavers. They eventually received their liberty inwards 1841, after 2 years’ internment inwards the USA awaiting the verdict of the courts regarding their “revolt.” This was the celebrated Amistad Case, an episode far amend known inwards the USA than on the other side of the Atlantic. But the incident had a far-reaching impact on both sides, influencing the course of study of American history in addition to especially the evolution of Afro-American culture, while, inwards Sierra Leone, leading to the inauguration of American missionary activity that trained many of the elite grouping that led the
nationalist motion to arrive at independence from colonial rule.
Sengbe Pieh
CAPTURE AND ENSLAVEMENT
Sengbe Pieh, the hero inwards this episode, was born virtually 1813 inwards the town of Mani inwards Upper Mende country, a distance of 10 days’ march from the Vai or Gallinas coast. Said to have got been the boy of a local chief, he was married with a boy in addition to 2 daughters. Sengbe, a farmer, was going to his acre 1 twenty-four hours inwards belatedly Jan 1839 when he was captured inwards a surprise onslaught past times 4 men, his right paw tied to his neck. He was taken to a nearby hamlet where he passed 3 days with a human being called Mayagilalo, champaign the boss of his captors. Indebted to the boy of the Vai King Manna Siaka, Mayagilalo gave over Sengbe to him inwards settlement. After staying inwards Siaka’s town for a month, Sengbe was marched to Lomboko, a notorious slave-trading isle nigh Sulima on the Gallinas coast, in addition to sold to the richest slaver there, the Spaniard Pedro Blanco, whose activities had helped to brand King Siaka wealthy as well.
At Lomboko, Sengbe was imprisoned with other slaves, piece fresh ones joined them for the 2 months they were there, waiting to endure transported across the Atlantic. Most of the captives came from Mende country, but others were Kono, Sherbro, Temne, Kissi, Gbandi (in present-day Liberia), in addition to Loma (in present-day Republic of Liberia in addition to inwards Guinea, where they are known as Guerze). Some, who did non speak Mende, learned the linguistic communication during their forced journeying through Mende province to the coast. Most were farmers, but it is said that others were hunters in addition to blacksmiths. This is surprising, because all over West Africa blacksmiths held a sacred seat inwards club in addition to could neither endure enslaved nor killed fifty-fifty inwards war. All these people were shipped from Lomboko inwards March aboard the schooner Tecora, which arrived at Havana inwards the
Castilian colony of Republic of Cuba inwards June. At a slave auction next advertisement, Jose Ruiz, a Castilian plantation owner, bought Sengbe in addition to forty-eight others for $450 each to piece of work on his saccharide plantation at Puerto Principe, some other Cuban port 3 hundred miles from Havana. Pedro Montez, some other Spaniard bound for the same port, bought 4 children, 3 girls in addition to a boy. On June 26, the fifty-three Africans were herded on board an American-built schooner, originally called Friendship, but changed to the Castilian La Amistad when the vessel changed ownership in addition to registration to a Castilian subject. Although Espana had prohibited the importation of novel slaves into her territories since 1820, the 2 Castilian planters were able to obtain
official permits to carry their slaves. They chartered the Amistad from Ramon Ferrer, who was both possessor in addition to captain. Apart from the fifty-three Africans in addition to their Castilian owners, the schooner carried a crew comprising the master, Ferrer; his 2 dark slaves, Antonio (the cabin boy) in addition to Celestino (the cook); in addition to 2 white seamen. The ship also carried a cargo of dishes, cloth, jewelry, in addition to various luxury items in addition to staples. The cargo was insured for $40,000. Ruiz insured his forty-nine slaves for $20,000, piece Montez
insured the 4 children for $1,300.
THE REVOLT
The trip to Puerto Principe normally took 3 days, but the winds were adverse. Three days out at sea, on June 30, Sengbe used a loose spike he had removed from the deck to unshackle himself in addition to his swain slaves. They had been whipped in addition to maltreated and, at 1 point, made to believe that they would endure killed for supper on arrival. Sengbe armed himself in addition to the others with cane knives found inwards the cargo hold. He in addition to so led them on deck, where they killed Captain Ferrer in addition to the ready Celestino in addition to wounded the Spaniard Montez. But Sengbe spared Montez’ life together with those of Ruiz in addition to Antonio, the cabin boy. The mutineers lost 2 of their ain party, killed past times Captain Ferrer. The 2 white seamen managed to escape from the Amistad inwards a little boat.
Sengbe in addition to so ordered the Spaniards to canvas inwards the administration of the rising of the sun, or eastward towards Africa. At night, however, Montez, who had some experience as a sailor, navigated past times the stars in addition to sailed westward, hoping to remain inwards Cuban waters. But a gale drove the ship northeast along the USA coastline. The schooner followed a zigzag course of study for 2 months, during which 8 to a greater extent than slaves died of thirst in addition to exposure. Sengbe held command the whole time, forcing the others to conserve nutrient in addition to water,
in addition to allotting a total ration only to the 4 children. He took the smallest portion for himself.
RECAPTURE
The Amistad drifted off Long Island, New York, inwards belatedly August 1839. Sengbe in addition to others went ashore to merchandise for nutrient in addition to supplies in addition to to negotiate with local seamen to pick out them dorsum to Africa. News presently got to a greater extent than or less virtually a mysterious ship inwards the neighborhood with her “sails nearly all blown to pieces.” It was the
“long, low, dark schooner,” the storey of which had been appearing inwards newspapers inwards previous weeks as the ship cruised northeast along the U.S. coastline. Reports said that Cuban slaves had revolted in addition to killed the crew of a Castilian ship in addition to were roaming the Atlantic as buccaneers.
On August 26, the USA survey brig Washington, nether command of Lt. Commander Thomas R. Gedney, sighted the battered schooner nigh Culloden Point on the eastern tip of Long Island. The USA Navy in addition to the Customs Service had previously issued orders for the capture of the ship; in addition to Commander Gedney seized the Amistad in addition to took her inwards tow to New London, Connecticut, arriving at that topographic point the next day. Gedney sent a message at 1 time to the USA Marshall at New Haven who, inwards turn, notified USA District Judge Andrew Judson. The latter was for sure no friend of the dark man, for inwards 1833 he had prosecuted a Miss Prudence Crandall for admitting Negroes into her schoolhouse inwards Canterbury, Connecticut.
Judge Judson held courtroom on board the Washington on August 29, inwards New London harbor, examining the ship’s documents in addition to hearing the testimony of Ruiz in addition to Montez, as good as their urgent asking that the ship in addition to all its cargo, including the Africans, endure surrendered to the Castilian Consul inwards Boston. Judson instantly released Ruiz in addition to Montez in addition to ordered that Sengbe in addition to the others endure tried for murder in addition to piracy at the side past times side session of the Circuit Court, due to opened upwards on September 17 at Hartford, Connecticut. The Africans were consigned to the county jail inwards New Haven.
Meanwhile, Ruiz had renamed Sengbe Pieh “Jose Cinque” inwards monastic enjoin to demonstrate that Sengbe was non a recent importee in addition to that he, Ruiz, was so non guilty of violating the prohibition police pull of 1820. Cinque, beingness a Castilian approximation of Sengbe, presently found farther distortion inwards the press as “Cinquez,” “Sinko,” “Jinqua,” etc. When the Amistad was captured off Long Island, a reporter from the New York Lord's Day witnessed Sengbe’s defiance of his captors in addition to repeated attempts to escape. Sengbe jumped overboard in addition to had to endure dragged dorsum onto the ship: he urged his swain slaves to struggle against hopeless odds, in addition to was taken away to the American vessel in addition to separated from his men; he made such vehement protestation that the naval officers allowed him to remain on the Washington’s deck, where he stood in addition to stared fixedly at the Amistad throughout the night. The New York Lord's Day reported:
"He evinces no emotion...and
had he lived inwards the days of Greece
or Rome, his call would have
been handed downward to posterity as
1 who had practiced those most
sublime of all virtues — disinterested
patriotism in addition to unshrinking courage."
THE ABOLITIONISTS STEP IN
At this time, the U.S. anti-slavery motion was inwards disarray, with divergent views on several issues— political action, women’s rights, American churches in addition to slavery, in addition to the basic nature of American government. The Amistad Case provided a focal dot for rallying the dispersed ranks of the abolitionists, as they all came out inwards defence of the captives, fully convinced of their innocence. This was pose forth inwards the Herald of Freedom:
"Cinques is no pirate, no
murderer, no felon. His homicide is
justifiable. Had a white human being done
it, it would have got been glorious.
It would have got immortalized him.
Joseph Cinques ought non to be
tried. Everybody knows he is
innocent. He could non endure guilty.
The paper added that Lt. Commander
Gedney had no authorisation to capture the
Amistad, she beingness “the lawful prize of
Commandant Joseph Cinques....
That she was ‘suspicious’ looking, is no
warrant.”
This strong conviction was, however, non enough. The abolitionists had to acquire the Africans’ version of events in addition to to obtain counsel to testify their innocence before the Circuit Court. They held no illusions virtually the difficulties. The twenty-four hours next Judge Judson’s orders, the abolitionists of New Haven met in addition to wrote to swain abolitionists inwards New York to cheque on the validity of the ship’s documents, regain an African who could speak the linguistic communication of the captives in addition to tape their ain version, and, finally, obtain qualified counsel.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 commission formed to defend the miserable Africans formally became the “Amistad Committee” on
September 4, comprised, inter alia, of Joshua Leavitt, editor of the Emancipator, the official organ of the
American Anti-Slavery Society; Rev. Simeon S. Jocelyn, a white pastor of a dark church building inwards New York; in addition to Lewis Tappan, a wealthy New York merchant in addition to prominent abolitionist. Tappan launched the crusade for the defence of the Amistad Africans in addition to issued an “Appeal to the Friends of Liberty”:
Thirty-eight swain men from
Africa, having been piratically
kidnapped from their native land,
transported across the seas, and
subjected to atrocious cruelties,
have got been thrown upon our shores,
in addition to are at nowadays incarcerated inwards jail to
await their trial for crimes alleged to
have got been committed past times them.
They are ignorant of our language,
of the usages of civilized society,
in addition to the obligations of Christianity.
Under these circumstances, several
friends of human rights have got met to
consult upon the instance of these
unfortunate men, in addition to have got appointed
the undersigned a Committee to
employ interpreters in addition to able counsel
and pick out all the necessary
agency to secure the rights of the
accused. It is intended to employ
3 legal gentlemen of distinguished
abilities, in addition to to incur other
needful expenses. The poor prisoners
being destitute of clothing, and
several having scarcely a rag to
encompass them, immediate steps volition be
taken to render what may endure necessary.
The undersigned therefore
brand this appeal to the friends of
humanity to contribute for the
to a higher seat objects. Donations may be
sent to either of the Committee, who
volition acknowledge the same and
brand a world written report of all their disbursement,"
Defense counsel comprised the formidable squad of Roger Baldwin, Seth Staple, in addition to Theodore Sedgwick, with the best legal minds of the day. But the lawyers recognized a serious limitation to whatever instance they mightiness nowadays if an interpreter were non found to tell the storey of the captives. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 desperate search began that was only partially successful before the trial. Lewis Tappan brought from New York 3 Africans, 1 of whom was a Kissi (a neighboring ethnic grouping of the Mende) who could converse real limitedly with some of the captives. But the interpreter was able to corroborate the persuasion of the abolitionists that the Amistad captives had been kidnapped inwards Africa in addition to sold illegally into slavery.
The number before the Amistad Committee was a fragile in addition to sensitive one. The abolitionist motion had
been deeply divided before the Amistad incident, in addition to this incident restored unity to the movement. But at that topographic point were some people who sympathized with the captives, but were inwards no sense abolitionists. To have got pegged the Amistad Case to a full general crusade for the abolition of slavery would have got alienated their sympathy, thus weakening the fiscal in addition to moral base of operations of the Committee. One respondent to the “Appeal,” for instance, stated clearly that he was “a friend of human rights, but non an abolitionist
FIRST TRIAL
In September 14, all the prisoners, except 1 who was too sick to travel, were removed from New Haven to Hartford, the upper-case missive of the alphabet of Connecticut, where the trial opened on September 17, with Judge Smith Thompson presiding. After 3 days of legal battling, the guess rendered his opinion: the Circuit Court had no jurisdiction over the charges of murder in addition to piracy, since the alleged crimes were committed on a Castilian ship in addition to inwards Castilian waters; the various belongings claims, including Ruiz’ in addition to Montez’ claims to the African “slaves,” should endure decided inwards a District Court; in addition to the writ of habeas corpus for the release of the little girls was rejected.
As presently as the Circuit Court adjourned, Judge Judson convened a District Court inwards the same room. He
decreed that the belongings claims needed to a greater extent than investigation, but that the captives could endure released on bail, based on their appraised value as slaves on the Cuban market. The defence lawyers rejected this bail formula, which implied that the Amistad Africans were slaves, in addition to the captives were returned to prison.
The interpreter had non been effective during the trial, in addition to the Amistad Committee intensified the search for
some other who could speak Mende fluently. J.W. Gibbs, Professor of Theology in addition to Sacred Literature at Yale Divinity School, took a bang-up involvement inwards the Amistad captives. He learned to count from 1 to 10 inwards Mende and, armed with this novel knowledge, proceeded to the New York docks, counting to every African crewman he met. His efforts paid dividends when, inwards early on October, he found James Covey, a seaman on the British warship Buzzard, who could understand him. Covey, a Mende, had been captured in addition to sold as a child, but was recaptured past times British squadrons in addition to brought to Freetown where he was released. He learned to speak English linguistic communication fluently in addition to joined the British Navy. Professor Gibbs took Covey to view the Amistad captives in
the New Haven jail, in addition to the Africans shouted for joy when they heard Covey speak inwards Mende. They could at nowadays relate their version of the events.
Meanwhile, the Amistad Committee was non happy with handling of the captives, in addition to began efforts to render for their physical well-being in addition to their intellectual in addition to religious instruction. Rev. George Day, a old professor at the New York Institution for the Deaf in addition to Dumb, was employed to supervise the instruction of the Mende captives past times Yale Divinity School students. The teachers began their instruction with
elementary pictures in addition to sign language. By this time, several captives had already died inwards custody from the lingering effects of exposure, hunger, in addition to dehydration suffered aboard the Amistad.
DEMANDS OF THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT
The Castilian authorities had pose frontward sure demands to the USA fifty-fifty before the Hartford trial. The Castilian Minister, de la Barca, wrote to the Secretary of State, John Forsyth, a old Minister to Espana in addition to a known defender of Negro slavery, that when the Amistad was “ rescued,” she should have got been laid costless to homecoming to Republic of Cuba so that the Africans on board could have got been “tried past times the proper tribunal, in addition to past times the violated laws of the province of which they are subjects.” This had non been done, in addition to so he pose frontward a farther laid of demands. He claimed the vessel in addition to cargo, including the Africans, inwards the call of the Spanish
Monarch, demanding that they endure sent dorsum to Havana for adjudication, since “no tribunal inwards the USA has the right to institute proceedings against, or to impose penalties upon, the subjects of Spain, for crimes committed on board a Castilian vessel, in addition to inwards waters of the Castilian territory.” He cited articles of existing treaties betwixt the USA in addition to Espana to buttress his case.
The U.S. President, Martin Van Buren, had no strong views on the slavery question, but he depended on the back upwards of the Southern pro-slavery Democrats, whose goodwill he wished to maintain for the upcoming presidential election inwards 1840. He, therefore, told Forsyth on September 11 to instruct District Attorney William S. Holabird to “take attention that no proceedings of your Circuit Court, or whatever other judicial tribunal, seat the vessel, cargo, or slaves beyond the command of the Federal Executive.” The President hoped that the courts would monastic enjoin the Amistad captives returned to Cuba, thus relieving him of political pressure level from both the Southern Democrats in addition to the Castilian government; but he was prepared to homecoming the captives on his own
authority, if necessary. To bolster back upwards for such a potential displace in addition to to placate the Spanish, he requested an persuasion from U.S. Attorney General Felix Grundy, who declared that the Africans were to endure considered the belongings of those for whom the Castilian Minister was claiming them, in addition to that the ship should endure returned with all its contents to Cuba. The Cabinet endorsed this view.
DEFENSE STRATEGY OF THE ABOLITIONISTS
The Amistad Committee was painfully aware that the President’s policy aimed at condemning the African captives to permanent slavery, or maybe death, in addition to the abolitionists worked out a defence strategy to ensure that the verdict did non go against them. They built upwards a instance to a greater extent than or less the declaration that the Africans were non legally slaves, as they had been brought to Havana in addition to sold at that topographic point reverse to the Anglo-Spanish
Treaty of 1820, which prohibited the transatlantic slave trade. This treaty had been re-affirmed inwards 1835 in addition to followed past times a Royal Order from the Queen of Espana inwards 1838 directing the CaptainGeneral of Republic of Cuba to enforce the police pull with “the strongest zeal.”
This draw of defence was strengthened past times a deposition made past times Dr. R.R. Madden, a native of Ireland, who had served the British authorities inwards the Gold Coast (Ghana) in addition to inwards Havana, Cuba, as a Commissioner on the Court of Mixed Commission for suppressing the slave trade. Dr. Madden revealed that flagrant violations of treaty stipulations regarding the slave merchandise were openly sanctioned past times the Castilian Captain-General in addition to other authorities officials inwards Cuba, in addition to that the American Consul there, Nicholas Trist, was a collaborator who reaped huge fiscal benefits from the slave trade. Dr. Madden came to New York inwards Nov in addition to met with Lewis Tappan. He went to view the captives at New Haven in addition to proceeded to Hartford to give evidence at the trial. Since the trial had been deferred, he had to give testimony to Judge Judson inwards chambers.
Dr. Madden argued that the Amistad captives were recent importees. On the licenses for transporting them
from Havana to Puerto Principe, they had been entered as Ladinos, i.e., slaves brought to Republic of Cuba before 1820. But Madden pointed out that this type of forgery was mutual practise inwards Republic of Cuba in addition to that Ruiz’ in addition to Montez’ papers of ownership were non legally valid.
About this time, Ruiz in addition to Montez were arrested inwards New York on charges of assault, kidnapping, in addition to fake imprisonment, brought against them on behalf of 2 of the Africans. Lewis Tappan, the existent leader of the Amistad Committee, was blamed for this action, which horrified political conservatives. Bail was fixed at $1,000 each. Montez paid instantly in addition to departed for Cuba. Ruiz chose to enlist sympathy past times staying inwards jail. The Castilian Minister instantly protested to the State Department that for alleged offenses committed inwards Cuba, the U.S. Courts had no jurisdiction. The Secretary of State, Forsyth, instructed the District Attorney to homecoming every possible assistance to the Spaniards. The abolitionists were defendant of “making sport of the law....” It was a tactical error on the component division of the abolitionists, in addition to it cost them some back upwards from moderates. But Ruiz finally got tired of confinement, paid the bail, in addition to returned to Cuba. Ruiz in addition to Montez were both absent at the in conclusion hearing.
SECOND TRIAL
The U.S. District Court opened at Hartford, Connecticut, on Nov 19, 1839, to take heed the case, but it adjourned to Jan because of the absence of sure telephone commutation witnesses. In the interim, the Castilian Minister pressed his claims 1 time again, in addition to Forsyth promised that he would acquire a ship ready to carry the captives to Cuba, should the verdict go against them, so that the abolitionists would have got no fourth dimension to appeal.
When the Court resumed hearings on Jan 8, the U.S. Navy schooner Grampus was inwards the New Haven harbor on instructions of the President, who, many felt, “went to disgraceful extremes inwards his persistent attempts to thwart judge as promulgated past times the courts.” The 3 defence counsels urged the President non to have got the instance decided exterior the courts “in the recesses of Cabinet, where these unfriended men tin have got no counsel in addition to tin create no proof....” The abolitionists stood sentry inwards shifts over the New Haven jail. They were afraid that the President mightiness send men to seize the Amistad Africans fifty-fifty before the trial had concluded, in addition to they were prepared to cover the captives, if necessary.
On Jan 13, 1840, Judge Judson finally rendered his verdict: the Amistad captives had been kidnapped in addition to sold into slavery inwards violation of Castilian law; they were legally costless in addition to should, therefore, endure transported dorsum to Africa, whence they had been taken against their will. During the trial, Sengbe had made a favorable impression past times giving detailed testimony through the interpreter, showing how he in addition to his swain Africans were kidnapped, bound, in addition to mistreated. Emotion overcame him at 1 point, in addition to Sengbe rose in addition to shouted inwards English: “Give us free! Give us free!” But many people were against this liberty verdict, with them
President Van Buren. He ordered District Attorney Holabird to appeal instantly against the decision.
Meanwhile, the Amistad captives were continuing with their classes inwards reading in addition to writing in addition to inwards the doctrines of Christianity. Despite their bitter disappointment at remaining inwards custody fifty-fifty after a favorable courtroom decision, they still approached their studies with enthusiasm. The days began with James Covey translating Christian prayers into Mende, followed past times a curt sermon, in addition to and so instruction inwards the English linguistic communication language. The best pupil was eleven-year-old Kali, 1 of the 4 Amistad children, who learned to read
in addition to write with surprising speed. But all of the Amistad captives were keen to learn, in addition to at times they grasped their Yale Divinity School teachers at the halt of the day, pleading with them to remain only a scrap longer. During this menstruum picayune Kali wrote:
We beak American linguistic communication a little, non real good.
"We write everyday; nosotros write plenty letters; we
read most all time; nosotros read all
Matthew in addition to Mark in addition to Luke and
John, in addition to plenty of picayune books. We
beloved books real much."
EX-PRESIDENT ADAMS AND THE THIRD TRIAL
The Amistad Committee recognized the demand for a world figure of the highest standing to plead the create of the African captives before the USA Supreme Court. The abolitionists persuaded old President John Quincy Adams to atomic number 82 the defense. At seventy-three, in addition to 30 years out of legal practice, the ex-President was reluctant to have got the case, lest he should jeopardize the lives of the Africans past times failing to win.
He wrote inwards his diary:
"The world, the flesh, in addition to all the
devils inwards hell are arrayed against
whatever human being who at nowadays inwards this North
American Union shall dare to join
the criterion of Almighty God to
pose downward the African slave trade;
in addition to what tin I, upon the verge of
my 74th birthday, with a shaken
hand, a darkening eye, a drowsy
brain, in addition to with my faculties dropping
from me 1 past times 1 as the
teeth are dropping from my caput —
what tin I do for the create of God
in addition to man, for the progress of human
emancipation, for the suppression of
the African slave-trade? Yet my
conscience presses me on; permit me
but go out upon the breach."
Thus, Adams accepted the sensational case that came to endure called “the trial of 1 President past times another.”
Attorney Baldwin prepared an elaborate defence in addition to opened the case, but on Feb 24, “Old Man Eloquent,” as Adams came to endure called thereafter, addressed the Court for a total of 4 in addition to a one-half hours. On March 9, 1841, the USA Supreme Court issued its in conclusion verdict inwards the Amistad Case — the captives were free! Adams sent give-and-take at 1 time to Lewis Tappan, the principal leader of the Amistad
Committee: “Thanks — Thanks inwards the call of humanity in addition to of justice, to YOU.”
THE RETURN HOME
The Africans were released from custody in addition to taken to Farmington, an early on abolitionist town inwards Connecticut, where they received to a greater extent than formal instruction for the ease of 1841. As President Van Buren refused to render a ship to repatriate them, the Amistad Committee assumed consummate responsibleness for the Africans. To lift funds to charter a ship, the abolitionists organized a speaking tour inwards the Northern states, in addition to the “Amistads” went from town to town, appearing before sympathetic audiences, telling the storey of their ordeal, in addition to displaying their knowledge of written in addition to spoken English. By this fourth dimension Sengbe Pieh, or Joseph Cinque, had
go a world figure inwards the United States, in addition to many were anxious to view the human being whom Northern newspapers compared to the heroes of ancient Hellenic Republic in addition to Rome.
Towards the halt of the yr plenty funds had been raised, in addition to the barque Gentleman was chartered for $1,840. The thirty-five surviving Africans would go to the Colony of Sierra Leone, accompanied past times 5 American missionaries. Among the 5 were 2 dark Americans, Mr. in addition to Mrs. Henry Wilson, who had taught at Farmington, in addition to 3 whites, Rev. in addition to Mrs. William Raymond in addition to Rev. James Steele. The Amistad Committee instructed the Americans to start a “Mendi Mission” inwards Sierra Leone. Before the ship left, Lewis Tappan addressed the passengers, in addition to Sengbe replied on behalf of his swain Africans. The newspapers reported a deeply moving scene inwards which many of those nowadays openly wept.
As the Gentleman left, the programme of the passengers was “for all to hold together in addition to somewhere inwards the vicinity of Cinque’s town to settle downward in addition to commence a novel town in addition to and so persuade their friends to come upwards in addition to bring together them, in addition to and so to adopt the American apparel in addition to manners.” The ship arrived inwards Freetown inwards mid-January 1842 amid bang-up excitement. Many of the novel arrivals were able to regain friends and, inwards some cases, seat unit of measurement members. Sengbe presently learned from Mende Recaptives that his ain habitation had been ravaged past times state of war in addition to most of his seat unit of measurement wiped out.
Thus, the hope to locate the Mendi Mission nigh Sengbe’s town never materialized. Having unrestricted association with many of their countrymen inwards the Colony, some of the Amistad Africans lost the want to remain with their American patrons. Anxious to acquire to their homes in addition to their families, they drifted away, leaving only 10 adults in addition to the 4 children. Sengbe, himself, procured an investment of goods with which he proceeded to Sherbro province to purchase create for the Freetown market.
THE MENDI MISSION
It was non piece of cake to regain a location for establishing a mission station, as the original hope of edifice 1 nigh Sengbe’s town was non feasible. After several attempts, Rev. Raymond finally secured a seat at Komende inwards the Sherbro part inwards 1844. Raymond attributed his success partly to Sengbe’s influence; in addition to he interpreted the dispersal of the old captives as an advantage, because they would spread intelligence of the Mission far in addition to wide.
The establishment of the Mendi Mission was, inwards fact, due inwards no little stair out to the efforts of Rev. Raymond, to whom every credit should endure given. In the course of study of time, the Mission opened stations inwards several places, 1 of which was named “Mo Tappan” inwards gratitude for the selfless assistance of Lewis Tappan. In 1846, the Amistad Committee evolved into the American Missionary Association, in addition to inwards that yr the Association took over total fiscal responsibleness for the Mendi Mission.
IMPACT IN SIERRA LEONE
The Amistad Case gave ascent to American missionary activity inwards Sierra Leone, with all its positive consequences. The American Missionary Association ultimately turned over its mission stations inwards Sierra
Leone to the United Brethren inwards Christ (UBC). Apart from evangelization work, the UBC was responsible for establishing an expansive organisation of mission schools inwards the southern component division of the country, especially with the Mende in addition to Sherbro peoples. Many schools were established in addition to many novel technological skills introduced as component division of vocational training. The most celebrated of these schools are the Harford School for Girls at Moyamba in addition to Albert Academy inwards Freetown. It should endure remembered that Albert Academy,
founded inwards 1904, was the foremost secondary schoolhouse for upcountry boys (predating the authorities Bo School in
that capacity past times many years), in addition to that many of the early on students were promising boys on scholarship. The
long-term impact of these developments was to aid create an elite grouping that excelled non only inwards Sierra Leone, but inwards the USA as well.
Some of the students who had their early on instruction inwards American mission schools inwards Sierra Leone proceeded to the USA for farther studies, in addition to left a grade inwards America. Two of import examples are Barnabas Root in addition to Thomas Tucker. Root in addition to Tucker attended the original Mendi Mission schoolhouse and, after completing farther studies inwards the United States, were employed past times the American Missionary Association — Tucker inwards 1862 as a instructor inwards a schoolhouse for freedmen inwards Virginia, in addition to Root inwards 1873 as pastor for a Congregational Mission Church for freedmen inwards Alabama. While Root afterward returned to Sierra Leone, Tucker stayed on inwards America in addition to founded the State Normal College (for blacks) at Tallahassee, Florida, together with Thomas Van Gibbs, inwards 1887. Tucker was the foremost President of the College, which grew into the present-day Florida A&M University.
In the 20th century, American missionary activity helped give ascent to a nationalist elite which pressed for independence. Significantly, the foremost Prime Minister of Sierra Leone, Dr. (later Sir) Milton Margai, in addition to the foremost Executive President of Sierra Leone, Siaka Stevens, were both products of American mission primary schools inwards the Southern component division of the province and, later, graduates of Albert Academy.
IMPACT IN THE UNITED STATES
By the fourth dimension the Amistad Case came to an end, it had so embittered feelings betwixt the antislavery North in addition to the slave-holding South that it must endure counted as 1 of the events leading to the outbreak of the American Civil War inwards 1860. Although the Supreme Court’s determination inwards the Amistad Case was non an onslaught on slavery, it drew the abolitionists together in addition to prevented their motion from breaking up.
Moreover, the missionary piece of work that began with the liberty of the Amistad Africans led to the foundation of the American Missionary Association inwards 1846, which was the largest in addition to best organized abolitionist club inwards the USA before the outbreak of the Civil War. After the War, the Association established to a greater extent than than 5 hundred schools in addition to colleges inwards the South in addition to inwards the border states for the instruction of newly liberated blacks. These schools evolved into Atlanta, Howard, Fisk, in addition to Dillard Universities; Hampton University; Talladega College; etc, to which countless dark Americans owe their higher education.
The Amistad Case, thus, gave ascent to this tremendous network of institutions inwards the South that educated the leaders of the modern-day Civil Rights Movement, including the venerable Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
CONCLUSION
The Amistad Rebellion, which began with the determination of Sengbe Pieh in addition to fifty-two other Sierra Leoneans non to have got enforced slavery, has had far reaching consequences on 2 continents. Although the origins are mostly forgotten today, the processes laid inwards motion past times this revolt volition proceed to influence the course of study of historical evolution inwards both the USA in addition to Sierra Leone — thanks, inwards large measure, to the courage of Sengbe Pieh.
Addendum: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Letter from Little Kali to John Quincy Adams
Kali was 1 of the 4 Mende children, in addition to the only picayune boy, with the Amistad captives. He had been kidnapped from the streets of his ain village, taken to the slave-trading base of operations at Lomboko, in addition to and so sent across the Atlantic to Havana, Cuba. Later, aboard the Amistad, ten-year-old Kali was of some aid to Sengbe Pieh. He sat with the 3 picayune girls in addition to kept them serenity piece Sengbe in addition to the others, armed in addition to unshackled, waited for their chance to climb upwards to the deck in addition to surprise their captors.
In the United States, picayune Kali, at his immature in addition to adaptable age, was able to larn to speak in addition to read English linguistic communication much faster than the Amistad adults. In 1840, piece awaiting the in conclusion determination of the USA Supreme Court on the number of his freedom, immature Kali wrote this thoughtful missive of the alphabet to old President John Quincy Adams, his lawyer. Kali’s feelings come upwards through clearly — he is angry at his arrest in addition to imprisonment; thankful to those who, similar Mr. Adams, have got helped him in addition to his swain captives; in addition to deeply homesick.
When the Amistad captives gained their liberty in addition to went on a speaking tour to lift coin for their homecoming passage to Sierra Leone, Kali was a star performer. He impressed audiences with his ability, after less than 2 years of instruction, to write correctly whatever judgement read to him from the Christian gospels. Kali returned with the others to Sierra Leone inwards 1842. He stayed with the American missionaries in addition to was ultimately employed past times the Mendi Mission. Kali married, but, piece still young, contracted a affliction that crippled him for the remaining years of his life.
Dear Friend Mr. Adams:
"I want to write a missive of the alphabet to you
because yous beloved Mendi people, and
yous beak to the grand court. We want to
tell yous 1 thing. Jose Ruiz say we
born inwards Havana, he tell lie....We all born
inwards Mendi....
We want yous to inquire the Court what
nosotros have got done wrong. What for
Americans hold us inwards prison? Some
people say Mendi people crazy; Mendi
people dolt; because nosotros no talk
American language. Merica people no
beak Mendi language; Merica
people dolt?
They tell bad things virtually Mendi
people, in addition to nosotros no understand. Some
men say Mendi people real happy
because they express joy in addition to have got plenty to
eat. Mr. Pendleton come, in addition to Mendi
people all await sorry because they think
virtually Mendi solid reason in addition to friends nosotros no see
now. Mr. Pendleton say Mendi people
angry; white men afraid of Mendi
people. The Mendi people no await sorry
over again — that why nosotros laugh. But
Mendi people experience sorry; O, nosotros can’t tell
how sorry. Some people say Mendi
people no got souls. Why nosotros experience bad,
[if] nosotros no got souls...?
Dear friend Mr. Adams, yous have
children, yous have got friends, yous love
them, yous experience sorry if Mendi people
come upwards in addition to carry them all to Africa. We
experience bad for our friends, in addition to our friends
all experience bad for us. If American people
give us costless nosotros glad, if they no give us
costless nosotros sorry — nosotros sorry for Mendi
people little, nosotros sorry for American people
bang-up deal, because God punish liars.
We want yous to tell courtroom that Mendi
people no want to go dorsum to Havana,
nosotros no want to endure killed. Dear Friend,
nosotros want yous to know how nosotros feel.
Mendi people think, think, think.
Nobody know what nosotros think, the
instructor he know, nosotros tell him some.
Mendi people have got got souls....All we
want is brand us free."
SOURCE:http://www.sierra-leone.org/Books/Amistad.pdf
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