Info For You Lot Kru People: Africa`S Crewman Tribe That Refused To Travel Captured Into Slavery
The Kru people inhabit a homeland inwards coastal southeastern Republic of Liberia in addition to neighboring Cote d`Ivoire (Ivory Coast). Some Kru withdraw hold also migrated to the neighboring Sierra Leone to travel equally fishermen in addition to dockworkers. The Kru along with the Grebo resisted Maryland settlers' efforts to command their trade. They were also infamous alongside early on European slave raiders equally beingness peculiarly averse to capture. Their reputation was such that their value equally slaves was less than that of other African peoples, because they would hence often elbow grease to escape or to select their ain lives upon beingness captured.
Kru people of Liberia,circa 1910
Linguists role the call Kru to refer to a linguistic grouping inside the larger larger Niger-Congo linguistic communication family. Peoples speaking linguistic communication inwards this Kru grouping include Bete, Dida, Grebo, Wobe in addition to the Kru people themselves.
The Kru languages belong to the Niger–Congo linguistic communication identify unit of measurement in addition to are spoken yesteryear the Kru people from the southeast of Republic of Liberia to the due east of Ivory Coast. The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann (1952) it was used yesteryear Europeans to announce a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese (1989) notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited equally “crew” yesteryear European seafarers; “the homonymy with crew is obvious, in addition to is at to the lowest degree i source of the confusion amid Europeans that at that topographic point was a Kru/crew tribe.” Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their topographic point at the crossroads of African-European interaction in addition to wrote that “Kru in addition to associated languages were amid the get-go to live encountered yesteryear European voyagers on what was hence known equally the Pepper Coast, a middle of the production in addition to export of Republic of Guinea in addition to melegueta pepper; a i time staple African seaborne trade”. The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems inwards Africa, rivaled maybe exclusively yesteryear the Omotic languages.
Beautiful Kru woman
Recent documentation has noted “Kru societies tin can right away live found along the coast of Monrovia, Republic of Liberia to Bandama River inwards Cote d'Ivoire” “Villages hold their ties based on presumed mutual descent, reinforced yesteryear ceremonial exchanges in addition to gifts”. The Kru people in addition to their languages, although right away many verbalize English linguistic communication equally a 2d language, are said to live “dominant inwards the southwest part where the wood zone reaches the coastal lagoons”. Nevertheless, the Kru people rely on the wood for farming supplemented yesteryear hunting for their livelihood. Overall, inwards 2010, Kru in addition to associated languages were spoken yesteryear 95 pct of the justice 3.5 1000000 people inwards Liberia.
The Kru languages include many subgroups such equally Kuwaa, Grebo, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa in addition to many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity in addition to socio-political autonomy“ may withdraw hold brought nearly the large numbder of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were inwards many respects similar inwards type in addition to tribe, every hamlet was an independent state; at that topographic point was also really niggling intercommunication". Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, divide historical or ethnic identities, in addition to social in addition to political autonomy. This is the possible argue for hence many subgroups of the Kru language. Unfortunately, equally noted yesteryear Fisiak, at that topographic point is really niggling documentation on the Kru in addition to associated languages.
The Marchese (1989) classification of Kru languages is equally follows. Many of these languages are dialect clusters in addition to are sometimes considered to a greater extent than than a unmarried language.
The origins of Kru people are notwithstanding historically unknown. The legend has it that they migrated from the body of body of water to their electrical flow habitats. Historians, These Kwa-speaking, related but distinct cultures were all lumped together nether the collective term "Kru", a corruption of the original "Krao" yesteryear Europeans with whom they traded equally far dorsum equally the fifteenth century. Successive waves of migration brought them overland from the due east in addition to north, in addition to yesteryear the sea. Those coming from the Gedeh forests to the due north claimed Mount Pahn inwards the Putu Range equally their ancestral home. Geological flights inwards the 1950s confirmed the remains of a hamlet on the summit of the mountain, half-shrouded inwards clouds of mist in addition to ancient mystery.
Kru people from Ivory Coast
Those migrating from across the Cavalla in addition to downward the Atlantic seaboard withdraw hold their ain oral histories in addition to myths centered to a greater extent than or less the crossing of the unsafe surf waters inwards canoes. All were fleeing to a greater extent than militaristic groups that were conquering in addition to subjugating everyone in addition to everything inwards their paths. By the fourth dimension of their earliest recorded encounters with the Portuguese inwards the 1400s, at that topographic point were 3 distinct yet similar groups inhabiting what came to live known equally the Kru Coast: The Grebo, literally important "Those Who Made It Across the Water," the Sapo, in addition to the Kru. The 3 groups were less "tribes" than release federations of clans with mutual ancestors. Each Dako, equally the clans were called, could comprehend several dissimilar chiefdoms in addition to live related yesteryear blood or history to other Dako. The Grebo bespeak this social construction was Dakwe, identified yesteryear town names. There the Krus settled inwards a loosely connected villages based on lineage in addition to living yesteryear hunting in addition to subsistence farming. Although they lived along the coast, the Krus refused to select share inwards Trans-Atlantic slave merchandise in addition to they fought viciously against slave trader who made attempts to capture a Kru.
Kru adult man with braided hair
Mostly agriculturists similar their interior relatives the Krahn, the Kru also engaged inwards trade, migrant labor, in addition to seafaring. They established line-fishing in addition to migrant worker settlements along the coast equally far due east equally Republic of Cameroon in addition to equally far westward equally Freetown in addition to Cape Verde. Their science with canoes inwards the treacherous surf waters was already globe renowned yesteryear the 1700s, when they served on British merchant in addition to state of war ships, in addition to fifty-fifty established modest settlements inwards Liverpool in addition to inwards the Americas. They lived to a greater extent than often than non inwards 5 large towns along the coast: Nana Kru, Settra Kru, King Willie Town, Fishtown, in addition to Sasstown, the largest in addition to most powerful. These towns produced mariners primarily.
Kru adult woman from Republic of Cote d'Ivoire inwards her traditional wearing clothing in addition to her trunk painted
The Grebos were centered to a greater extent than or less Grand Cess, Cape Palmas, in addition to Tabou, with mightiness concentrated inwards Grand Cess. Migrant workers were recruited inwards in addition to to a greater extent than or less these 3 centers. The arrival inwards the 1820s of African-American settlers at get-go had really niggling deportment on on the Kru. "Quee people," equally the locals referred to the westernized colonists at Greenville in addition to Harper, were far from unknown on the Kru Coast. The Krus in addition to Grebos themselves had a sizable population of western-educated people living amid them for decades. Some of these "civilized" Grebo in addition to Kru had been educated inwards Sierra Leone, on the Gold Coast, in addition to inwards Britain.
Kru couples
Religion
The get-go descriptions of heart in addition to soul grouping of Krumen's religion were done yesteryear missionaries notably James Connolley,But these accounts tin can also live augmented yesteryear to a greater extent than detailed accounts of the Grebo of nearby Cape Palmas who were linguistically in addition to culturally related in addition to were, yesteryear 1855 becoming Krumen themselves yesteryear going to body of body of water in addition to may withdraw hold been equally of import inwards the overall civilization equally the heart in addition to soul Krumen themselves.
Kru couples doing their traditional dance
The primal elements of the spiritual universe of this part included a figure identified yesteryear missionaries equally a
high, creator God, named Nyesoa, spirits or deities associated with territories called, familial spiritual guardians called ku in addition to finally kwi or the souls of the departed who remained nigh yesteryear in addition to could influence events.
These spiritual entities were contacted through a course of instruction of people called deya, who underwent long in addition to specialized preparation in addition to apprenticeship to select upwards their office. They addressed problems both medical in addition to spiritual using pharmaceutical in addition to spiritual remedies.
Kru adult woman with her trunk painted
Kru Political system
Kru Culture is ahierachical (no stiff hierarchy existed amid its members) in addition to heavily influenced yesteryear traditional democratic organization at the hamlet grade (Beugre in addition to Offodile,2001). In this culture, the hamlet main acts equally a spokesperson rather than a ruler whom they withdraw hold to blindly obey. Among the Kru, the main is held accountable for his deeds (its really rare to consider women selected equally chiefs). Elders select a hamlet main for a limited term, at most 5 years.
Kru Chief
After which if he performs good he may live re-appointed or some other mortal shall live selected inwards a representative where the main performs abysmally. This alternative is non based on kinship or identify unit of measurement of rulers, but on the persons character,statecraft in addition to achievements. In general, the Kru resent authority. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 key belief inwards a Kru civilization is that everyone should gain his or her recognition inwards gild based on his or her skills,abilities in addition to deeds. Power is non considered an of import indicator of societal differentiation. the mightiness holder is perceived equally spokesperson. Modern Kru tend to resent autocratic leaders in addition to people in addition to await handling with honor in addition to dignity from those inwards power. As a lawsuit of this civilization alongside the Kru,people consider them equally disrespectful in addition to intolerant.
Ivorien international football game superstar Didier Drogba, Kru man
Ritual object or 'Kru money'?
“The gild that loses its symbols loses its identity in addition to inwards the procedure loses touching with itself.”
In: 'Rock of the Ancestors: namôa koni'
(William C. Siegmann, 1977)
Kru Money. Collected 1975 nigh Tchien, Grand Gedeh County, Liberia.
The rootage of these objects is non known with certainty, except for the fact that they were made in addition to used amid the Kru in addition to the Grebo inwards southeastern Liberia. According to i source, the Kru in addition to Grebo believe these objects to live living creatures that tin can live found inwards creeks, rivers in addition to lagoons. They telephone outcry upwards them ‘tien’,‘nitien’ or ‘Dwin’ important H2O spirits or ‘Gods of water’. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 diversity of powers are attributed to them including the mightiness to halt wars, found villages, heal the sick in addition to guarantee fertility. They are also capable to select grip of people crossing these streams. The Kru in addition to Grebo believe that the ‘tien’ alive inwards the H2O but tin can live caught in addition to brought to town where they may live enjoined to serve equally protector or guardians (Siegmann, 1977, p. 82).
It is seriously doubted whether whatever of these objects withdraw hold been made inwards recent times. In whatever case, nowadays they are extremely rare. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 nineteenth century source described objects that resembled the inwards a higher identify shown objects (in particular object B). In 1845, Horatio Bridge, a U.S. of A. Navy officeholder who served on a cruiser sailing inwards the Gulf of Guinea, reported: "I withdraw hold procured some of the country-money. It is to a greater extent than curious, than convenient."
And he continued that the ‘Manilly’, worth a dollar in addition to a half, would live a fearful currency to brand large payments in, beingness composed of old brass-kettles, melted up, in addition to cast inwards a sand-mould, the weigh beingness from ii to iv pounds (Nathaniel Hawthorne, ed., 1845, p. 106).
Kru ring
In 1853, Horatio Bridge reported that he had seen them beingness cast inwards sand-moulds on the beach nigh Sasstown inwards southeastern Liberia. He described how some were made yesteryear melting downward old brass kettles, others were made using the so-called lost wax technique of casting. He must withdraw hold seen to a greater extent than in addition to bigger objects than inwards 1845 since he mentions that their size varied from less than ii inches to to a greater extent than than x inches inwards diameter whereas a large i could weigh equally much equally twenty-five pounds. Some objects were solid brass, piece others had a sand heart in addition to soul - similar object A, inwards a higher identify on the extreme left. Most objects consisted of an unbroken circle with iv knobs, but a few were opened upwards on i side. Bridge reported that they were called ‘Kru money’. (Siegmann, 1977, p.82).
Kru Wars: Southeastern Revolt inwards 19th to Early 20th Century Liberia
The wars betwixt the traditional Kru political systems in addition to the Liberian authorities were less a clash of cultures than a pure in addition to unproblematic combat for power. The Krus traditionally controlled the ports in addition to the European trade, regulated in addition to taxed migrant labor, in addition to negotiated their ain relations with the neighboring French in addition to British. All this was reverse to Liberian interests, equally the fledgling nation province struggled for survival against the opened upwards hostility in addition to aggression of those same British in addition to French colonial governments, a consummate lack of fiscal resources in addition to increasing indebtedness to European powers nether outright loan shark terms. Their exclusively source of revenue was customs in addition to caput taxation on migrant labor.
onetime Liberian international football game superstar, David Weah is a Kru man
From the Liberian betoken of view, the Krus exactly couldn't live allowed to command the ports or relations with the British. Indeed, the main thread running through the Kru Coast rebellions was an expressed wish to live ruled yesteryear the British, fifty-fifty going equally far equally raising the British flag on their territory. The Liberians were fiercely protective of their independence from European rule, in addition to the sight of the Union Jack must withdraw hold been peculiarly galling in addition to troubling. The means the Krus saw it, it was their province in addition to they had the correct to command their ports, collect tariffs in addition to caput tax, in addition to to live ruled yesteryear the British if they hence chose. The phase was set for confrontation almost from the minute the get-go ships sponsored yesteryear the Maryland in addition to Mississippi Colonization Societies landed their passengers at Cape Palmas in addition to at the oral fissure of the Sinoe River.
Liberian Kru
SEDJIBO
In the highly militarized Kru social structure, immature men of the Kinibo monastic enjoin trained for warrior status in addition to leadership. Warriors at the highest grade belonged to the Sedjibo order, ordinarily chiefs in addition to sub-chiefs, in addition to atop the hierarchy were the Nyekbade or elders. Less visible was the existent mightiness underlying warrior culture, hush-hush societies similar the wood Ekpe (Leopard Society) in addition to the Neegee (Water Leopard Society) centered to a greater extent than or less the confluence of the Cestos in addition to Neegbah (Two Rivers) or St. John Rivers. This militarism inevitably led to frequent internecine battles over land, trade, women, in addition to to a greater extent than trivial issues.
Liberian actress Saycon Sengbloh is a Kru
In 1843, a mutual enemy was introduced into the fray. Commodore Matthew Perry of the USA Navy landed at Cape Palmas inwards command of 3 ships in addition to 7 hundred marines. Commander of the West African Squadron, ostensibly created to suppress the slave trade, his mission was twofold: punish the Kru for attacks on American shipping, in addition to for the murders of American traders, in addition to assist the Maryland colony locked inwards conflict with the locals. Perry decided that the Americans had been the aggressors in addition to settled the matter, hence went on to Little Berebay to investigate some other murder involving an American schooner. This fourth dimension he found the chief, Ben Krako, guilty, in addition to executed him. Thus was the Kru Coast drawn into the American-British combat for naval supremacy in addition to command of the African coastal trade. Realizing that a stiff Republic of Liberia was the best defence against the obstinate British-allied Kru, the USA Navy would from hence on dorsum Republic of Liberia militarily inwards all conflicts with the Kru, in addition to hence negotiate resolutions to disputes.
Kruman from Setra Kru. Circa 1906 by Johnston, Harry Hamilton, Sir, 1858-1927
War drums i time again pounded out of the Sapo forests inwards 1854, with Maryland's elbow grease to dislodge Grebos from dry reason they claimed had been ceded to them. The USS John Adams was sent to aid President Roberts' fledgling authorities in addition to its allies. Two M Grebos were driven from the Cape. An uneasy peace lasted until ii years later, when the Grebos i time again took upwards arms over the query of land.
Peace i time to a greater extent than enforced yesteryear U.S. of A. Navy gunboats, merchandise flourished inwards the expanse to the make goodness of both Krus in addition to their Liberian neighbors. Liberian merchant ships manned yesteryear Kru seamen carried java in addition to palm crude oil to unusual markets. Then Liberian coffee, reportedly the best inwards the world, was introduced into Brazil, in addition to Brazil shortly monopolized the marketplace topographic point for it, severely crippling Liberian commerce. As the European scramble for Africa heated up, the clit per unit of measurement area increased on the obstinate "Negro Republic," in addition to the palm crude oil merchandise was taken over yesteryear Britain, leaving Republic of Liberia with no revenue at the same fourth dimension that high-interest loans were due to that really European power. The authorities began to impose caput taxation on the migrant workers of the Kru Coast, in addition to to select over customs collections at the ports of entry.
In 1874, several Dakwe came together to shape the Grebo Reunited Kingdom, or Gededebo, nether King Seah Nybar Weah, in addition to diverse chiefs in addition to mission-educated men. Initially, the confederation was non opposed to the Liberian state, but primarily advocated for the protection of migrant workers. However, the dispute over caput taxation lingered, exacerbated yesteryear the memories of 1854. When yet some other dry reason dispute flared upwards to a greater extent than or less Cape Palmas inwards 1875, the drums summoned the Sedjibo state of war councils together inwards Grand Cess. The dry reason to a greater extent than or less Harper had been ceded to the Maryland colony yesteryear Grebo chiefs earlier the colony joined the Republic of Liberia, or hence the Liberians claimed. They also claimed that the British were instigating the trouble. From the Grebos' betoken of view, at that topographic point was no such thing equally "ceded". Their fathers had granted the Marylanders a identify to stay, but for them, that didn't hateful forever. They felt the dry reason rightfully belonged to the Grebo people.
Kru people of Monrovia 1890
In 1875, Gededebo launched the most serious state of war the Liberians had faced upwards to that betoken inwards their history. The Grebos came really closed to driving them off the cape for good. And i time again, an American naval vessel prevented what would travel the topographic point of Maryland County from beingness wiped off the map. American President Ulysses S. Grant dispatched the USS Alaska to Cape Palmas. In the negotiated peace, the Liberians adopted the migrant worker protection laws enacted yesteryear the Grebo Confederation.
In 1884 nether President Hilary Johnson, indigenous groups were allowed representation inwards the House of Representatives if they paid inwards a higher identify a specified amount inwards tax. The Grebo in addition to Kru were the exclusively groups wealthy plenty to qualify. The Sinoe County Kru presented their grievances to the House: Economic discrimination. Cultural arrogance. Discrimination inwards educational opportunities. Forced labor. Above all, command of the ports had been taken away from them, causing Kru cities to decline into villages in addition to reducing a proud, independent people to subservience. They asked that Settra Kru live declared an international port of entry.
In 1890, American military machine officers Colonel Young in addition to Captain Roundtree organized the Liberian Frontier Force. Both were African-Americans with equal honor in addition to sympathy for the indigenous people in addition to for the Black republic.
.jpg)
A Kru adult woman with "shield" finger-rings in addition to pilus ornaments. (1906) by Johnston, Harry Hamilton, Sir, 1858-1927
In 1905, President Arthur Barclay agreed to brand Settra Kru a port of entry. However, faced with stiff opposition from the settlers inwards Sinoe, he reneged on his agreement. The Sinoe County fly of the ruling True Whig Party wielded enormous political clout equally i of the 3 original colonies in addition to signers of the Declaration of Independence inwards 1847. But they were non equally welcoming of Kru political in addition to economical participation equally their Maryland neighbors. Where the Marylanders saw strong, economically vibrant Kru communities equally an added strength, the Greenville political machine did their best to repress Kru power, in addition to thwarted President Barclay’s plans for unification in addition to integration.
In 1910 the Grebos revolted against the hut tax, a desperate mensurate yesteryear President Barclay to heighten revenues for debt payments on the 1871 loan from Britain. This state of war revealed how complex relations betwixt settlers in addition to the indigenous people had become. For i thing, the “civilized”} Grebo” communities of large towns similar Grand Cess in addition to Cape Palmas to a greater extent than often than non supported the government, piece time to come vice president Allen Yancy claimed “neutrality” fifty-fifty though he was a militia captain, in addition to earned huge profits repairing guns for the Grebos. Yancy was married into the powerful Nabo clan of the Grebos, spoke the linguistic communication fluently, in addition to was reportedly upwards to his cervix inwards the Grebo hush-hush societies. As wealthy elite groups withdraw hold ever done everywhere, American settler wealth in addition to mightiness intermarried with Grebo wealth in addition to power, making the Maryland County fly of the TWP the most powerful faction inwards the years next the 1910 war. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 serial of decisive victories yesteryear the Grebos forced the Americans to dispatch the USS Birmingham to Cape Palmas in addition to inwards the negotiated peace, powerful concessions were awarded the Grebos. The next years would consider the boy of a Gededebo leader, Henry Too Wesley elected vice president in addition to ultimately the ascension to the presidency of some other Marylander, William V. S. Tubman inwards 1943.
By 1912, the Sinoe River Krus' long listing of grievances included arbitrary executions of their chiefs yesteryear a senator with the soundless acquiescence of Monrovia. They complained to the American Mission to convey clit per unit of measurement area on the Liberian government, but goose egg happened. They hence turned to the British for guns in addition to ammunition.
For ii years the forests were eerily silent. Trade was cutting off with the Liberian towns in addition to all the Kru living inwards or nigh them retreated into the bush. Young men of Kinibo historic menses disappeared from the coastal towns in addition to settler farms where they worked. When they emerged out of the wood inwards 1915, it was to set the Kru Coast almost literally on fire. Once i time again Liberia, faced the serious threat of annihilation.
President Daniel Howard appealed to Colonel Young in addition to Captain Roundtree for American assistance. They agreed on the status that the authorities brand immediate reforms inwards the direction of Kru affairs. On Nov 8, 1915, the USS Chester appeared off the coast of Monrovia, bringing arms in addition to ammunition for the Frontier Force. On the assurance of Captain Roundtree that their grievances would live addressed, the Krus set downward their arms, awed yesteryear the imposing presence of the American warship. Three weeks later, inwards violation of the peace treaty's prohibition on reprisals, in addition to against the advice of his ain Attorney General, President Howard declared martial police on the Kru Coast in addition to sent a military machine committee of sixty-three men who hence launched an orgy of retaliation, executing seventy-two chiefs on his straight orders.
The Klakan, puberty trip the lite fantastic toe from the Kru people of Liberia
In 1927, Superintendent Samuel Ross of Sinoe in addition to his District Commisioner Watson began selling immature boys to the Castilian plantations at Fernando Po. They built their barracoons at Blue Barrow Point in addition to used their ascendancy over the Frontier Force, corrupt interior chiefs in addition to district commissioners to obtain a steady furnish of forced labor. When a fellow member of the cabinet, Postmaster General R.A. Sherman discovered this activity in addition to reported it to Monrovia, he all of a abrupt lost his job. It became manifestly obvious hence that Ross's slave trading was sanctioned at the highest levels of government.
Didho Twe, a Kru fellow member of the House, also lost his undertaking when he brought the affair to the Legislature. Expelled yesteryear a two-thirds vote, he hence made a compelling representative to the League of Nations together with TJR Faulkner, some other fearless crusader for human rights in addition to onetime Mayor of Monrovia, who presented the show collected yesteryear Twe to the League inwards Geneva. They were backed yesteryear Britain, France, in addition to the Firestone Company, which operated a large plantation inwards Maryland County. While Twe in addition to Faulkner’s motives seemed clear, those of U.K. in addition to French Republic were questionable, since they themselves engaged inwards the do of forced labor. Firestone for its share depended on the really labor that was beingness exported to the Castilian plantations, Kingdom of Spain beingness an enemy of American interests. The League dispatched a committee of enquiry to Republic of Liberia in addition to the ensuing investigation indicted President King in addition to his Vice President Allen Yancy with trafficking inwards human beings. The American in addition to European powers were non investigated, nor indicted.
King in addition to Yancy were forced to resign inwards 1930, but non earlier some other orgy of revenge was carried out on those chiefs who had testified earlier the Commission. Towns in addition to villages were razed in addition to to a greater extent than chiefs executed, imprisoned, fined, flogged in addition to humiliated inwards front end of their people. No surprise then, that inwards 1932 the Kru Coast erupted i time again over the long history of Frontier Force atrocities and, ironically, partly instigated yesteryear Liberians inwards the area, concerned that their province would live taken over yesteryear white men equally a lawsuit of the Commission's findings. This fourth dimension the conflagration engulfed the entire coast, from Rivercess to Cape Palmas.
It was exclusively after President Tubman launched his Unification Program inwards 1945 that the Kru Coast chiefs finally accepted the ascendancy of Monrovia, sending give-and-take to Tubman that they were right away at peace with the Liberian Government. The province hence entered its most prosperous in addition to stable menses with Krus in addition to Grebos making substantial contributions. Among the most outstanding were Vice President Henry Too Wesley, Tubman’s onetime police partner J. Gbafflen Davis, Attorney General Nete Sie Brownell, Didho Twe, Episcopal Bishop George Browne, Methodist Bishop S. Trowen Nagbe, Army Chief of Staff George Toe Washington, University President J. Bernard Blamo, Paramount Chiefs Juwely Jeh of Webbo in addition to Juah Nimley of Sasstown, in addition to an endless listing of other leading lights of Liberia, most of them descendants of the Sasstown, Grand Cess in addition to other Kru Coast chiefs.
This excerpt is from the forthcoming book, Kru Wars: Southeastern Revolt inwards 19th to Early 20th Century Republic of Liberia By Anthony Morgan (http://archives-two.liberiaseabreeze.com/anthony-morgan.html)
Further reading;http://liberianhistoryandsociety.com/images/JMS_-_CHAPTER_2.pdf
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krumen_people
http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/culture2.htm
Religious formal celebration of the Kru people of Liberia. Circa 1885
Ivorien Kru chiefs wearing their tappa dress
Kru woman
Kru people performing traditional dance, Ivory Coast
Guere (kru) woman
kru people
Liberian Kru
Ivorien Kru people
Bhete-Kru adult woman inwards traditional dress,Ivory Coast
grebo-Kru daughter performing traditional dance,Liberia
Liberian Kru
kru men 1890
Liberian Kru
Kru woman. Circa 1910
Linguists role the call Kru to refer to a linguistic grouping inside the larger larger Niger-Congo linguistic communication family. Peoples speaking linguistic communication inwards this Kru grouping include Bete, Dida, Grebo, Wobe in addition to the Kru people themselves.
Kru man,circa 1910
Recent documentation has noted “Kru societies tin can right away live found along the coast of Monrovia, Republic of Liberia to Bandama River inwards Cote d'Ivoire” “Villages hold their ties based on presumed mutual descent, reinforced yesteryear ceremonial exchanges in addition to gifts”. The Kru people in addition to their languages, although right away many verbalize English linguistic communication equally a 2d language, are said to live “dominant inwards the southwest part where the wood zone reaches the coastal lagoons”. Nevertheless, the Kru people rely on the wood for farming supplemented yesteryear hunting for their livelihood. Overall, inwards 2010, Kru in addition to associated languages were spoken yesteryear 95 pct of the justice 3.5 1000000 people inwards Liberia.
The Kru languages include many subgroups such equally Kuwaa, Grebo, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa in addition to many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity in addition to socio-political autonomy“ may withdraw hold brought nearly the large numbder of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were inwards many respects similar inwards type in addition to tribe, every hamlet was an independent state; at that topographic point was also really niggling intercommunication". Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, divide historical or ethnic identities, in addition to social in addition to political autonomy. This is the possible argue for hence many subgroups of the Kru language. Unfortunately, equally noted yesteryear Fisiak, at that topographic point is really niggling documentation on the Kru in addition to associated languages.
The Marchese (1989) classification of Kru languages is equally follows. Many of these languages are dialect clusters in addition to are sometimes considered to a greater extent than than a unmarried language.
The origins of Kru people are notwithstanding historically unknown. The legend has it that they migrated from the body of body of water to their electrical flow habitats. Historians, These Kwa-speaking, related but distinct cultures were all lumped together nether the collective term "Kru", a corruption of the original "Krao" yesteryear Europeans with whom they traded equally far dorsum equally the fifteenth century. Successive waves of migration brought them overland from the due east in addition to north, in addition to yesteryear the sea. Those coming from the Gedeh forests to the due north claimed Mount Pahn inwards the Putu Range equally their ancestral home. Geological flights inwards the 1950s confirmed the remains of a hamlet on the summit of the mountain, half-shrouded inwards clouds of mist in addition to ancient mystery.
Kru people from Ivory Coast
Those migrating from across the Cavalla in addition to downward the Atlantic seaboard withdraw hold their ain oral histories in addition to myths centered to a greater extent than or less the crossing of the unsafe surf waters inwards canoes. All were fleeing to a greater extent than militaristic groups that were conquering in addition to subjugating everyone in addition to everything inwards their paths. By the fourth dimension of their earliest recorded encounters with the Portuguese inwards the 1400s, at that topographic point were 3 distinct yet similar groups inhabiting what came to live known equally the Kru Coast: The Grebo, literally important "Those Who Made It Across the Water," the Sapo, in addition to the Kru. The 3 groups were less "tribes" than release federations of clans with mutual ancestors. Each Dako, equally the clans were called, could comprehend several dissimilar chiefdoms in addition to live related yesteryear blood or history to other Dako. The Grebo bespeak this social construction was Dakwe, identified yesteryear town names. There the Krus settled inwards a loosely connected villages based on lineage in addition to living yesteryear hunting in addition to subsistence farming. Although they lived along the coast, the Krus refused to select share inwards Trans-Atlantic slave merchandise in addition to they fought viciously against slave trader who made attempts to capture a Kru.
Mostly agriculturists similar their interior relatives the Krahn, the Kru also engaged inwards trade, migrant labor, in addition to seafaring. They established line-fishing in addition to migrant worker settlements along the coast equally far due east equally Republic of Cameroon in addition to equally far westward equally Freetown in addition to Cape Verde. Their science with canoes inwards the treacherous surf waters was already globe renowned yesteryear the 1700s, when they served on British merchant in addition to state of war ships, in addition to fifty-fifty established modest settlements inwards Liverpool in addition to inwards the Americas. They lived to a greater extent than often than non inwards 5 large towns along the coast: Nana Kru, Settra Kru, King Willie Town, Fishtown, in addition to Sasstown, the largest in addition to most powerful. These towns produced mariners primarily.
The Grebos were centered to a greater extent than or less Grand Cess, Cape Palmas, in addition to Tabou, with mightiness concentrated inwards Grand Cess. Migrant workers were recruited inwards in addition to to a greater extent than or less these 3 centers. The arrival inwards the 1820s of African-American settlers at get-go had really niggling deportment on on the Kru. "Quee people," equally the locals referred to the westernized colonists at Greenville in addition to Harper, were far from unknown on the Kru Coast. The Krus in addition to Grebos themselves had a sizable population of western-educated people living amid them for decades. Some of these "civilized" Grebo in addition to Kru had been educated inwards Sierra Leone, on the Gold Coast, in addition to inwards Britain.
Kru couples
Religion
The get-go descriptions of heart in addition to soul grouping of Krumen's religion were done yesteryear missionaries notably James Connolley,But these accounts tin can also live augmented yesteryear to a greater extent than detailed accounts of the Grebo of nearby Cape Palmas who were linguistically in addition to culturally related in addition to were, yesteryear 1855 becoming Krumen themselves yesteryear going to body of body of water in addition to may withdraw hold been equally of import inwards the overall civilization equally the heart in addition to soul Krumen themselves.
Kru couples doing their traditional dance
The primal elements of the spiritual universe of this part included a figure identified yesteryear missionaries equally a
high, creator God, named Nyesoa, spirits or deities associated with territories called, familial spiritual guardians called ku in addition to finally kwi or the souls of the departed who remained nigh yesteryear in addition to could influence events.
These spiritual entities were contacted through a course of instruction of people called deya, who underwent long in addition to specialized preparation in addition to apprenticeship to select upwards their office. They addressed problems both medical in addition to spiritual using pharmaceutical in addition to spiritual remedies.
Kru adult woman with her trunk painted
Kru Political system
Kru Culture is ahierachical (no stiff hierarchy existed amid its members) in addition to heavily influenced yesteryear traditional democratic organization at the hamlet grade (Beugre in addition to Offodile,2001). In this culture, the hamlet main acts equally a spokesperson rather than a ruler whom they withdraw hold to blindly obey. Among the Kru, the main is held accountable for his deeds (its really rare to consider women selected equally chiefs). Elders select a hamlet main for a limited term, at most 5 years.
Kru Chief
After which if he performs good he may live re-appointed or some other mortal shall live selected inwards a representative where the main performs abysmally. This alternative is non based on kinship or identify unit of measurement of rulers, but on the persons character,statecraft in addition to achievements. In general, the Kru resent authority. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 key belief inwards a Kru civilization is that everyone should gain his or her recognition inwards gild based on his or her skills,abilities in addition to deeds. Power is non considered an of import indicator of societal differentiation. the mightiness holder is perceived equally spokesperson. Modern Kru tend to resent autocratic leaders in addition to people in addition to await handling with honor in addition to dignity from those inwards power. As a lawsuit of this civilization alongside the Kru,people consider them equally disrespectful in addition to intolerant.
Ivorien international football game superstar Didier Drogba, Kru man
Ritual object or 'Kru money'?
“The gild that loses its symbols loses its identity in addition to inwards the procedure loses touching with itself.”
In: 'Rock of the Ancestors: namôa koni'
(William C. Siegmann, 1977)
Kru Money. Collected 1975 nigh Tchien, Grand Gedeh County, Liberia.
The rootage of these objects is non known with certainty, except for the fact that they were made in addition to used amid the Kru in addition to the Grebo inwards southeastern Liberia. According to i source, the Kru in addition to Grebo believe these objects to live living creatures that tin can live found inwards creeks, rivers in addition to lagoons. They telephone outcry upwards them ‘tien’,‘nitien’ or ‘Dwin’ important H2O spirits or ‘Gods of water’. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 diversity of powers are attributed to them including the mightiness to halt wars, found villages, heal the sick in addition to guarantee fertility. They are also capable to select grip of people crossing these streams. The Kru in addition to Grebo believe that the ‘tien’ alive inwards the H2O but tin can live caught in addition to brought to town where they may live enjoined to serve equally protector or guardians (Siegmann, 1977, p. 82).
It is seriously doubted whether whatever of these objects withdraw hold been made inwards recent times. In whatever case, nowadays they are extremely rare. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 nineteenth century source described objects that resembled the inwards a higher identify shown objects (in particular object B). In 1845, Horatio Bridge, a U.S. of A. Navy officeholder who served on a cruiser sailing inwards the Gulf of Guinea, reported: "I withdraw hold procured some of the country-money. It is to a greater extent than curious, than convenient."
And he continued that the ‘Manilly’, worth a dollar in addition to a half, would live a fearful currency to brand large payments in, beingness composed of old brass-kettles, melted up, in addition to cast inwards a sand-mould, the weigh beingness from ii to iv pounds (Nathaniel Hawthorne, ed., 1845, p. 106).
Kru ring
In 1853, Horatio Bridge reported that he had seen them beingness cast inwards sand-moulds on the beach nigh Sasstown inwards southeastern Liberia. He described how some were made yesteryear melting downward old brass kettles, others were made using the so-called lost wax technique of casting. He must withdraw hold seen to a greater extent than in addition to bigger objects than inwards 1845 since he mentions that their size varied from less than ii inches to to a greater extent than than x inches inwards diameter whereas a large i could weigh equally much equally twenty-five pounds. Some objects were solid brass, piece others had a sand heart in addition to soul - similar object A, inwards a higher identify on the extreme left. Most objects consisted of an unbroken circle with iv knobs, but a few were opened upwards on i side. Bridge reported that they were called ‘Kru money’. (Siegmann, 1977, p.82).
Kru Water spirit symbol
Kru Wars: Southeastern Revolt inwards 19th to Early 20th Century Liberia
The wars betwixt the traditional Kru political systems in addition to the Liberian authorities were less a clash of cultures than a pure in addition to unproblematic combat for power. The Krus traditionally controlled the ports in addition to the European trade, regulated in addition to taxed migrant labor, in addition to negotiated their ain relations with the neighboring French in addition to British. All this was reverse to Liberian interests, equally the fledgling nation province struggled for survival against the opened upwards hostility in addition to aggression of those same British in addition to French colonial governments, a consummate lack of fiscal resources in addition to increasing indebtedness to European powers nether outright loan shark terms. Their exclusively source of revenue was customs in addition to caput taxation on migrant labor.
onetime Liberian international football game superstar, David Weah is a Kru man
From the Liberian betoken of view, the Krus exactly couldn't live allowed to command the ports or relations with the British. Indeed, the main thread running through the Kru Coast rebellions was an expressed wish to live ruled yesteryear the British, fifty-fifty going equally far equally raising the British flag on their territory. The Liberians were fiercely protective of their independence from European rule, in addition to the sight of the Union Jack must withdraw hold been peculiarly galling in addition to troubling. The means the Krus saw it, it was their province in addition to they had the correct to command their ports, collect tariffs in addition to caput tax, in addition to to live ruled yesteryear the British if they hence chose. The phase was set for confrontation almost from the minute the get-go ships sponsored yesteryear the Maryland in addition to Mississippi Colonization Societies landed their passengers at Cape Palmas in addition to at the oral fissure of the Sinoe River.
Liberian Kru
SEDJIBO
In the highly militarized Kru social structure, immature men of the Kinibo monastic enjoin trained for warrior status in addition to leadership. Warriors at the highest grade belonged to the Sedjibo order, ordinarily chiefs in addition to sub-chiefs, in addition to atop the hierarchy were the Nyekbade or elders. Less visible was the existent mightiness underlying warrior culture, hush-hush societies similar the wood Ekpe (Leopard Society) in addition to the Neegee (Water Leopard Society) centered to a greater extent than or less the confluence of the Cestos in addition to Neegbah (Two Rivers) or St. John Rivers. This militarism inevitably led to frequent internecine battles over land, trade, women, in addition to to a greater extent than trivial issues.
Liberian actress Saycon Sengbloh is a Kru
In 1843, a mutual enemy was introduced into the fray. Commodore Matthew Perry of the USA Navy landed at Cape Palmas inwards command of 3 ships in addition to 7 hundred marines. Commander of the West African Squadron, ostensibly created to suppress the slave trade, his mission was twofold: punish the Kru for attacks on American shipping, in addition to for the murders of American traders, in addition to assist the Maryland colony locked inwards conflict with the locals. Perry decided that the Americans had been the aggressors in addition to settled the matter, hence went on to Little Berebay to investigate some other murder involving an American schooner. This fourth dimension he found the chief, Ben Krako, guilty, in addition to executed him. Thus was the Kru Coast drawn into the American-British combat for naval supremacy in addition to command of the African coastal trade. Realizing that a stiff Republic of Liberia was the best defence against the obstinate British-allied Kru, the USA Navy would from hence on dorsum Republic of Liberia militarily inwards all conflicts with the Kru, in addition to hence negotiate resolutions to disputes.
War drums i time again pounded out of the Sapo forests inwards 1854, with Maryland's elbow grease to dislodge Grebos from dry reason they claimed had been ceded to them. The USS John Adams was sent to aid President Roberts' fledgling authorities in addition to its allies. Two M Grebos were driven from the Cape. An uneasy peace lasted until ii years later, when the Grebos i time again took upwards arms over the query of land.
Peace i time to a greater extent than enforced yesteryear U.S. of A. Navy gunboats, merchandise flourished inwards the expanse to the make goodness of both Krus in addition to their Liberian neighbors. Liberian merchant ships manned yesteryear Kru seamen carried java in addition to palm crude oil to unusual markets. Then Liberian coffee, reportedly the best inwards the world, was introduced into Brazil, in addition to Brazil shortly monopolized the marketplace topographic point for it, severely crippling Liberian commerce. As the European scramble for Africa heated up, the clit per unit of measurement area increased on the obstinate "Negro Republic," in addition to the palm crude oil merchandise was taken over yesteryear Britain, leaving Republic of Liberia with no revenue at the same fourth dimension that high-interest loans were due to that really European power. The authorities began to impose caput taxation on the migrant workers of the Kru Coast, in addition to to select over customs collections at the ports of entry.
In 1874, several Dakwe came together to shape the Grebo Reunited Kingdom, or Gededebo, nether King Seah Nybar Weah, in addition to diverse chiefs in addition to mission-educated men. Initially, the confederation was non opposed to the Liberian state, but primarily advocated for the protection of migrant workers. However, the dispute over caput taxation lingered, exacerbated yesteryear the memories of 1854. When yet some other dry reason dispute flared upwards to a greater extent than or less Cape Palmas inwards 1875, the drums summoned the Sedjibo state of war councils together inwards Grand Cess. The dry reason to a greater extent than or less Harper had been ceded to the Maryland colony yesteryear Grebo chiefs earlier the colony joined the Republic of Liberia, or hence the Liberians claimed. They also claimed that the British were instigating the trouble. From the Grebos' betoken of view, at that topographic point was no such thing equally "ceded". Their fathers had granted the Marylanders a identify to stay, but for them, that didn't hateful forever. They felt the dry reason rightfully belonged to the Grebo people.
Kru people of Monrovia 1890
In 1875, Gededebo launched the most serious state of war the Liberians had faced upwards to that betoken inwards their history. The Grebos came really closed to driving them off the cape for good. And i time again, an American naval vessel prevented what would travel the topographic point of Maryland County from beingness wiped off the map. American President Ulysses S. Grant dispatched the USS Alaska to Cape Palmas. In the negotiated peace, the Liberians adopted the migrant worker protection laws enacted yesteryear the Grebo Confederation.
In 1884 nether President Hilary Johnson, indigenous groups were allowed representation inwards the House of Representatives if they paid inwards a higher identify a specified amount inwards tax. The Grebo in addition to Kru were the exclusively groups wealthy plenty to qualify. The Sinoe County Kru presented their grievances to the House: Economic discrimination. Cultural arrogance. Discrimination inwards educational opportunities. Forced labor. Above all, command of the ports had been taken away from them, causing Kru cities to decline into villages in addition to reducing a proud, independent people to subservience. They asked that Settra Kru live declared an international port of entry.
In 1890, American military machine officers Colonel Young in addition to Captain Roundtree organized the Liberian Frontier Force. Both were African-Americans with equal honor in addition to sympathy for the indigenous people in addition to for the Black republic.
.jpg)
In 1905, President Arthur Barclay agreed to brand Settra Kru a port of entry. However, faced with stiff opposition from the settlers inwards Sinoe, he reneged on his agreement. The Sinoe County fly of the ruling True Whig Party wielded enormous political clout equally i of the 3 original colonies in addition to signers of the Declaration of Independence inwards 1847. But they were non equally welcoming of Kru political in addition to economical participation equally their Maryland neighbors. Where the Marylanders saw strong, economically vibrant Kru communities equally an added strength, the Greenville political machine did their best to repress Kru power, in addition to thwarted President Barclay’s plans for unification in addition to integration.
In 1910 the Grebos revolted against the hut tax, a desperate mensurate yesteryear President Barclay to heighten revenues for debt payments on the 1871 loan from Britain. This state of war revealed how complex relations betwixt settlers in addition to the indigenous people had become. For i thing, the “civilized”} Grebo” communities of large towns similar Grand Cess in addition to Cape Palmas to a greater extent than often than non supported the government, piece time to come vice president Allen Yancy claimed “neutrality” fifty-fifty though he was a militia captain, in addition to earned huge profits repairing guns for the Grebos. Yancy was married into the powerful Nabo clan of the Grebos, spoke the linguistic communication fluently, in addition to was reportedly upwards to his cervix inwards the Grebo hush-hush societies. As wealthy elite groups withdraw hold ever done everywhere, American settler wealth in addition to mightiness intermarried with Grebo wealth in addition to power, making the Maryland County fly of the TWP the most powerful faction inwards the years next the 1910 war. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 serial of decisive victories yesteryear the Grebos forced the Americans to dispatch the USS Birmingham to Cape Palmas in addition to inwards the negotiated peace, powerful concessions were awarded the Grebos. The next years would consider the boy of a Gededebo leader, Henry Too Wesley elected vice president in addition to ultimately the ascension to the presidency of some other Marylander, William V. S. Tubman inwards 1943.
By 1912, the Sinoe River Krus' long listing of grievances included arbitrary executions of their chiefs yesteryear a senator with the soundless acquiescence of Monrovia. They complained to the American Mission to convey clit per unit of measurement area on the Liberian government, but goose egg happened. They hence turned to the British for guns in addition to ammunition.
For ii years the forests were eerily silent. Trade was cutting off with the Liberian towns in addition to all the Kru living inwards or nigh them retreated into the bush. Young men of Kinibo historic menses disappeared from the coastal towns in addition to settler farms where they worked. When they emerged out of the wood inwards 1915, it was to set the Kru Coast almost literally on fire. Once i time again Liberia, faced the serious threat of annihilation.
President Daniel Howard appealed to Colonel Young in addition to Captain Roundtree for American assistance. They agreed on the status that the authorities brand immediate reforms inwards the direction of Kru affairs. On Nov 8, 1915, the USS Chester appeared off the coast of Monrovia, bringing arms in addition to ammunition for the Frontier Force. On the assurance of Captain Roundtree that their grievances would live addressed, the Krus set downward their arms, awed yesteryear the imposing presence of the American warship. Three weeks later, inwards violation of the peace treaty's prohibition on reprisals, in addition to against the advice of his ain Attorney General, President Howard declared martial police on the Kru Coast in addition to sent a military machine committee of sixty-three men who hence launched an orgy of retaliation, executing seventy-two chiefs on his straight orders.
The Klakan, puberty trip the lite fantastic toe from the Kru people of Liberia
In 1927, Superintendent Samuel Ross of Sinoe in addition to his District Commisioner Watson began selling immature boys to the Castilian plantations at Fernando Po. They built their barracoons at Blue Barrow Point in addition to used their ascendancy over the Frontier Force, corrupt interior chiefs in addition to district commissioners to obtain a steady furnish of forced labor. When a fellow member of the cabinet, Postmaster General R.A. Sherman discovered this activity in addition to reported it to Monrovia, he all of a abrupt lost his job. It became manifestly obvious hence that Ross's slave trading was sanctioned at the highest levels of government.
Didho Twe, a Kru fellow member of the House, also lost his undertaking when he brought the affair to the Legislature. Expelled yesteryear a two-thirds vote, he hence made a compelling representative to the League of Nations together with TJR Faulkner, some other fearless crusader for human rights in addition to onetime Mayor of Monrovia, who presented the show collected yesteryear Twe to the League inwards Geneva. They were backed yesteryear Britain, France, in addition to the Firestone Company, which operated a large plantation inwards Maryland County. While Twe in addition to Faulkner’s motives seemed clear, those of U.K. in addition to French Republic were questionable, since they themselves engaged inwards the do of forced labor. Firestone for its share depended on the really labor that was beingness exported to the Castilian plantations, Kingdom of Spain beingness an enemy of American interests. The League dispatched a committee of enquiry to Republic of Liberia in addition to the ensuing investigation indicted President King in addition to his Vice President Allen Yancy with trafficking inwards human beings. The American in addition to European powers were non investigated, nor indicted.
King in addition to Yancy were forced to resign inwards 1930, but non earlier some other orgy of revenge was carried out on those chiefs who had testified earlier the Commission. Towns in addition to villages were razed in addition to to a greater extent than chiefs executed, imprisoned, fined, flogged in addition to humiliated inwards front end of their people. No surprise then, that inwards 1932 the Kru Coast erupted i time again over the long history of Frontier Force atrocities and, ironically, partly instigated yesteryear Liberians inwards the area, concerned that their province would live taken over yesteryear white men equally a lawsuit of the Commission's findings. This fourth dimension the conflagration engulfed the entire coast, from Rivercess to Cape Palmas.
It was exclusively after President Tubman launched his Unification Program inwards 1945 that the Kru Coast chiefs finally accepted the ascendancy of Monrovia, sending give-and-take to Tubman that they were right away at peace with the Liberian Government. The province hence entered its most prosperous in addition to stable menses with Krus in addition to Grebos making substantial contributions. Among the most outstanding were Vice President Henry Too Wesley, Tubman’s onetime police partner J. Gbafflen Davis, Attorney General Nete Sie Brownell, Didho Twe, Episcopal Bishop George Browne, Methodist Bishop S. Trowen Nagbe, Army Chief of Staff George Toe Washington, University President J. Bernard Blamo, Paramount Chiefs Juwely Jeh of Webbo in addition to Juah Nimley of Sasstown, in addition to an endless listing of other leading lights of Liberia, most of them descendants of the Sasstown, Grand Cess in addition to other Kru Coast chiefs.
This excerpt is from the forthcoming book, Kru Wars: Southeastern Revolt inwards 19th to Early 20th Century Republic of Liberia By Anthony Morgan (http://archives-two.liberiaseabreeze.com/anthony-morgan.html)
Further reading;http://liberianhistoryandsociety.com/images/JMS_-_CHAPTER_2.pdf
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krumen_people
http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org/culture2.htm
Religious formal celebration of the Kru people of Liberia. Circa 1885
Ivorien Kru chiefs wearing their tappa dress
Kru woman
Kru people performing traditional dance, Ivory Coast
Guere (kru) woman
kru people
Liberian Kru
Ivorien Kru people
Bhete-Kru adult woman inwards traditional dress,Ivory Coast
grebo-Kru daughter performing traditional dance,Liberia
Liberian Kru
kru men 1890
Liberian Kru
0 Response to "Info For You Lot Kru People: Africa`S Crewman Tribe That Refused To Travel Captured Into Slavery"
Post a Comment