Info For You Lot Irigwe People: Nigeria`S Ancient Ritualistic Bantu Tribe That Used To Do Polyandry
Irigwe people are ancient hospitable in addition to friendly Bantu rigwe-speaking people of larger Benue-Congo ethnolinguistic grouping living in Bassa in addition to Barakin Ladi Local Government Areas of Plateau State and Saminaka Local Government Area in Kaduna state. The Irigwe, mostly go inwards Miango, Jos in addition to Bukuru hamlet inwards Bassa LGA of Plateau State. This people were famous to the anthropologist for its polyandry do in addition to traditional ritual dance. There are a lot of tourist attractions inwards the Miango hamlet similar H2O falls, high hills, the Miango remainder theater etc. Currently at that spot are virtually 70,000 Irigwe people living Nigeria. As a resultant of Christianity in addition to anthropologists tagging of Irigwe tribe every bit "primitive" in addition to "pagan" social club for practicing polyandry in addition to the British authorities that kill many of it indigenes because they were threat to them, most Irigwes do non do polyandry again.
Irigwe Miango Dancers: This photograph was taken when Eliot Elisofon was on assignment for Life magazine in addition to traveled to Africa from August 18, 1959 to Dec 20, 1959.
The next are also Irigwe tribes in addition to tin go used to refer to every bit Irigwe; Aregwe, Idafan, Kwal, Kwan, Kwoll, Miango, Nkarigwe, Nnerigwe, Nyango,Rigwe etc. The Irigwe telephone band their linguistic communication every bit rigwe. They telephone band themselves every bit yirigwe in addition to an Irigwe individual (singular) is also yirigwe.
Geography
The Irigwe go virtually 20 miles westward of the towns of Jos in addition to Bukuru inwards euphorbia-enclosed, extended-family compounds that are clustered closely together to shape a belt of almost continuous small town running due north in addition to S for virtually iv miles exactly to a higher position the western escarpment of the Jos Plateau, Nigeria.
Wase rock, Jos,Nigeria
Language
Irigwe people beak rigwe linguistic communication which belongs to larger Benue or Niger-Congo family. Rigwe (Irigwe) is a Plateau linguistic communication of the Central sub-group, spoken past times people living inwards Miango (SW of Jos), Kwall in addition to several other hamlets inwards Bassa local government, Plateau State in addition to Kauru local government, Kaduna State, Nigeria. According to D.A. Daniel in addition to J.K. Barry, An Outline of Irigwe Phonology in addition to Grammar (1983), information collected from electoral rolls estimates a total Rigwe population at over 60,000. However, Ethnologue (2005) repeats a UBS figure of 40,000 dating from 1985 for the issue of Rigwe speakers. The Rigwe linguistic communication has a really lilliputian dialectal variation with speakers.
Although some go on writing the Rigwe linguistic communication began inwards 1919, followed past times irregular vernacular publications, for illustration the Katikism /Irigwe Catechism/ (Anon 1935), nine NT books (1935), Irigwe Hymnbook (1986), Alphabet nautical chart (1986), the analysis of Rigwe phonology has remained at best incomplete. H5N1 to a greater extent than comprehensive overview of the history of the Rigwe orthography is contained inwards Reading in addition to Writing Irigwe (2006), a production of the Irigwe Language in addition to Bible Translation Project. This booklet is the main source of electrical flow Rigwe orthographic do although it does non provide proof for its assessment of the Rigwe audio system.
No published reference mass has noted the right ethnonyms of the Rigwe people. These are;
One Rigwe individual ƴîɾìgʷȅ
Rigwe people yíɾìgʷȅ
Rigwe linguistic communication ɾȉgʷȅ
Rigwe has been classified with Izere inwards the South-Central subgroup of Plateau (Gerhardt 1989) a view reprised inwards Crozier & Blench (1992). The evidence for this is limited although some comparative information is included inwards Gerhardt (1983). However, every bit the nowadays newspaper volition demo it has developed a really distinctive phonology. The only other detailed problem organisation human relationship of a related linguistic communication is Follingstad (1991) which describes Tyap (Kataf) which has a rich scheme of fortis/lenis contrasts quite dissimilar Rigwe.
Rigwe is notable for its extremely rich phonemic system. H5N1 issue of phonemes only occur in i trial in addition to it is a moot betoken every bit to whether they tin go described every bit integrated into the phonological system. The source of this appears to go a combination of the erosion in addition to rebuilding of CV prefixes in addition to pervasive palatal in addition to labial prosodies peradventure arising from old pluralisation strategies. In addition, past times contact with Chadic languages is in all likelihood responsible for both a lateral fricative in addition to low-frequency preglottalised consonants.
Some examples:
Rigwe English Rigwe English
ɾitʃí head ɾitʃiî egg
íɟʲé cliff ììɟê locust
ɬí to sieve,k.o ɬìî k.o. bird
History/Myth (Creation)
According to Sangree (1969) Elders of Rae (Red Earth) recount the next Irigwe origin myth:
"Long ago, Weze, the master Red world ancestor, descended from the Sun to a spot inwards the kid partitioning (Nyango). H5N1 descendant of his first of all brought forth burn downwards from a hole inwards the stone past times the river that separates the parent in addition to kid divisions. H5N1 afterwards descendant moved S of the river to what is at nowadays the parent partitioning expanse (Rigwe) in addition to met a human being named Audu wandering by. He bore the call Audu, which is an Irigwe nickname for Jarawa, because he had come upwards for the Jarawa tribal grouping situated E of Irigwe.
The Red world people invited Audu to go with them, in addition to he married in addition to became the master ancestor of the most senior Irigwe manlike individual section. Audu came bringing every bit a gift the fruit of the Inhwiae tree, in addition to the Irigwesection he founded is known every bit Nuhwie inwards remembrance of this gift. At that fourth dimension Audu had no crops, his people eating only game, fruits, in addition to berries. The Red world people gave Audu crops in addition to asked him to distribute them with his people. They agreed to abide by each other every bit woman parent in addition to boy in addition to every bit human being in addition to adult woman (which also agency married adult man in addition to married adult woman inwards the Irigwe language). Then, combining their hunting in addition to gathering in addition to farming skills, they together founded the Irigwe tribe.
With the passing of fourth dimension the tribe grew to have got quite a few sections, some arising from the incorporation of immigrant groups in addition to others existence formed past times the splitting off of patrilineages from already established Irigwe sections. Then a swell migration took place. H5N1 human being from a junior manlike individual department led members of his ain lineage, together with offshoots of other manlike individual in addition to woman individual sections, to the due north side of the river where they formed a novel “son” department non far from where the master Red world ancestor had descended from the sun. Very presently afterwards the entire Red world department followed this novel boy department to the novel settlement. Several other lineages from manlike individual in addition to woman individual sections came later. The descendants of all these migrants at nowadays comprise Nyango, the kid partitioning of Irigwe."
Irigwe Miango Dancers: This photograph was taken when Eliot Elisofon was on assignment for Life magazine in addition to traveled to Africa from August 18, 1959 to Dec 20, 1959.
Written history has it that the Irigwe tribe emerged from a unopen arrive at of the descendants of the Bantu tribes from the Cameroun every bit a resultant of the degree linguistic communication spoken past times a household unit of measurement of languages betwixt Duala inwards the Cameroun in addition to Kei river inwards South Africa, betwixt Barawa inwards in addition to Omaruru inwards Namibia, due to the existence of the 84 Bantu groups of Bantu languages divided inwards some 1600 dialects.
History has it that after the long migration from i betoken to the other through Yankari, et lal; the Irigwe human being settled at Fobur(Jos East). They kept moving inwards hunt of game in addition to ariable Earth for farming until they arrived Riti Voh (Dutsen Kurah), in addition to finaly settling at Rigwe(Kwall).
Economy
The Irigwe people are mainly agriculturalists. They planted a lot of grains in addition to foodstuffs. the Irigwe people were also known for their game-hunting skills.
Irigwe dancers
Socio-political structure
Irigwe traditionally had no tribal chief, in addition to lacked whatsoever formalized political hierarchy every bit such. Instead the tribe was subdivided into 25 semi-autonomous agnatically based ritual units or "sections" (rekla). They are bound together on the i manus past times each section's having exclusive responsibleness for performing i or some other ritual felt to go necessary for the tribe, in addition to on the other manus past times cross-cutting affinal in addition to cognatic bonds mediated past times both primary (fo’wena ‘taking a girl,’ band past times the women every bit nynira ‘a from-to’) and "secondary" (fo mbru ‘taking a adult woman or wife’ past times the men in addition to vwevwe ‘sing-sing’ past times the women) intersection marriages (Sangree 1972).
The Irigwe repeatedly utilize the idiom of generation in addition to sexual activity (i.e., parent-child in addition to manlike individual female) to characterize in addition to sort out aspects of their world, both social in addition to geographical. As a resultant each of their twenty-four agnatically based Irigwe subdivisions or “sections,” every bit the Irigwe telephone band them, has its ain shrine house, rather womb-like inwards shape, called a branyi. Each Irigwe department regards its branyi every bit sacred in addition to every bit its pump of strength in addition to regeneration, in addition to skulls in addition to other relics of warfare in addition to hunting are preserved therein. Each branyi is presided over past times a senior human being of the section’s senior most lineage. The twenty-four sections are grouped into 2 geographically discrete divisions. Rigwe (Kwon District), the “parent” division, which lies S of the River Ngell, has 10 sections, which together command a major portion of the of import tribal ritual.
Nyango (Miango District), the “child” division, with 14 sections, is due north of the Ngell. In improver sections are regarded every bit either “male” or “female”. There are vii manlike individual in addition to 2 woman individual sections inwards the parent division, plus i department that is in all likelihood regarded every bit manlike individual (but I remain uncertain virtually this section). Then at that spot are nine manlike individual in addition to iv woman individual sections inwards the kid division, plus i department that cannot go clearly classified every bit either. Each department has its ritual specialization of significance to the entire tribe. Female sections part the responsibleness for most of the ritual concerning wet-season planting in addition to crop growth, whereas manlike individual sections direct the ritual regulating hunting in addition to most other dry-season activities. Sections inwards the parent partitioning are felt, with i exception, to have got ritual condition superior to that of sections inwards the kid division. This i exception is the department called Rae (“Red Earth”), which is the most senior woman individual department in addition to is
situated inwards the kid division.
Most sections inwards the parent partitioning are regarded every bit having various agnatic origins. Themale sections inwards the parent partitioning are ritually ranked in addition to specialized according to their putative monastic tell of arrival inwards Irigwe. The most senior manlike individual department presides over the most of import dry-season in addition to planting rituals for the entire tribe. The to a greater extent than junior sections inwards the parent partitioning have got their ain relatively pocket-sized ritual specializations, which are for the most portion connected with dry-season activity. The iii woman individual sections inwards the parent partitioning are all of essentially equal ritual status; i carries out planting ritual for i of the of import grain crops; a instant has ritual to command the lightning; the specialty of the tertiary remains unclear to me.
Rae (“Red Earth”), the most senior woman individual department every bit noted above, is situated inwards the kid division. The Red world department presides over the principal farming in addition to first-fruits ritual for all of Irigwe.
With the exception of the Red world department in addition to 2 offshoot sections from it, each department of the kid partitioning recognizes its origin from a “parent” department inwards the parent partitioning in addition to serves every bit its ritual subordinate. Thus a department inwards the kid partitioning is regarded every bit “female” if it is derived from a woman individual parent department in addition to every bit “male” if it is derived from a manlike individual parent section. It is noteworthy that the elders of Nuhwie, the most senior manlike individual section, do non take away the Red world origin myth given to a higher position in addition to dispute the seniority of the Red world section. They assert that Nuhwiae was the first of all Irigwe department in addition to insist that the Red world department is but their missy (a rather ungrateful missy at that) on whom they have got bestowed woman individual ritual leadership through the magnanimity of their paternal affection.
Most Irigwe sections are subdivided into several exogamous lineages (énûcié). Although extended household unit of measurement compounds of whatsoever particular lineage in addition to department tend to go spatially clustered, at that spot are many cases of compounds that adjoin or are surrounded past times compounds of other lineages or fifty-fifty other sections. Thus it is non possible to position either a compound’s lineage or department affiliation alone past times its location. Sections vary greatly inwards size; the largest comprises ninety-nine separate extended household unit of measurement compounds, in addition to the smallest has only two. H5N1 chemical compound usually has virtually thirty-five members, but they also vary greatly inwards size from every bit few every bit iii people to over Irigwe hunt all during the dry out season, principally inwards groups organized on a department basis.
The highlight of the hunting flavor is a three-day tribal hunt in addition to celebration (Zaraci) at the cease of the dry out flavor presided over past times Nuhwie, the most senior manlike individual section. It is inwards the organisation in addition to ceremonial arrangements of this large hunt that i sees the parent in addition to kid divisions most explicitly counter posed. The Irigwe’s passion for hunting finds its principal ceremonial expression, however, after this swell hunt, early on inwards the rains when planting is exactly beginning. At this fourth dimension each department inwards plough holds a three-day ceremonial to purify in addition to praise its hunters who during the preceding flavor have got brought heads of large game (and formerly human enemies) to their branyi. Only heads of sure as shooting unsafe game are preserved every bit relics, thereby qualifying their takers every bit sˇ us (“heroes”) to go thus honored. In recent decades large game has grown really scarce, in addition to inwards several instances some of the little sections, tired of waiting many years for a fellow member to handbag the requisite game before belongings a sˇ üa ceremonial have got paired off with other sections to grip the ceremonial jointly thus making bigger in addition to to a greater extent than frequent ceremonies possible for each.
After the climax of the sˇ üa ceremonial when the heroes are anointed in addition to ritually cleansed patch seated before the branyi, senior representatives of every department of the tribe sit down downwards to a feast, in addition to girls of the host department trip the lite fantastic in addition to sing songs of praise, honoring past times in addition to nowadays heroes. Although the nutrient in addition to beer are supplied past times the host section, representatives from invitee woman individual sections aid brand the in conclusion feast preparations, in addition to elders from invitee manlike individual sections genuinely distribute the nutrient in addition to drink. Then every bit they consume in addition to drink, a spokesman from each department inwards plough comments on the skulls in addition to their takers. As the speeches drag on in addition to the beer flows, verbal skirmishes in addition to sometimes fisticuffs arise over slights or departures from protocol. Finally peace in addition to reconciliation is sought in addition to usually achieved with shouted admonitions that all the sections are i household unit of measurement in addition to that human being in addition to married adult woman in addition to parents in addition to children should aid in addition to back upwards each other.
Anyhow, past times that fourth dimension the elders are also total of beer to aid really much, in addition to the younger men in addition to women, girls in addition to youths, are dancing around the large drum (bí), or are off trysting. Thus nosotros come upwards at in conclusion to the principal focus of this paper, the Irigwe matrimony system. During the dry out flavor men curvature their sporting unloosen energy to chasing downwards game; but the get-go of the planting season, when the rains are exactly starting, is the fourth dimension to a higher position all times for making off with other men’s wives.
Religious Belief
The Irigwe people believe inwards a Supreme existence called Nae. Nae is the God to a higher position all other gods. He created the world in addition to all the things inwards it. He punishes the wicked in addition to bless the goodness one. All the branyi (shrine) gods bow to Nae. The ancestral spirits that Irigwe worship are also inferior to the supreme existence Nae.
The Irigwe people also have got initiation similar Dodo. Ogmjne of the Dodo Cult's principal aims is explicitly that of assuring the wellness in addition to good existence of cultists, peculiarly of their infants in addition to little children. H5N1 secondary, but crucial, portion of the cult is to decrease the style for wives to shift residence to other husbands, thereby increasing matrimony stability. Irigwe men, when discussing the importance of the Dodo Cult, universally view it every bit a way of helping command disease, in addition to some of them also say it helps hold wives inwards residence.
Nowadays, most Irigwe people are largely Christians with some taken into Islam. Very few of them are traditionalists.
IRIGWE WITCHCRAFT
Irigwe view witchcraft every bit existence really important inwards both tribal in addition to local or household unit of measurement affairs. At the tribal flat witchcraft enters into both ritual in addition to political matters, in addition to its practitioners are characteristically men. It may take away pestilence in addition to other disasters, but it is also regarded every bit an of import property to go utilized inwards strengthening the tribe's offensive in addition to defensive efforts inwards inter-tribal affrays (Sangree 1970, 1971). In the local arena, namely with members of the extended household unit of measurement chemical compound (ari}, the lineage (enucie), in addition to others living nearby, witches are often women. In both the tribal in addition to local arenas a witch (krotu) may utilize various kinds of sorcery every bit good every bit witchcraft might (tsitsie) to accomplish desired goals.
Particularly feared inwards local affairs is the witchcraft practiced past times some older women who, jealous of younger women's fertility in addition to salubrious children, are said to have got apprenticed themselves to a powerful witch (krotu) in addition to to have got learned sickness dealing techniques to usage against younger wives in addition to their offspring resident inwards their ain in addition to neighboring compounds. On a issue of occasions people told me that individuals well-known to go witches were living right inwards their ain compounds, but such pronouncements were never made publically inwards my presence nor were names ever given to me. Instead of opened upwards accusations or direct action, indirect palliatives in addition to countermeasures are ordinarily used against the purported depredations of these witches. Many adults apparel leather clad anti-witchcraft medicine bundles around their waists that tin go purchased from Hausa in addition to other non-Irigwe practitioners living inwards Miango, other marketplace areas, in addition to the towns. Local Irigwe doctors (renevo) also regularly prescribe antiwitchcraft medicines in addition to charms. The most highly respected in addition to sought after anti-witchcraft practitioners inwards Irigwe are those who are surviving twins, in addition to thus "good" witches. The Irigwe believe that twins are ever witches (rekrotu), but that i twin is "good" in addition to the other is "bad." In old times the "bad" twin was killed shortly after birth; the surviving "good" twin has the inborn capacity to recognize in addition to neutralize the evil might of other witches (Sangree 1971). It is believed that witches seldom are motivated to problem women in addition to children whom they do non ofttimes see; thus it is mutual for a adult woman seeking security from a witch's malevolence to displace to some other husband, taking her little children with her.
Irigwe Dance
"Among the Irigwe people, each ward of a hamlet has a leading trip the lite fantastic group. Dancers are selected on the footing of their trip the lite fantastic ability. Senior members of the trip the lite fantastic grouping at nowadays send an axe inwards the right manus in addition to a cowtail switch inwards the left. The trip the lite fantastic uniform of curt trousers in addition to a moulded cap of cherry felt was introduced inwards the early on fifties. The idiophones at nowadays inwards usage are made of palm leaves woven into a serial of pockets, containing pebbles attached circular the lower leg.
Two drums atomic number 82 the dance. H5N1 large double faced membranophone with a single snare, called biange and, a smaller membranophone, of identical design, called ishinge. Today the dances, together with a large repertoire inside the same style are performed on iii distinct occasions. The trip the lite fantastic at its most vigorous remains an facial expression of the communal way of life at festivals celebrating the agricultural cycle. The instant occasion occurs when a prominent fellow member of the community dies in addition to dances are performed every bit portion of the funeral ceremonies. Finally the dances are performed to entertain of import visitors." [Harper P., 1966: The Miango Dancers. Studies inwards Nigerian Dance issue 2. Caxton Press Limited, Ibadan].
Going Home to Mother: Traditional Marriage with the Irigwe of Benue-Plateau State, Nigeria
Walter H. Sangree
University of Rochester
The Irigwe matrimony scheme inwards consequence demands that men in addition to women go married to
several spouses inwards differing tribal sections during the course of report of their adult lives and
precludes all divorce. It also ascribes patrivirilocal residence in addition to assigns the
paternity of each kid a adult woman bears to the married adult man with whom she is residing at
the fourth dimension of the child’s conception. Consequently women shift residence from
husband to married adult man several times during the course of report of their lives, in addition to unless
childless they endure intermittent separation from i or some other of their dependent
children. Spirit possession cults, involving nearly all the mature women of the
tribe, provide both the emotional catharsis in addition to the avenues for social integration to
compensate the women for the repeated separations in addition to social disjunctions the
marriage scheme produces inwards their lives. [Irigwe, Rigwe; Jos Plateau; Nigeria;
marriage; polyandry; secondary marriage; spirit possession.]
Irigwe women watching manlike individual dancers, Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Circa 1959
There are 2 basic types of Irigwe marriage. One type, arranged past times the parents of the couplet prior to their adolescence, is known past times the men every bit fo’wena ‘taking a girl,’ band past times the women every bit nynira ‘a from-to.’ The other type, initiated usually past times the couplet themselves, is called fo mbru ‘taking a adult woman or wife’ past times the men in addition to vwevwe ‘sing-sing’ past times the women. I shall simply telephone band the old type “primary marriage” since it usually starts a couple’s conjugal career, in addition to the latter “secondary marriage.
Arrangements for primary matrimony are initiated past times the boy’s household unit of measurement usually when he is still really immature or fifty-fifty an infant. The begetter of the immature boy may approach a friend who has a missy virtually the same historic catamenia in addition to inquire if he in addition to the girl’s woman parent are willing for the missy to go engaged to his boy (á kwe¯ wéna, they go engaged). If they both give their assent the boy’s begetter sends the girl’s household unit of measurement a white hen for her woman parent in addition to an atomic issue 26 bracelet (angrá) for the girl. Occasionally a novel calabash is presented instead of the white hen, in addition to inwards recent years the exchange of a little cash payment has been coming into favor. Sometimes a boy’s woman parent or grandmother may initiate the matrimony plans. H5N1 boy’s household unit of measurement may contract to a greater extent than than i primary matrimony for him, but usually only i such organisation is made for each son. Although a missy is never engaged for primary matrimony to to a greater extent than than i boy, it is mutual (and held to her credit) for a pop missy every bit she reaches puberty to go engaged for secondary marriages to several other men fifty-fifty prior to the consummation of her primary marriage.
When the man child is old plenty to do a goodness day’s hoeing inwards the fields, in addition to when the girl’s breasts are get-go to grow, the boy’s begetter visits the girl’s begetter in addition to is shown fields for his boy to prepare for planting. Early the side past times side planting flavor the man child with the aid of perhaps a dozen of his lineage brothers does virtually twenty-four man-days of go on the fields assigned past times his father-in-law-elect. H5N1 swell bargain of the annual pre-planting champaign grooming is carried out past times these go bees of youths in addition to immature men of the same lineage helping with the bride-service of their younger members.
Usually after iii or iv years of farm service, but never before the missy is good into puberty, the matrimony is consummated past times her taking upwards residence with her espoused inwards his father’s compound. Sometimes the matrimony is consummated before the man child has reached puberty. After this no farther go is due the father-in-law. Since primary marriages are characteristically arranged betwixt families that are distant agnates or betwixt families linked past times friendship (ne ûrí) it is of import to the girl’s patrikin that the matrimony go consummated without mishap. An Irigwe missy after she reaches puberty may experience inclined to defy parental potency in addition to go to go with i of her secondary matrimony suitors fifty-fifty before she has consummated her primary matrimony (secondary suitors have got inevitably attained puberty); thus a prudent begetter hesitates to
postpone his daughter’s primary matrimony much after she reaches puberty fifty-fifty though additional years of farm undertaking are at stake. H5N1 girl’s mother, on the other hand, gratis from many of her husband’s pressures of household unit of measurement or friendship, may counsel her to drag her feet a fleck in addition to postpone leaving abode at to the lowest degree until her primary fiancé has grown upwards a bit. H5N1 mother’s command over her children, both manlike individual in addition to female, is reinforced past times the Irigwe belief that the matrikin, that is the woman parent in addition to her patrilineage (né tekwe), are the best source of assistance inwards illustration of illness or whatsoever other mishap, in addition to a kid learns early on to brain the counsel of his woman parent in addition to her agnates. Thus although the woman parent lacks formalized rights of command inwards the matter, it is often she who decides when her missy should take away upwards residence with her primary husband; indeed a substantial gift inwards cash or variety from the boy’s household unit of measurement to the woman parent usually shortly precedes a girl’s consummating her primary marriage. It should go noted that inwards those cases where a missy takes matters into her ain manus sand goes to a secondary suitor first, she inevitable feels obligated minimally to fulfill her parents’ primary matrimony commitments past times afterwards taking upwards residence with her primary married adult man for at to the lowest degree several weeks.
The first inwards arranging a secondary marriage, inwards contrast to primary marriage, is taken past times the suitor himself. He to a greater extent than often than non uses a manlike individual friend every bit a go-between when first of all sounding out a missy (or woman), in addition to she may either turn down or encourage his overtures. If encouraged the suitor must seek out her begetter (or matrimony guardian) to inquire for his consent. The begetter usually agrees after checking with his missy unless he finds the union would go prohibited past times custom, that is unless it would violate an Irigwe dominion of incest or exogamy.
Primary in addition to secondary marriages are prohibited betwixt lineage-mates, betwixt cognates with a mutual great-grandparent, in addition to betwixt persons born inwards the same chemical compound regardless of kinship. Marriages into one’s mother’s chemical compound in addition to marriages past times a human being (and past times some other human being from his compound) with to a greater extent than than i missy of a chemical compound are also prohibited; also men from the same department may never get hitched with the same adult woman so long every bit both men are alive; nor may a human being get hitched with a widow of his ain lineage until she has first of all gone to get hitched with a novel married adult man of some other lineage. The department is non an exogamous unit, in addition to primary marriages inwards particular are often contracted betwixt distant agnates every bit good every bit betwixt other distant consanguines.
Secondary matrimony suitors cannot go members of her living husbands’ or husbands-elect’s sections. As Irigwe men position it, “You tin take away a missy (‘wena) but never a married adult woman (mbru) from your ain section.” In improver a human being cannot take away a married adult woman from his mother’s department or his mother’s mother’s natal compound, that is he cannot contract a secondary matrimony with a adult woman who is already married to these categories of his kinsmen.
Secondary matrimony arrangements are, past times Irigwe custom, formally concluded in addition to go binding when the suitor makes a matrimony payment to the begetter or matrimony guardian; the amount of the payment is to a greater extent than often than non 30 to 40 shillings cash. After that the missy s committed to acquire out her prior married adult man in addition to pass a black with her novel secondary married adult man at his compound. Usually she does this inside several months’ time. Unless, however, the girl’s woman parent also favors the union and, every bit with primary marriage, has been given a gift of perhaps 10 shillings, the missy tin go expected to postpone going to the secondary married adult man indefinitely. After an Irigwe begetter has granted permission in addition to received matrimony payment for 2 or iii of his daughter’s secondary marriages, it is usual for him to select i of his lineage brothers to go her matrimony guardian (bae bi nva) in addition to oversee in addition to have payment for her time to come secondary marriages.
When a adult woman goes to a secondary married adult man she leaves behind everything except the apparel in addition to jewelry she is wearing. (Occasionally an older adult woman volition take away i or to a greater extent than of her younger children with her.) Generally her prior married adult man fetches her dorsum the morning time after she has forsaken him for a secondary husband. On a subsequent visit, however, the adult woman may pick out to remain in addition to take away upwards residence with her novel husband. The married adult man receiving her must go prepared to provide her with a hut in addition to everything she needs for housekeeping if he expects her to remain to a greater extent than than a night. If a adult woman stays with a married adult man from planting fourth dimension on through the harvest flavor he tin go counted on to give her grain for her dry out flavor cooking needs in addition to her ain little granary to shop it in. Young girls who have got exactly consummated their primary marriages go off to their secondary husbands whatsoever season, although they favor the hunting in addition to early on planting seasons when
drumming in addition to dancing are allowed. But in i trial a adult woman has stayed with a human being long plenty for him to have got given her a granary in addition to grain, she seldom leaves him for a secondary married adult man before the get-go of some other farming flavor when she has already used upwards the grain. At dawn after a human being has received a novel secondary married adult woman the women of his chemical compound denote the fact with shrill ululations. Before long the prior husband, or i of his brothers, demo sup to telephone band her back. She so promptly returns to her prior husband’s compound, accompanied past times a flow of ululating girls if she herself is still a immature girl. The prior husband
tarries at the wife-taker’s chemical compound to gulp his fill upwards of the beer that custom demands must go offered him. It is considered bad manners for a prior spouse to sulk or give direct facial expression to his annoyance at this time, but he never misses a modify to criticize the lineament of their beer, patch at the same fourth dimension encouraging lots of people from his ain chemical compound to follow him at that spot to gulp upwards every bit much every bit possible. Later inwards the hateful solar daytime the girls from the wife-taker’s compound, if the married adult woman has come upwards to him for the first of all time, denote his success past times begging pennies at the compounds of his friends in addition to from others of his section.
H5N1 adult woman is non obliged to slumber with a secondary spouse for to a greater extent than than i night, in addition to she must homecoming to her prior married adult man when he comes for her. But her reputation volition endure in addition to she may incur the wrath of her begetter or matrimony guardian if she isn’t willing to go to the secondary married adult man 2 or iii times. She in all likelihood won’t go to him a 4th time, however, unless she has decided to shift her residence from her prior married adult man to his; at that juncture the prior married adult man usually doesn’t bother to telephone band her abode to him whatsoever more. In whatsoever illustration the prior married adult man isn’t served beer past times the secondary married adult man except the first of all fourth dimension he calls her back. The traditional Irigwe matrimony scheme has no divorce. H5N1 woman’s prior marriages are never formally terminated past times her switching residence to some other spouse; she may homecoming to whatsoever of her spouses at whatsoever fourth dimension in addition to usually finds herself welcomed dorsum in addition to given a hut in addition to everything else she needs for housekeeping.
In monastic tell to go a existent success at the secondary matrimony game a human being needs to have got 2 or iii reliable friends exterior his ain department who, existence able to displace freely in addition to partake of festivities inwards compounds where he would go suspect, tin audio out possible secondary matrimony alliances, send messages for him, in addition to the like. The quid pro quo of such friendships is to give reciprocal assistance inwards courtship in addition to never to take away wives from each other’s compounds. Friends may, however, get hitched with daughters from each other’s compounds. Women, for their part, depend heavily upon their co wives, including their husbands’ siblings’ wives, when planning in addition to carrying out secondary alliances. Indeed the Irigwe give-and-take uri agency exactly 2 things: “a man's friend,” as
described above, in addition to “co-wife.” Two people calling each other uri (both 2 men who are friends in addition to co-wives) often inwards afterwards life farther consolidate their human relationship past times arranging for a primary matrimony betwixt each other’s children or grandchildren. Exogamy rules, however, strictly circumscribe the opportunities for arranging such a primary marriage.
Irigwe men have got much to gain in addition to relatively lilliputian to lose past times contracting many marriages. The initial expenses of procuring a married adult woman are offset in all likelihood inside a twelvemonth past times her domestic in addition to agricultural undertaking if she tin go induced to remain that long. It volition go seen later, however, that keeping a married adult woman resident for a issue of years is to a greater extent than often than non quite expensive for the husband. H5N1 human being receives a lot of kudos from others inwards his chemical compound in addition to department in addition to from his friends for taking many wives, especially if he tin also hold a issue of wives resident at the same time. When a married adult woman leaves him for some other married adult man both the illustration in addition to counsel of his department peers exhort him to cool his anger, go civil towards her other married adult man so every bit non to annoy her, promptly telephone band her back, in addition to seek farther to regain confront past times endeavoring to get hitched with someone else’s wife. From the husband's
betoken of view every novel matrimony agency minimally some other adult woman who volition cohabit with him, ever at his ain compound, for at to the lowest degree 2 or iii nights, in addition to who may settle with him to a greater extent than or less permanently in addition to conduct him children.
An Irigwe woman, every bit mentioned earlier, ever has the right to turn down whatsoever secondary matrimony proposal prior o the matrimony payment from the suitor to her begetter or matrimony guardian. She is never able, however, to contract a matrimony without her father’s or matrimony guardian’s consent; few Irigwe women volition take away a opportunity the epithet of mbrúnjê (promiscuous woman), in addition to the accompanying loss of farther desirability every bit a married adult woman that sexual relations without this paternal permission rapidly brings. H5N1 adult woman ever has someone inwards her lineage who has the inalienable right to bestow her every bit a legitimate sexual partner; if her begetter in addition to the matrimony guardian he chose for her both die, her lineage selects some other matrimony guardian for her. H5N1 begetter or matrimony guardian, of course, never grants exclusive sexual access to this matrimony ward; since at that spot is no
divorce a married adult man competes with his wife’s other husbands, both nowadays in addition to future, for her sexual favors.
H5N1 married adult man also, inwards effect, competes with a wife’s other husbands for the paternity of the children she bears. In contrast to the rights of bestowal of sexual access, which remain ever with the woman’s father, his appointee, or his lineage heirs, the begetter surrenders all command over rights inwards genetricam6 early on inwards a woman’s matrimony career, at a ceremony called sa tese (literally, “putting outside”) usually held virtually the 6th calendar month of her first of all pregnancy. Thenceforth the query of paternity is settled in addition to legally confirmed past times the actions of the adult woman in addition to her spouses. It may go adjudicated past times the Irigwe elders, in addition to sometimes today past times the District Court, but this is seldom necessary. H5N1 child’s paternity is usually bestowed without argument upon whichever married adult man the woman parent was residing with when she was pregnant in addition to when she bore the child. H5N1 adult woman seldom shifts to some other married adult man patch she is pregnant. If it turns out a married adult woman went to some other husband
virtually the fourth dimension she conceived, the prior husband’s paternal rights to the kid are non disputed provided he called the married adult woman dorsum to him promptly, in addition to provided he took responsibleness for the baby’s infancy rites. The infant’s permanent department affiliation is the same every bit the pater’s, that is, it is reckoned agnatically.
When a married adult woman makes it clear that she is shifting her residence to some other husband, the married adult man she is leaving to a greater extent than often than non asserts his right to hold all the children she bore him except for those nether iii or iv years of historic catamenia whose homecoming he may afterwards demand, in addition to so he puts out the welcome mat for her return. Wives come upwards in addition to wives go, but a human being lives on inwards the familiar environment at his ancestral abode with the companionship of his sons in addition to single daughters. In his old historic catamenia he is supported past times his sons in addition to cooked for past times their wives if he has no resident wives of his own, patch he turns his energies to ritual in addition to judicial affairs that include looking after the marriages of his daughters and/or matrimony wards.
All older Irigwe women have got had a plurality of husbands. In a consummate census I took of 5 compounds, totaling over 250 people, every missy pubescent or older had had a primary matrimony arranged for her; all women past times their teens had at to the lowest degree i secondary spouse, in addition to most had had 2 or more; fully one-half of the women middle aged or over had borne children for 2 or to a greater extent than husbands. H5N1 girl’s primary matrimony is but her marital debut whence she usually leaps into a circular of secondary alliances, gaining thereby non only the excitement in addition to pleasures these afford, but also the admiration of both peers in addition to parents. Fathers are pleased in addition to proud to have got a missy who has iv or to a greater extent than secondary marriages to her credit, in addition to co wives admire such a woman. Some immature women, however, presently go really attached to i or some other secondary - or fifty-fifty their primary - spouse in addition to go along to take away other husbands only to avoid annoying their begetter or matrimony guardian; for it is believed that a father’s annoyance, fifty-fifty unexpressed, may atomic number 82 to his daughter’s barrenness, illness, or fifty-fifty to the illness of her children.
It is usual for a adult woman to settle downwards for a relatively protracted catamenia with a married adult man for whom she has borne a kid or two. Sooner or later, however, she almost inevitable moves either dorsum to an old or on to a novel husband. Often she is prompted to do so past times a diviner’s diagnosis that her ain wellness or that of i of her children needs the change. The Irigwe consider it a prime number duty of both parents to go see whatsoever of their children who have got fallen seriously sick in addition to so to remain on until the child’s wellness improves or until the funeral. In this social club virtually one-half of the infants salubrious at nativity perish from illness before their 6th birthday. Thus sometimes her ain health, but to a greater extent than ofttimes the wellness of her children, becomes a prime number element sometimes inwards abetting in addition to other times inwards inhibiting a mother’s matrimony mobility. “Spoiled stomach” (owie ‘dzio) is the Irigwe idiom to a greater extent than often than non used to denote grief, including homesickness in addition to bereavement. On several occasions I saw exactly that literally occur to a kid upon the difference of the woman parent for some other husband, in addition to in i trial I saw the kid acquire sick plenty so that the woman parent postponed her planned shift of residence.
The Irigwe have got a belief they usage every bit the footing of a sort of litmus newspaper examine to whether or non a human being should consider taking whatsoever particular adult woman every bit his secondary wife. The belief is that if a human being who is sick or injured is visited or aided past times a human being with whom he has shared a woman’s favors (if, for example, he is visited past times a co husband) he volition take away a precipitous plough for the worse in addition to in all likelihood die. This belief enjoins men to go peculiarly sure as shooting they know all a woman’s husbands before taking her inwards secondary marriage, so they tin avoid inadvertently becoming the co married adult man of anyone such every bit a friend or section-brother with whom casual in addition to friendly relations are desired or ritually prescribed. It also leads a prudent human being to pick out his hunting partners with care; in addition to whenever he is hunting with people from other sections he feels it wise to seek out a “friend” or unopen uterine kinsman to remain nearby in addition to lend him assistance if he should accidentally go injured. It volition go recalled that it is both rude in addition to misfortunate strategy to limited hostility openly towards a human being who married your wife. Thus it is non surprising to have got had the belief arise that co husbands are unsafe to have got around inwards times of illness.
Open accusations of witchcraft or sorcery inwards Irigwe, although they occur, are rare, in addition to I have got no cases of their arising betwixt rivals for a woman. On the other hand, fights betwixt hunters over partitioning of game, especially betwixt men of different sections in addition to rivals for the same women, are really mutual in addition to resultant bodily injury occurs all to frequently. I never, however, was able to uncover an illustration of intratribal homicide inwards Irigwe, in addition to elders claim that at that spot was no traditional compensation, retribution, or penalization for murder or homicide inside the tribe. There are rigid sanctions, mostly ritual inwards nature, militating against a section’s bifurcating. Elders, however, tin recall several instances of this happening inside the in conclusion lx or lxx years. Sometimes a dispute over the partitioning of game was cited every bit the motion of the split, in addition to inwards other instances a man’s taking a married adult woman of a fellow member of some other lineage of his ain department was position forth every bit the start of the division; all agreed, however, that the taking of wives of department members of other lineages confirmed the splits fifty-fifty where they did non initiate them.
Irigwe is a segmentary social club that brings its ain refinement to the usage of matrimony every bit a social machinery for establishing ties betwixt segments. In many segmentary societies inwards Africa cross-cutting ties are forged past times “marrying your enemies,” i.e., past times marrying the daughters of outsider clans. The Irigwe system, however, serves straight to reinforce intrasegment solidarity patch also forging inter-segment links. The Irigwe get hitched with their friends in addition to distant kinsmen inwards primary marriage, in addition to so they get hitched with their enemy’s wives inwards secondary marriage, with most of the secondary marriages existence betwixt partners from different sections. Often inwards her old historic catamenia a adult woman returns to go her in conclusion days inwards a chemical compound where she has a grown son. If she is without surviving sons, she may pick out so pass her declining years either with i of her surviving spouses, to contract a novel matrimony with an elderly man, or to homecoming to her paternal chemical compound “to retire.” An Irigwe adult woman takes an active, but non central, usage inwards the mortuary rites of her married adult man if she is resident with him when he dies, in addition to vice versa, but inside a calendar month she moves from her deceased husband’s chemical compound dorsum to her paternal abode whence she afterwards may go married to a novel married adult man of some other section. Irigwe spouses are never buried inwards the same grave, indeed they fifty-fifty fright going close the graves of their deceased spouses.
Irigwe old men are prone to wax both sentimental in addition to possessive virtually the daughters of their section; I recall overhearing an audible reverie of some old men basking on a stone inwards the even out sun, virtually “those wonderful daughters of our section, all of them belonging to us, all of them!” An Irigwe department may lose daughters’ children to other sections, but they ever retain the right to bestow each of their daughters inwards matrimony over again in addition to again. And when a adult woman dies, the married adult man or boy she was resident with may pick out to bury her inwards a crypt of his lineage, but her lineage of nativity tin ever intervene in addition to demand the torso dorsum if they experience the burial arrangements are inwards whatsoever way unsatisfactory. It would seem that Irigwe men clit an intense satisfaction from belongings veto might over the whereabouts of their daughters, a veto that contrasts greatly to a man’s limited might to hold a married adult woman with him, in addition to to a child’s inability to grip onto his woman parent (except past times getting sick).
Irigwe men, of course, must also endure frequent separations, first of all every bit children from i or some other parent in addition to extended household unit of measurement grouping in addition to so every bit adults from a succession of wives, sometimes parting temporarily, sometimes permanently. As adults, however, Irigwe men may derive whatever solace tin go drawn from
remaining resident inwards their paternal compound, from regular participation inwards their compound’s in addition to their section’s yearly wheel of economics, in addition to from leading their daily lives ever with the same kernel of manlike individual patrikinsmen. Irigwe women, inwards contrast, must non only endure frequent separation from i or some other of their husbands in addition to children but must also experience concomitant changes of residence in addition to of women with whom to go past times their work-a-day lives. From my earliest weeks inwards Irigwe I ofttimes attended women’s possession dances in addition to saw women cry, beak inwards tongues, in addition to flail virtually after the frenetic drumming, dancing, singing, in addition to rattling leg irons had induced a dissociated state inwards them. From my census I found that over ninety-five per centum of the women past times their middle twenties felt themselves to go afflicted with troublesome spirits they telephone band rije, which if non brought out in addition to assuaged from fourth dimension to fourth dimension motion illness. In contrast less than 2 per centum of the men were so afflicted. It wasn’t until over a twelvemonth of fieldwork had passed, however, in addition to I saw a adult woman whom I had come upwards to know good inwards the agony of a precipitous in addition to protracted state of dissociation, “struck,” every bit they say, past times her rije, that I made the connection betwixt the Irigwe marriage-go-round in addition to women’s possession.
Two aspects of this woman’s seizure led to my novel insight. First, her behaviour was inwards such striking contrast to her usual gay in addition to confident manner. Normally she was the most self-possessed in addition to affable of iii immature resident wives of a widely liked boyfriend who was to a greater extent than often than non viewed every bit a model husband. She had borne him i kid so virtually iii years old. Her co wives had noticed that she has been moody since she had had a miscarriage virtually a calendar month before, in addition to so all of a precipitous she had been overcome patch making beer. Possession specialists, both manlike individual in addition to female, were at in i trial called in, in addition to past times the fourth dimension I arrived on the scene they in addition to perhaps a dozen members of the chemical compound were trying to humour in addition to calm her every bit she lay sobbing in addition to groveling on the flooring of her hut. It was fully 2 hours before she calmed down, quite exhausted past times then, in addition to was able fifty-fifty to recognize her ain child. The instant aspect was the nature of the seizure itself. Her flailing virtually patch possessed, her barely coherent demands for this in addition to that emitted betwixt heart-rending wails, reminded me all also forcefully of two- in addition to three-year old children I had seen in
my ain civilisation reacting to i or some other major frustration. In contrast, silence, listlessness, in addition to quite often “spoiled stomach” are Irigwe toddlers’ feature responses to a severe frustration or trauma such every bit the difference of the mother. Irigwe children acquire really early on to suppress, indeed to repress the felt demand for vehement emotional outbursts. They observe that tantrums usually take away tongue-lashings in addition to acute shooings from their elders, whereas inwards contrast the soundless in addition to wan or the clearly sick kid is endlessly snuggled in addition to whispered words of affection in addition to reassurance. Thus it appears that only nether the cultural guise of existence possessed past times rije may Irigwe usually give vent without castigation to their repressed feeling of anguish arising from their repeated separations from loved ones, separations first of all occurring inwards infancy in addition to childhood, in addition to afterwards a major aspect of married life, especially the married life of women.
Subsequent systematic inquiries revealed that instances such every bit the i exactly described are really common. When a adult woman is first of all struck downwards past times her rije the people on manus telephone band inwards an skilful diagnostician who rapidly establishes which of several varieties of rije have got afflicted her. The diagnostician so blames the presence of the rije for some recent disaster inwards the patient’s life such every bit a miscarriage or illness. After the adult woman has recovered from this initial laid on she must seek handling at a chemical compound “owning her rije,” that is, owning the medicine in addition to ritual to command them. There she is inevitably advised that if she ever wants to escape the sick effects, in addition to inwards fourth dimension perhaps gain control, of the rije that have got come upwards to reside inwards her she should every bit presently every bit possible have got a major ceremonial held for her called nyi rije (“making rije”). The nyi rije ceremonial is really expensive. All the patient’s paternal in addition to maternal kin, in addition to all of the kinsmen of the married adult man with whom she
resides must go invited in addition to served beer. Also a hundred shillings or to a greater extent than worth of grain must go supplied every bit payment to woman individual ritual practitioners of the chemical compound owning the rije, in addition to additional grain must go given to elderberry women of other compounds also possessed past times that type of rije who come upwards to aid preside. The services of perhaps a dozen possession drummers in addition to singers (always men) must go paid for. Finally, in addition to most costly of all, the practitioners, interpreting the babblings of the possessed women, inevitably assert that the rije possessing the patient demands cloth, lots of expensive cloth, some of which must go given to the patient prior to the ceremony, in addition to some afterwards, to assure its effectiveness. Usually it takes an Irigwe married adult man a issue of months, or fifty-fifty a twelvemonth or more, to heighten the majuscule in addition to goal arrangements of i of these ceremonials. And that’s to a greater extent than often than non not the cease of it. Most women demand repeat ceremonials every several years to hold their rije nether control. Happily rije tin go “placed” (sa rije), that is pacified temporarily, by
belongings relatively elementary in addition to cheap all black possession dances requiring only the services of i or 2 drummer-singers whom the women tin observe coin to reimburse themselves. In the illustration of the large nui rije ceremonials, however, most women are subject on the larger resources available only to the men folk. H5N1 married adult woman will, if necessary, hold leaving i married adult man for some other until she finds at nowadays willing in addition to able to grip a nyi rije ceremonial for her. H5N1 married adult man presently develops a reputation with womenfolk every bit stingy or generous inwards such matters, a reputation that strongly affects his subsequent success inwards marrying wives in addition to belongings them resident.
H5N1 adult woman inwards middle historic catamenia may prepare science inwards calling forth her rije (hurae rije) in addition to becoming possessed past times them at will. She volition so go sought after to aid preside at nyi rije ceremonials in addition to novices afflicted with her variety of rije, in addition to she volition have payment for her services. Some older women acquire to telephone band in addition to utilize their rije every bit a source of divinatory in addition to curing power; a few create upwards a large clientele of patients in addition to fifty-fifty go independently wealthy through fees received for their services. Thus it would seem that many years afterwards in addition to inwards a displaced in addition to disguised shape a adult woman may have substantial compensation for the psychic stresses she has suffered from workings of the Irigwe marriage-go-round.
The Irigwe linguistic communication is replete with ambiguities, in addition to puns are a favorite shape of Irigwe humor. The facial expression nje na ridae me in addition to “I am going courting,” i.e., looking for a secondary wife. But it also agency “I am going abode to mother.” Never sure as shooting whether I’d miss a subtle phonemic distinction or a crucial toneme, I asked over again in addition to over again virtually this ambiguity, in addition to usually for an respond I got a express mirth followed either past times a shrug, or a terse retort, “It’s the same thing.” Thus inwards closing may I advise that it is a meaningful metaphor to beak of an Irigwe man’s life in addition to loves inwards large mensurate every bit a continuing call for for his wandering mother? Bearing inwards brain the portion of the Red world origin myth where the Red world department followed a boy department to its nowadays locale inwards Nyango, in addition to also that a son’s chemical compound is indeed the favorite position for a woman’s
“retirement” inwards old age, is it non fair also to say that an Irigwe woman’s life tin go viewed every bit an ongoing call for for her son
Irigwe Miango Dancers: This photograph was taken when Eliot Elisofon was on assignment for Life magazine in addition to traveled to Africa from August 18, 1959 to Dec 20, 1959.
The next are also Irigwe tribes in addition to tin go used to refer to every bit Irigwe; Aregwe, Idafan, Kwal, Kwan, Kwoll, Miango, Nkarigwe, Nnerigwe, Nyango,Rigwe etc. The Irigwe telephone band their linguistic communication every bit rigwe. They telephone band themselves every bit yirigwe in addition to an Irigwe individual (singular) is also yirigwe.
Geography
The Irigwe go virtually 20 miles westward of the towns of Jos in addition to Bukuru inwards euphorbia-enclosed, extended-family compounds that are clustered closely together to shape a belt of almost continuous small town running due north in addition to S for virtually iv miles exactly to a higher position the western escarpment of the Jos Plateau, Nigeria.
Wase rock, Jos,Nigeria
Language
Irigwe people beak rigwe linguistic communication which belongs to larger Benue or Niger-Congo family. Rigwe (Irigwe) is a Plateau linguistic communication of the Central sub-group, spoken past times people living inwards Miango (SW of Jos), Kwall in addition to several other hamlets inwards Bassa local government, Plateau State in addition to Kauru local government, Kaduna State, Nigeria. According to D.A. Daniel in addition to J.K. Barry, An Outline of Irigwe Phonology in addition to Grammar (1983), information collected from electoral rolls estimates a total Rigwe population at over 60,000. However, Ethnologue (2005) repeats a UBS figure of 40,000 dating from 1985 for the issue of Rigwe speakers. The Rigwe linguistic communication has a really lilliputian dialectal variation with speakers.
Although some go on writing the Rigwe linguistic communication began inwards 1919, followed past times irregular vernacular publications, for illustration the Katikism /Irigwe Catechism/ (Anon 1935), nine NT books (1935), Irigwe Hymnbook (1986), Alphabet nautical chart (1986), the analysis of Rigwe phonology has remained at best incomplete. H5N1 to a greater extent than comprehensive overview of the history of the Rigwe orthography is contained inwards Reading in addition to Writing Irigwe (2006), a production of the Irigwe Language in addition to Bible Translation Project. This booklet is the main source of electrical flow Rigwe orthographic do although it does non provide proof for its assessment of the Rigwe audio system.
No published reference mass has noted the right ethnonyms of the Rigwe people. These are;
One Rigwe individual ƴîɾìgʷȅ
Rigwe people yíɾìgʷȅ
Rigwe linguistic communication ɾȉgʷȅ
Rigwe has been classified with Izere inwards the South-Central subgroup of Plateau (Gerhardt 1989) a view reprised inwards Crozier & Blench (1992). The evidence for this is limited although some comparative information is included inwards Gerhardt (1983). However, every bit the nowadays newspaper volition demo it has developed a really distinctive phonology. The only other detailed problem organisation human relationship of a related linguistic communication is Follingstad (1991) which describes Tyap (Kataf) which has a rich scheme of fortis/lenis contrasts quite dissimilar Rigwe.
Rigwe is notable for its extremely rich phonemic system. H5N1 issue of phonemes only occur in i trial in addition to it is a moot betoken every bit to whether they tin go described every bit integrated into the phonological system. The source of this appears to go a combination of the erosion in addition to rebuilding of CV prefixes in addition to pervasive palatal in addition to labial prosodies peradventure arising from old pluralisation strategies. In addition, past times contact with Chadic languages is in all likelihood responsible for both a lateral fricative in addition to low-frequency preglottalised consonants.
Some examples:
Rigwe English Rigwe English
ɾitʃí head ɾitʃiî egg
íɟʲé cliff ììɟê locust
ɬí to sieve,k.o ɬìî k.o. bird
History/Myth (Creation)
According to Sangree (1969) Elders of Rae (Red Earth) recount the next Irigwe origin myth:
"Long ago, Weze, the master Red world ancestor, descended from the Sun to a spot inwards the kid partitioning (Nyango). H5N1 descendant of his first of all brought forth burn downwards from a hole inwards the stone past times the river that separates the parent in addition to kid divisions. H5N1 afterwards descendant moved S of the river to what is at nowadays the parent partitioning expanse (Rigwe) in addition to met a human being named Audu wandering by. He bore the call Audu, which is an Irigwe nickname for Jarawa, because he had come upwards for the Jarawa tribal grouping situated E of Irigwe.
The Red world people invited Audu to go with them, in addition to he married in addition to became the master ancestor of the most senior Irigwe manlike individual section. Audu came bringing every bit a gift the fruit of the Inhwiae tree, in addition to the Irigwesection he founded is known every bit Nuhwie inwards remembrance of this gift. At that fourth dimension Audu had no crops, his people eating only game, fruits, in addition to berries. The Red world people gave Audu crops in addition to asked him to distribute them with his people. They agreed to abide by each other every bit woman parent in addition to boy in addition to every bit human being in addition to adult woman (which also agency married adult man in addition to married adult woman inwards the Irigwe language). Then, combining their hunting in addition to gathering in addition to farming skills, they together founded the Irigwe tribe.
With the passing of fourth dimension the tribe grew to have got quite a few sections, some arising from the incorporation of immigrant groups in addition to others existence formed past times the splitting off of patrilineages from already established Irigwe sections. Then a swell migration took place. H5N1 human being from a junior manlike individual department led members of his ain lineage, together with offshoots of other manlike individual in addition to woman individual sections, to the due north side of the river where they formed a novel “son” department non far from where the master Red world ancestor had descended from the sun. Very presently afterwards the entire Red world department followed this novel boy department to the novel settlement. Several other lineages from manlike individual in addition to woman individual sections came later. The descendants of all these migrants at nowadays comprise Nyango, the kid partitioning of Irigwe."
Irigwe Miango Dancers: This photograph was taken when Eliot Elisofon was on assignment for Life magazine in addition to traveled to Africa from August 18, 1959 to Dec 20, 1959.
Written history has it that the Irigwe tribe emerged from a unopen arrive at of the descendants of the Bantu tribes from the Cameroun every bit a resultant of the degree linguistic communication spoken past times a household unit of measurement of languages betwixt Duala inwards the Cameroun in addition to Kei river inwards South Africa, betwixt Barawa inwards in addition to Omaruru inwards Namibia, due to the existence of the 84 Bantu groups of Bantu languages divided inwards some 1600 dialects.
History has it that after the long migration from i betoken to the other through Yankari, et lal; the Irigwe human being settled at Fobur(Jos East). They kept moving inwards hunt of game in addition to ariable Earth for farming until they arrived Riti Voh (Dutsen Kurah), in addition to finaly settling at Rigwe(Kwall).
Economy
The Irigwe people are mainly agriculturalists. They planted a lot of grains in addition to foodstuffs. the Irigwe people were also known for their game-hunting skills.
Irigwe dancers
Socio-political structure
Irigwe traditionally had no tribal chief, in addition to lacked whatsoever formalized political hierarchy every bit such. Instead the tribe was subdivided into 25 semi-autonomous agnatically based ritual units or "sections" (rekla). They are bound together on the i manus past times each section's having exclusive responsibleness for performing i or some other ritual felt to go necessary for the tribe, in addition to on the other manus past times cross-cutting affinal in addition to cognatic bonds mediated past times both primary (fo’wena ‘taking a girl,’ band past times the women every bit nynira ‘a from-to’) and "secondary" (fo mbru ‘taking a adult woman or wife’ past times the men in addition to vwevwe ‘sing-sing’ past times the women) intersection marriages (Sangree 1972).
The Irigwe repeatedly utilize the idiom of generation in addition to sexual activity (i.e., parent-child in addition to manlike individual female) to characterize in addition to sort out aspects of their world, both social in addition to geographical. As a resultant each of their twenty-four agnatically based Irigwe subdivisions or “sections,” every bit the Irigwe telephone band them, has its ain shrine house, rather womb-like inwards shape, called a branyi. Each Irigwe department regards its branyi every bit sacred in addition to every bit its pump of strength in addition to regeneration, in addition to skulls in addition to other relics of warfare in addition to hunting are preserved therein. Each branyi is presided over past times a senior human being of the section’s senior most lineage. The twenty-four sections are grouped into 2 geographically discrete divisions. Rigwe (Kwon District), the “parent” division, which lies S of the River Ngell, has 10 sections, which together command a major portion of the of import tribal ritual.
Nyango (Miango District), the “child” division, with 14 sections, is due north of the Ngell. In improver sections are regarded every bit either “male” or “female”. There are vii manlike individual in addition to 2 woman individual sections inwards the parent division, plus i department that is in all likelihood regarded every bit manlike individual (but I remain uncertain virtually this section). Then at that spot are nine manlike individual in addition to iv woman individual sections inwards the kid division, plus i department that cannot go clearly classified every bit either. Each department has its ritual specialization of significance to the entire tribe. Female sections part the responsibleness for most of the ritual concerning wet-season planting in addition to crop growth, whereas manlike individual sections direct the ritual regulating hunting in addition to most other dry-season activities. Sections inwards the parent partitioning are felt, with i exception, to have got ritual condition superior to that of sections inwards the kid division. This i exception is the department called Rae (“Red Earth”), which is the most senior woman individual department in addition to is
situated inwards the kid division.
Most sections inwards the parent partitioning are regarded every bit having various agnatic origins. Themale sections inwards the parent partitioning are ritually ranked in addition to specialized according to their putative monastic tell of arrival inwards Irigwe. The most senior manlike individual department presides over the most of import dry-season in addition to planting rituals for the entire tribe. The to a greater extent than junior sections inwards the parent partitioning have got their ain relatively pocket-sized ritual specializations, which are for the most portion connected with dry-season activity. The iii woman individual sections inwards the parent partitioning are all of essentially equal ritual status; i carries out planting ritual for i of the of import grain crops; a instant has ritual to command the lightning; the specialty of the tertiary remains unclear to me.
Rae (“Red Earth”), the most senior woman individual department every bit noted above, is situated inwards the kid division. The Red world department presides over the principal farming in addition to first-fruits ritual for all of Irigwe.
With the exception of the Red world department in addition to 2 offshoot sections from it, each department of the kid partitioning recognizes its origin from a “parent” department inwards the parent partitioning in addition to serves every bit its ritual subordinate. Thus a department inwards the kid partitioning is regarded every bit “female” if it is derived from a woman individual parent department in addition to every bit “male” if it is derived from a manlike individual parent section. It is noteworthy that the elders of Nuhwie, the most senior manlike individual section, do non take away the Red world origin myth given to a higher position in addition to dispute the seniority of the Red world section. They assert that Nuhwiae was the first of all Irigwe department in addition to insist that the Red world department is but their missy (a rather ungrateful missy at that) on whom they have got bestowed woman individual ritual leadership through the magnanimity of their paternal affection.
Most Irigwe sections are subdivided into several exogamous lineages (énûcié). Although extended household unit of measurement compounds of whatsoever particular lineage in addition to department tend to go spatially clustered, at that spot are many cases of compounds that adjoin or are surrounded past times compounds of other lineages or fifty-fifty other sections. Thus it is non possible to position either a compound’s lineage or department affiliation alone past times its location. Sections vary greatly inwards size; the largest comprises ninety-nine separate extended household unit of measurement compounds, in addition to the smallest has only two. H5N1 chemical compound usually has virtually thirty-five members, but they also vary greatly inwards size from every bit few every bit iii people to over Irigwe hunt all during the dry out season, principally inwards groups organized on a department basis.
The highlight of the hunting flavor is a three-day tribal hunt in addition to celebration (Zaraci) at the cease of the dry out flavor presided over past times Nuhwie, the most senior manlike individual section. It is inwards the organisation in addition to ceremonial arrangements of this large hunt that i sees the parent in addition to kid divisions most explicitly counter posed. The Irigwe’s passion for hunting finds its principal ceremonial expression, however, after this swell hunt, early on inwards the rains when planting is exactly beginning. At this fourth dimension each department inwards plough holds a three-day ceremonial to purify in addition to praise its hunters who during the preceding flavor have got brought heads of large game (and formerly human enemies) to their branyi. Only heads of sure as shooting unsafe game are preserved every bit relics, thereby qualifying their takers every bit sˇ us (“heroes”) to go thus honored. In recent decades large game has grown really scarce, in addition to inwards several instances some of the little sections, tired of waiting many years for a fellow member to handbag the requisite game before belongings a sˇ üa ceremonial have got paired off with other sections to grip the ceremonial jointly thus making bigger in addition to to a greater extent than frequent ceremonies possible for each.
After the climax of the sˇ üa ceremonial when the heroes are anointed in addition to ritually cleansed patch seated before the branyi, senior representatives of every department of the tribe sit down downwards to a feast, in addition to girls of the host department trip the lite fantastic in addition to sing songs of praise, honoring past times in addition to nowadays heroes. Although the nutrient in addition to beer are supplied past times the host section, representatives from invitee woman individual sections aid brand the in conclusion feast preparations, in addition to elders from invitee manlike individual sections genuinely distribute the nutrient in addition to drink. Then every bit they consume in addition to drink, a spokesman from each department inwards plough comments on the skulls in addition to their takers. As the speeches drag on in addition to the beer flows, verbal skirmishes in addition to sometimes fisticuffs arise over slights or departures from protocol. Finally peace in addition to reconciliation is sought in addition to usually achieved with shouted admonitions that all the sections are i household unit of measurement in addition to that human being in addition to married adult woman in addition to parents in addition to children should aid in addition to back upwards each other.
Anyhow, past times that fourth dimension the elders are also total of beer to aid really much, in addition to the younger men in addition to women, girls in addition to youths, are dancing around the large drum (bí), or are off trysting. Thus nosotros come upwards at in conclusion to the principal focus of this paper, the Irigwe matrimony system. During the dry out flavor men curvature their sporting unloosen energy to chasing downwards game; but the get-go of the planting season, when the rains are exactly starting, is the fourth dimension to a higher position all times for making off with other men’s wives.
Religious Belief
The Irigwe people believe inwards a Supreme existence called Nae. Nae is the God to a higher position all other gods. He created the world in addition to all the things inwards it. He punishes the wicked in addition to bless the goodness one. All the branyi (shrine) gods bow to Nae. The ancestral spirits that Irigwe worship are also inferior to the supreme existence Nae.
The Irigwe people also have got initiation similar Dodo. Ogmjne of the Dodo Cult's principal aims is explicitly that of assuring the wellness in addition to good existence of cultists, peculiarly of their infants in addition to little children. H5N1 secondary, but crucial, portion of the cult is to decrease the style for wives to shift residence to other husbands, thereby increasing matrimony stability. Irigwe men, when discussing the importance of the Dodo Cult, universally view it every bit a way of helping command disease, in addition to some of them also say it helps hold wives inwards residence.
Nowadays, most Irigwe people are largely Christians with some taken into Islam. Very few of them are traditionalists.
IRIGWE WITCHCRAFT
Irigwe view witchcraft every bit existence really important inwards both tribal in addition to local or household unit of measurement affairs. At the tribal flat witchcraft enters into both ritual in addition to political matters, in addition to its practitioners are characteristically men. It may take away pestilence in addition to other disasters, but it is also regarded every bit an of import property to go utilized inwards strengthening the tribe's offensive in addition to defensive efforts inwards inter-tribal affrays (Sangree 1970, 1971). In the local arena, namely with members of the extended household unit of measurement chemical compound (ari}, the lineage (enucie), in addition to others living nearby, witches are often women. In both the tribal in addition to local arenas a witch (krotu) may utilize various kinds of sorcery every bit good every bit witchcraft might (tsitsie) to accomplish desired goals.
Particularly feared inwards local affairs is the witchcraft practiced past times some older women who, jealous of younger women's fertility in addition to salubrious children, are said to have got apprenticed themselves to a powerful witch (krotu) in addition to to have got learned sickness dealing techniques to usage against younger wives in addition to their offspring resident inwards their ain in addition to neighboring compounds. On a issue of occasions people told me that individuals well-known to go witches were living right inwards their ain compounds, but such pronouncements were never made publically inwards my presence nor were names ever given to me. Instead of opened upwards accusations or direct action, indirect palliatives in addition to countermeasures are ordinarily used against the purported depredations of these witches. Many adults apparel leather clad anti-witchcraft medicine bundles around their waists that tin go purchased from Hausa in addition to other non-Irigwe practitioners living inwards Miango, other marketplace areas, in addition to the towns. Local Irigwe doctors (renevo) also regularly prescribe antiwitchcraft medicines in addition to charms. The most highly respected in addition to sought after anti-witchcraft practitioners inwards Irigwe are those who are surviving twins, in addition to thus "good" witches. The Irigwe believe that twins are ever witches (rekrotu), but that i twin is "good" in addition to the other is "bad." In old times the "bad" twin was killed shortly after birth; the surviving "good" twin has the inborn capacity to recognize in addition to neutralize the evil might of other witches (Sangree 1971). It is believed that witches seldom are motivated to problem women in addition to children whom they do non ofttimes see; thus it is mutual for a adult woman seeking security from a witch's malevolence to displace to some other husband, taking her little children with her.
Irigwe Dance
"Among the Irigwe people, each ward of a hamlet has a leading trip the lite fantastic group. Dancers are selected on the footing of their trip the lite fantastic ability. Senior members of the trip the lite fantastic grouping at nowadays send an axe inwards the right manus in addition to a cowtail switch inwards the left. The trip the lite fantastic uniform of curt trousers in addition to a moulded cap of cherry felt was introduced inwards the early on fifties. The idiophones at nowadays inwards usage are made of palm leaves woven into a serial of pockets, containing pebbles attached circular the lower leg.
Two drums atomic number 82 the dance. H5N1 large double faced membranophone with a single snare, called biange and, a smaller membranophone, of identical design, called ishinge. Today the dances, together with a large repertoire inside the same style are performed on iii distinct occasions. The trip the lite fantastic at its most vigorous remains an facial expression of the communal way of life at festivals celebrating the agricultural cycle. The instant occasion occurs when a prominent fellow member of the community dies in addition to dances are performed every bit portion of the funeral ceremonies. Finally the dances are performed to entertain of import visitors." [Harper P., 1966: The Miango Dancers. Studies inwards Nigerian Dance issue 2. Caxton Press Limited, Ibadan].
Going Home to Mother: Traditional Marriage with the Irigwe of Benue-Plateau State, Nigeria
Walter H. Sangree
University of Rochester
The Irigwe matrimony scheme inwards consequence demands that men in addition to women go married to
several spouses inwards differing tribal sections during the course of report of their adult lives and
precludes all divorce. It also ascribes patrivirilocal residence in addition to assigns the
paternity of each kid a adult woman bears to the married adult man with whom she is residing at
the fourth dimension of the child’s conception. Consequently women shift residence from
husband to married adult man several times during the course of report of their lives, in addition to unless
childless they endure intermittent separation from i or some other of their dependent
children. Spirit possession cults, involving nearly all the mature women of the
tribe, provide both the emotional catharsis in addition to the avenues for social integration to
compensate the women for the repeated separations in addition to social disjunctions the
marriage scheme produces inwards their lives. [Irigwe, Rigwe; Jos Plateau; Nigeria;
marriage; polyandry; secondary marriage; spirit possession.]
Irigwe women watching manlike individual dancers, Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Circa 1959
There are 2 basic types of Irigwe marriage. One type, arranged past times the parents of the couplet prior to their adolescence, is known past times the men every bit fo’wena ‘taking a girl,’ band past times the women every bit nynira ‘a from-to.’ The other type, initiated usually past times the couplet themselves, is called fo mbru ‘taking a adult woman or wife’ past times the men in addition to vwevwe ‘sing-sing’ past times the women. I shall simply telephone band the old type “primary marriage” since it usually starts a couple’s conjugal career, in addition to the latter “secondary marriage.
Arrangements for primary matrimony are initiated past times the boy’s household unit of measurement usually when he is still really immature or fifty-fifty an infant. The begetter of the immature boy may approach a friend who has a missy virtually the same historic catamenia in addition to inquire if he in addition to the girl’s woman parent are willing for the missy to go engaged to his boy (á kwe¯ wéna, they go engaged). If they both give their assent the boy’s begetter sends the girl’s household unit of measurement a white hen for her woman parent in addition to an atomic issue 26 bracelet (angrá) for the girl. Occasionally a novel calabash is presented instead of the white hen, in addition to inwards recent years the exchange of a little cash payment has been coming into favor. Sometimes a boy’s woman parent or grandmother may initiate the matrimony plans. H5N1 boy’s household unit of measurement may contract to a greater extent than than i primary matrimony for him, but usually only i such organisation is made for each son. Although a missy is never engaged for primary matrimony to to a greater extent than than i boy, it is mutual (and held to her credit) for a pop missy every bit she reaches puberty to go engaged for secondary marriages to several other men fifty-fifty prior to the consummation of her primary marriage.
When the man child is old plenty to do a goodness day’s hoeing inwards the fields, in addition to when the girl’s breasts are get-go to grow, the boy’s begetter visits the girl’s begetter in addition to is shown fields for his boy to prepare for planting. Early the side past times side planting flavor the man child with the aid of perhaps a dozen of his lineage brothers does virtually twenty-four man-days of go on the fields assigned past times his father-in-law-elect. H5N1 swell bargain of the annual pre-planting champaign grooming is carried out past times these go bees of youths in addition to immature men of the same lineage helping with the bride-service of their younger members.
Usually after iii or iv years of farm service, but never before the missy is good into puberty, the matrimony is consummated past times her taking upwards residence with her espoused inwards his father’s compound. Sometimes the matrimony is consummated before the man child has reached puberty. After this no farther go is due the father-in-law. Since primary marriages are characteristically arranged betwixt families that are distant agnates or betwixt families linked past times friendship (ne ûrí) it is of import to the girl’s patrikin that the matrimony go consummated without mishap. An Irigwe missy after she reaches puberty may experience inclined to defy parental potency in addition to go to go with i of her secondary matrimony suitors fifty-fifty before she has consummated her primary matrimony (secondary suitors have got inevitably attained puberty); thus a prudent begetter hesitates to
postpone his daughter’s primary matrimony much after she reaches puberty fifty-fifty though additional years of farm undertaking are at stake. H5N1 girl’s mother, on the other hand, gratis from many of her husband’s pressures of household unit of measurement or friendship, may counsel her to drag her feet a fleck in addition to postpone leaving abode at to the lowest degree until her primary fiancé has grown upwards a bit. H5N1 mother’s command over her children, both manlike individual in addition to female, is reinforced past times the Irigwe belief that the matrikin, that is the woman parent in addition to her patrilineage (né tekwe), are the best source of assistance inwards illustration of illness or whatsoever other mishap, in addition to a kid learns early on to brain the counsel of his woman parent in addition to her agnates. Thus although the woman parent lacks formalized rights of command inwards the matter, it is often she who decides when her missy should take away upwards residence with her primary husband; indeed a substantial gift inwards cash or variety from the boy’s household unit of measurement to the woman parent usually shortly precedes a girl’s consummating her primary marriage. It should go noted that inwards those cases where a missy takes matters into her ain manus sand goes to a secondary suitor first, she inevitable feels obligated minimally to fulfill her parents’ primary matrimony commitments past times afterwards taking upwards residence with her primary married adult man for at to the lowest degree several weeks.
The first inwards arranging a secondary marriage, inwards contrast to primary marriage, is taken past times the suitor himself. He to a greater extent than often than non uses a manlike individual friend every bit a go-between when first of all sounding out a missy (or woman), in addition to she may either turn down or encourage his overtures. If encouraged the suitor must seek out her begetter (or matrimony guardian) to inquire for his consent. The begetter usually agrees after checking with his missy unless he finds the union would go prohibited past times custom, that is unless it would violate an Irigwe dominion of incest or exogamy.
Primary in addition to secondary marriages are prohibited betwixt lineage-mates, betwixt cognates with a mutual great-grandparent, in addition to betwixt persons born inwards the same chemical compound regardless of kinship. Marriages into one’s mother’s chemical compound in addition to marriages past times a human being (and past times some other human being from his compound) with to a greater extent than than i missy of a chemical compound are also prohibited; also men from the same department may never get hitched with the same adult woman so long every bit both men are alive; nor may a human being get hitched with a widow of his ain lineage until she has first of all gone to get hitched with a novel married adult man of some other lineage. The department is non an exogamous unit, in addition to primary marriages inwards particular are often contracted betwixt distant agnates every bit good every bit betwixt other distant consanguines.
Secondary matrimony suitors cannot go members of her living husbands’ or husbands-elect’s sections. As Irigwe men position it, “You tin take away a missy (‘wena) but never a married adult woman (mbru) from your ain section.” In improver a human being cannot take away a married adult woman from his mother’s department or his mother’s mother’s natal compound, that is he cannot contract a secondary matrimony with a adult woman who is already married to these categories of his kinsmen.
Secondary matrimony arrangements are, past times Irigwe custom, formally concluded in addition to go binding when the suitor makes a matrimony payment to the begetter or matrimony guardian; the amount of the payment is to a greater extent than often than non 30 to 40 shillings cash. After that the missy s committed to acquire out her prior married adult man in addition to pass a black with her novel secondary married adult man at his compound. Usually she does this inside several months’ time. Unless, however, the girl’s woman parent also favors the union and, every bit with primary marriage, has been given a gift of perhaps 10 shillings, the missy tin go expected to postpone going to the secondary married adult man indefinitely. After an Irigwe begetter has granted permission in addition to received matrimony payment for 2 or iii of his daughter’s secondary marriages, it is usual for him to select i of his lineage brothers to go her matrimony guardian (bae bi nva) in addition to oversee in addition to have payment for her time to come secondary marriages.
When a adult woman goes to a secondary married adult man she leaves behind everything except the apparel in addition to jewelry she is wearing. (Occasionally an older adult woman volition take away i or to a greater extent than of her younger children with her.) Generally her prior married adult man fetches her dorsum the morning time after she has forsaken him for a secondary husband. On a subsequent visit, however, the adult woman may pick out to remain in addition to take away upwards residence with her novel husband. The married adult man receiving her must go prepared to provide her with a hut in addition to everything she needs for housekeeping if he expects her to remain to a greater extent than than a night. If a adult woman stays with a married adult man from planting fourth dimension on through the harvest flavor he tin go counted on to give her grain for her dry out flavor cooking needs in addition to her ain little granary to shop it in. Young girls who have got exactly consummated their primary marriages go off to their secondary husbands whatsoever season, although they favor the hunting in addition to early on planting seasons when
drumming in addition to dancing are allowed. But in i trial a adult woman has stayed with a human being long plenty for him to have got given her a granary in addition to grain, she seldom leaves him for a secondary married adult man before the get-go of some other farming flavor when she has already used upwards the grain. At dawn after a human being has received a novel secondary married adult woman the women of his chemical compound denote the fact with shrill ululations. Before long the prior husband, or i of his brothers, demo sup to telephone band her back. She so promptly returns to her prior husband’s compound, accompanied past times a flow of ululating girls if she herself is still a immature girl. The prior husband
tarries at the wife-taker’s chemical compound to gulp his fill upwards of the beer that custom demands must go offered him. It is considered bad manners for a prior spouse to sulk or give direct facial expression to his annoyance at this time, but he never misses a modify to criticize the lineament of their beer, patch at the same fourth dimension encouraging lots of people from his ain chemical compound to follow him at that spot to gulp upwards every bit much every bit possible. Later inwards the hateful solar daytime the girls from the wife-taker’s compound, if the married adult woman has come upwards to him for the first of all time, denote his success past times begging pennies at the compounds of his friends in addition to from others of his section.
H5N1 adult woman is non obliged to slumber with a secondary spouse for to a greater extent than than i night, in addition to she must homecoming to her prior married adult man when he comes for her. But her reputation volition endure in addition to she may incur the wrath of her begetter or matrimony guardian if she isn’t willing to go to the secondary married adult man 2 or iii times. She in all likelihood won’t go to him a 4th time, however, unless she has decided to shift her residence from her prior married adult man to his; at that juncture the prior married adult man usually doesn’t bother to telephone band her abode to him whatsoever more. In whatsoever illustration the prior married adult man isn’t served beer past times the secondary married adult man except the first of all fourth dimension he calls her back. The traditional Irigwe matrimony scheme has no divorce. H5N1 woman’s prior marriages are never formally terminated past times her switching residence to some other spouse; she may homecoming to whatsoever of her spouses at whatsoever fourth dimension in addition to usually finds herself welcomed dorsum in addition to given a hut in addition to everything else she needs for housekeeping.
In monastic tell to go a existent success at the secondary matrimony game a human being needs to have got 2 or iii reliable friends exterior his ain department who, existence able to displace freely in addition to partake of festivities inwards compounds where he would go suspect, tin audio out possible secondary matrimony alliances, send messages for him, in addition to the like. The quid pro quo of such friendships is to give reciprocal assistance inwards courtship in addition to never to take away wives from each other’s compounds. Friends may, however, get hitched with daughters from each other’s compounds. Women, for their part, depend heavily upon their co wives, including their husbands’ siblings’ wives, when planning in addition to carrying out secondary alliances. Indeed the Irigwe give-and-take uri agency exactly 2 things: “a man's friend,” as
described above, in addition to “co-wife.” Two people calling each other uri (both 2 men who are friends in addition to co-wives) often inwards afterwards life farther consolidate their human relationship past times arranging for a primary matrimony betwixt each other’s children or grandchildren. Exogamy rules, however, strictly circumscribe the opportunities for arranging such a primary marriage.
Irigwe men have got much to gain in addition to relatively lilliputian to lose past times contracting many marriages. The initial expenses of procuring a married adult woman are offset in all likelihood inside a twelvemonth past times her domestic in addition to agricultural undertaking if she tin go induced to remain that long. It volition go seen later, however, that keeping a married adult woman resident for a issue of years is to a greater extent than often than non quite expensive for the husband. H5N1 human being receives a lot of kudos from others inwards his chemical compound in addition to department in addition to from his friends for taking many wives, especially if he tin also hold a issue of wives resident at the same time. When a married adult woman leaves him for some other married adult man both the illustration in addition to counsel of his department peers exhort him to cool his anger, go civil towards her other married adult man so every bit non to annoy her, promptly telephone band her back, in addition to seek farther to regain confront past times endeavoring to get hitched with someone else’s wife. From the husband's
betoken of view every novel matrimony agency minimally some other adult woman who volition cohabit with him, ever at his ain compound, for at to the lowest degree 2 or iii nights, in addition to who may settle with him to a greater extent than or less permanently in addition to conduct him children.
An Irigwe woman, every bit mentioned earlier, ever has the right to turn down whatsoever secondary matrimony proposal prior o the matrimony payment from the suitor to her begetter or matrimony guardian. She is never able, however, to contract a matrimony without her father’s or matrimony guardian’s consent; few Irigwe women volition take away a opportunity the epithet of mbrúnjê (promiscuous woman), in addition to the accompanying loss of farther desirability every bit a married adult woman that sexual relations without this paternal permission rapidly brings. H5N1 adult woman ever has someone inwards her lineage who has the inalienable right to bestow her every bit a legitimate sexual partner; if her begetter in addition to the matrimony guardian he chose for her both die, her lineage selects some other matrimony guardian for her. H5N1 begetter or matrimony guardian, of course, never grants exclusive sexual access to this matrimony ward; since at that spot is no
divorce a married adult man competes with his wife’s other husbands, both nowadays in addition to future, for her sexual favors.
H5N1 married adult man also, inwards effect, competes with a wife’s other husbands for the paternity of the children she bears. In contrast to the rights of bestowal of sexual access, which remain ever with the woman’s father, his appointee, or his lineage heirs, the begetter surrenders all command over rights inwards genetricam6 early on inwards a woman’s matrimony career, at a ceremony called sa tese (literally, “putting outside”) usually held virtually the 6th calendar month of her first of all pregnancy. Thenceforth the query of paternity is settled in addition to legally confirmed past times the actions of the adult woman in addition to her spouses. It may go adjudicated past times the Irigwe elders, in addition to sometimes today past times the District Court, but this is seldom necessary. H5N1 child’s paternity is usually bestowed without argument upon whichever married adult man the woman parent was residing with when she was pregnant in addition to when she bore the child. H5N1 adult woman seldom shifts to some other married adult man patch she is pregnant. If it turns out a married adult woman went to some other husband
virtually the fourth dimension she conceived, the prior husband’s paternal rights to the kid are non disputed provided he called the married adult woman dorsum to him promptly, in addition to provided he took responsibleness for the baby’s infancy rites. The infant’s permanent department affiliation is the same every bit the pater’s, that is, it is reckoned agnatically.
When a married adult woman makes it clear that she is shifting her residence to some other husband, the married adult man she is leaving to a greater extent than often than non asserts his right to hold all the children she bore him except for those nether iii or iv years of historic catamenia whose homecoming he may afterwards demand, in addition to so he puts out the welcome mat for her return. Wives come upwards in addition to wives go, but a human being lives on inwards the familiar environment at his ancestral abode with the companionship of his sons in addition to single daughters. In his old historic catamenia he is supported past times his sons in addition to cooked for past times their wives if he has no resident wives of his own, patch he turns his energies to ritual in addition to judicial affairs that include looking after the marriages of his daughters and/or matrimony wards.
All older Irigwe women have got had a plurality of husbands. In a consummate census I took of 5 compounds, totaling over 250 people, every missy pubescent or older had had a primary matrimony arranged for her; all women past times their teens had at to the lowest degree i secondary spouse, in addition to most had had 2 or more; fully one-half of the women middle aged or over had borne children for 2 or to a greater extent than husbands. H5N1 girl’s primary matrimony is but her marital debut whence she usually leaps into a circular of secondary alliances, gaining thereby non only the excitement in addition to pleasures these afford, but also the admiration of both peers in addition to parents. Fathers are pleased in addition to proud to have got a missy who has iv or to a greater extent than secondary marriages to her credit, in addition to co wives admire such a woman. Some immature women, however, presently go really attached to i or some other secondary - or fifty-fifty their primary - spouse in addition to go along to take away other husbands only to avoid annoying their begetter or matrimony guardian; for it is believed that a father’s annoyance, fifty-fifty unexpressed, may atomic number 82 to his daughter’s barrenness, illness, or fifty-fifty to the illness of her children.
It is usual for a adult woman to settle downwards for a relatively protracted catamenia with a married adult man for whom she has borne a kid or two. Sooner or later, however, she almost inevitable moves either dorsum to an old or on to a novel husband. Often she is prompted to do so past times a diviner’s diagnosis that her ain wellness or that of i of her children needs the change. The Irigwe consider it a prime number duty of both parents to go see whatsoever of their children who have got fallen seriously sick in addition to so to remain on until the child’s wellness improves or until the funeral. In this social club virtually one-half of the infants salubrious at nativity perish from illness before their 6th birthday. Thus sometimes her ain health, but to a greater extent than ofttimes the wellness of her children, becomes a prime number element sometimes inwards abetting in addition to other times inwards inhibiting a mother’s matrimony mobility. “Spoiled stomach” (owie ‘dzio) is the Irigwe idiom to a greater extent than often than non used to denote grief, including homesickness in addition to bereavement. On several occasions I saw exactly that literally occur to a kid upon the difference of the woman parent for some other husband, in addition to in i trial I saw the kid acquire sick plenty so that the woman parent postponed her planned shift of residence.
The Irigwe have got a belief they usage every bit the footing of a sort of litmus newspaper examine to whether or non a human being should consider taking whatsoever particular adult woman every bit his secondary wife. The belief is that if a human being who is sick or injured is visited or aided past times a human being with whom he has shared a woman’s favors (if, for example, he is visited past times a co husband) he volition take away a precipitous plough for the worse in addition to in all likelihood die. This belief enjoins men to go peculiarly sure as shooting they know all a woman’s husbands before taking her inwards secondary marriage, so they tin avoid inadvertently becoming the co married adult man of anyone such every bit a friend or section-brother with whom casual in addition to friendly relations are desired or ritually prescribed. It also leads a prudent human being to pick out his hunting partners with care; in addition to whenever he is hunting with people from other sections he feels it wise to seek out a “friend” or unopen uterine kinsman to remain nearby in addition to lend him assistance if he should accidentally go injured. It volition go recalled that it is both rude in addition to misfortunate strategy to limited hostility openly towards a human being who married your wife. Thus it is non surprising to have got had the belief arise that co husbands are unsafe to have got around inwards times of illness.
Open accusations of witchcraft or sorcery inwards Irigwe, although they occur, are rare, in addition to I have got no cases of their arising betwixt rivals for a woman. On the other hand, fights betwixt hunters over partitioning of game, especially betwixt men of different sections in addition to rivals for the same women, are really mutual in addition to resultant bodily injury occurs all to frequently. I never, however, was able to uncover an illustration of intratribal homicide inwards Irigwe, in addition to elders claim that at that spot was no traditional compensation, retribution, or penalization for murder or homicide inside the tribe. There are rigid sanctions, mostly ritual inwards nature, militating against a section’s bifurcating. Elders, however, tin recall several instances of this happening inside the in conclusion lx or lxx years. Sometimes a dispute over the partitioning of game was cited every bit the motion of the split, in addition to inwards other instances a man’s taking a married adult woman of a fellow member of some other lineage of his ain department was position forth every bit the start of the division; all agreed, however, that the taking of wives of department members of other lineages confirmed the splits fifty-fifty where they did non initiate them.
Irigwe is a segmentary social club that brings its ain refinement to the usage of matrimony every bit a social machinery for establishing ties betwixt segments. In many segmentary societies inwards Africa cross-cutting ties are forged past times “marrying your enemies,” i.e., past times marrying the daughters of outsider clans. The Irigwe system, however, serves straight to reinforce intrasegment solidarity patch also forging inter-segment links. The Irigwe get hitched with their friends in addition to distant kinsmen inwards primary marriage, in addition to so they get hitched with their enemy’s wives inwards secondary marriage, with most of the secondary marriages existence betwixt partners from different sections. Often inwards her old historic catamenia a adult woman returns to go her in conclusion days inwards a chemical compound where she has a grown son. If she is without surviving sons, she may pick out so pass her declining years either with i of her surviving spouses, to contract a novel matrimony with an elderly man, or to homecoming to her paternal chemical compound “to retire.” An Irigwe adult woman takes an active, but non central, usage inwards the mortuary rites of her married adult man if she is resident with him when he dies, in addition to vice versa, but inside a calendar month she moves from her deceased husband’s chemical compound dorsum to her paternal abode whence she afterwards may go married to a novel married adult man of some other section. Irigwe spouses are never buried inwards the same grave, indeed they fifty-fifty fright going close the graves of their deceased spouses.
Irigwe old men are prone to wax both sentimental in addition to possessive virtually the daughters of their section; I recall overhearing an audible reverie of some old men basking on a stone inwards the even out sun, virtually “those wonderful daughters of our section, all of them belonging to us, all of them!” An Irigwe department may lose daughters’ children to other sections, but they ever retain the right to bestow each of their daughters inwards matrimony over again in addition to again. And when a adult woman dies, the married adult man or boy she was resident with may pick out to bury her inwards a crypt of his lineage, but her lineage of nativity tin ever intervene in addition to demand the torso dorsum if they experience the burial arrangements are inwards whatsoever way unsatisfactory. It would seem that Irigwe men clit an intense satisfaction from belongings veto might over the whereabouts of their daughters, a veto that contrasts greatly to a man’s limited might to hold a married adult woman with him, in addition to to a child’s inability to grip onto his woman parent (except past times getting sick).
Irigwe men, of course, must also endure frequent separations, first of all every bit children from i or some other parent in addition to extended household unit of measurement grouping in addition to so every bit adults from a succession of wives, sometimes parting temporarily, sometimes permanently. As adults, however, Irigwe men may derive whatever solace tin go drawn from
remaining resident inwards their paternal compound, from regular participation inwards their compound’s in addition to their section’s yearly wheel of economics, in addition to from leading their daily lives ever with the same kernel of manlike individual patrikinsmen. Irigwe women, inwards contrast, must non only endure frequent separation from i or some other of their husbands in addition to children but must also experience concomitant changes of residence in addition to of women with whom to go past times their work-a-day lives. From my earliest weeks inwards Irigwe I ofttimes attended women’s possession dances in addition to saw women cry, beak inwards tongues, in addition to flail virtually after the frenetic drumming, dancing, singing, in addition to rattling leg irons had induced a dissociated state inwards them. From my census I found that over ninety-five per centum of the women past times their middle twenties felt themselves to go afflicted with troublesome spirits they telephone band rije, which if non brought out in addition to assuaged from fourth dimension to fourth dimension motion illness. In contrast less than 2 per centum of the men were so afflicted. It wasn’t until over a twelvemonth of fieldwork had passed, however, in addition to I saw a adult woman whom I had come upwards to know good inwards the agony of a precipitous in addition to protracted state of dissociation, “struck,” every bit they say, past times her rije, that I made the connection betwixt the Irigwe marriage-go-round in addition to women’s possession.
Two aspects of this woman’s seizure led to my novel insight. First, her behaviour was inwards such striking contrast to her usual gay in addition to confident manner. Normally she was the most self-possessed in addition to affable of iii immature resident wives of a widely liked boyfriend who was to a greater extent than often than non viewed every bit a model husband. She had borne him i kid so virtually iii years old. Her co wives had noticed that she has been moody since she had had a miscarriage virtually a calendar month before, in addition to so all of a precipitous she had been overcome patch making beer. Possession specialists, both manlike individual in addition to female, were at in i trial called in, in addition to past times the fourth dimension I arrived on the scene they in addition to perhaps a dozen members of the chemical compound were trying to humour in addition to calm her every bit she lay sobbing in addition to groveling on the flooring of her hut. It was fully 2 hours before she calmed down, quite exhausted past times then, in addition to was able fifty-fifty to recognize her ain child. The instant aspect was the nature of the seizure itself. Her flailing virtually patch possessed, her barely coherent demands for this in addition to that emitted betwixt heart-rending wails, reminded me all also forcefully of two- in addition to three-year old children I had seen in
my ain civilisation reacting to i or some other major frustration. In contrast, silence, listlessness, in addition to quite often “spoiled stomach” are Irigwe toddlers’ feature responses to a severe frustration or trauma such every bit the difference of the mother. Irigwe children acquire really early on to suppress, indeed to repress the felt demand for vehement emotional outbursts. They observe that tantrums usually take away tongue-lashings in addition to acute shooings from their elders, whereas inwards contrast the soundless in addition to wan or the clearly sick kid is endlessly snuggled in addition to whispered words of affection in addition to reassurance. Thus it appears that only nether the cultural guise of existence possessed past times rije may Irigwe usually give vent without castigation to their repressed feeling of anguish arising from their repeated separations from loved ones, separations first of all occurring inwards infancy in addition to childhood, in addition to afterwards a major aspect of married life, especially the married life of women.
Subsequent systematic inquiries revealed that instances such every bit the i exactly described are really common. When a adult woman is first of all struck downwards past times her rije the people on manus telephone band inwards an skilful diagnostician who rapidly establishes which of several varieties of rije have got afflicted her. The diagnostician so blames the presence of the rije for some recent disaster inwards the patient’s life such every bit a miscarriage or illness. After the adult woman has recovered from this initial laid on she must seek handling at a chemical compound “owning her rije,” that is, owning the medicine in addition to ritual to command them. There she is inevitably advised that if she ever wants to escape the sick effects, in addition to inwards fourth dimension perhaps gain control, of the rije that have got come upwards to reside inwards her she should every bit presently every bit possible have got a major ceremonial held for her called nyi rije (“making rije”). The nyi rije ceremonial is really expensive. All the patient’s paternal in addition to maternal kin, in addition to all of the kinsmen of the married adult man with whom she
resides must go invited in addition to served beer. Also a hundred shillings or to a greater extent than worth of grain must go supplied every bit payment to woman individual ritual practitioners of the chemical compound owning the rije, in addition to additional grain must go given to elderberry women of other compounds also possessed past times that type of rije who come upwards to aid preside. The services of perhaps a dozen possession drummers in addition to singers (always men) must go paid for. Finally, in addition to most costly of all, the practitioners, interpreting the babblings of the possessed women, inevitably assert that the rije possessing the patient demands cloth, lots of expensive cloth, some of which must go given to the patient prior to the ceremony, in addition to some afterwards, to assure its effectiveness. Usually it takes an Irigwe married adult man a issue of months, or fifty-fifty a twelvemonth or more, to heighten the majuscule in addition to goal arrangements of i of these ceremonials. And that’s to a greater extent than often than non not the cease of it. Most women demand repeat ceremonials every several years to hold their rije nether control. Happily rije tin go “placed” (sa rije), that is pacified temporarily, by
belongings relatively elementary in addition to cheap all black possession dances requiring only the services of i or 2 drummer-singers whom the women tin observe coin to reimburse themselves. In the illustration of the large nui rije ceremonials, however, most women are subject on the larger resources available only to the men folk. H5N1 married adult woman will, if necessary, hold leaving i married adult man for some other until she finds at nowadays willing in addition to able to grip a nyi rije ceremonial for her. H5N1 married adult man presently develops a reputation with womenfolk every bit stingy or generous inwards such matters, a reputation that strongly affects his subsequent success inwards marrying wives in addition to belongings them resident.
H5N1 adult woman inwards middle historic catamenia may prepare science inwards calling forth her rije (hurae rije) in addition to becoming possessed past times them at will. She volition so go sought after to aid preside at nyi rije ceremonials in addition to novices afflicted with her variety of rije, in addition to she volition have payment for her services. Some older women acquire to telephone band in addition to utilize their rije every bit a source of divinatory in addition to curing power; a few create upwards a large clientele of patients in addition to fifty-fifty go independently wealthy through fees received for their services. Thus it would seem that many years afterwards in addition to inwards a displaced in addition to disguised shape a adult woman may have substantial compensation for the psychic stresses she has suffered from workings of the Irigwe marriage-go-round.
The Irigwe linguistic communication is replete with ambiguities, in addition to puns are a favorite shape of Irigwe humor. The facial expression nje na ridae me in addition to “I am going courting,” i.e., looking for a secondary wife. But it also agency “I am going abode to mother.” Never sure as shooting whether I’d miss a subtle phonemic distinction or a crucial toneme, I asked over again in addition to over again virtually this ambiguity, in addition to usually for an respond I got a express mirth followed either past times a shrug, or a terse retort, “It’s the same thing.” Thus inwards closing may I advise that it is a meaningful metaphor to beak of an Irigwe man’s life in addition to loves inwards large mensurate every bit a continuing call for for his wandering mother? Bearing inwards brain the portion of the Red world origin myth where the Red world department followed a boy department to its nowadays locale inwards Nyango, in addition to also that a son’s chemical compound is indeed the favorite position for a woman’s
“retirement” inwards old age, is it non fair also to say that an Irigwe woman’s life tin go viewed every bit an ongoing call for for her son
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