Info For You Lot Ga People: Ghana`S Tribe That Has Maintained Its African Traditions In Addition To Civilization Inwards The Midst Of Western Influence Inwards The Working Capital Missive Of The Alphabet City,Accra.
The Ga people belong to the Ga-Dangbe grouping of Kwa people who inhabit the Greater Accra part of nowadays twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia Ghana. The Kwa people of Africa include the Ga-Dangbe, Ewe, Akwapim, Fanti, Kwahu, in addition to Akim in addition to Ashanti. According to some legends Ga people migrated from Nigeria, others that they were component of State of Israel that migrated southward through nowadays twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia Uganda, so along the Congo River, westward through Cameroons, Nigeria, Benin, Togo in addition to finally to Greater Accra. Accra: the ancient metropolis of the Ga people, is the upper-case missive of the alphabet of the Ghana. It is also the middle of commerce in addition to learning in the country, and it controls the intellectual life of the ground as a whole.
Ga people live along the shoreline of the Gulf of Guinea. This Ga settlement areas is bounded on the East past times the Tshemu (Chemu) lagoon close Tema, on the West past times the Sakumofio River, the North past times Akuapem Mountains in addition to the South past times the Gulf of Guinea. According to Reindorf (1895) the coastal towns established past times the Ga-Adangbe speaking emigrants who arrived from Aneho, Benin, Boni in addition to Boma to the Gold Coast inward the early on sixteenth century, stretches from Lanma (Mt. Cook Loaf) to Fla i.e. the Volta Basin along the shorelines of the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Among which are Ngleshi (James Town), Kinka (Ussher Town), Osu (Christiansburg), La (Labadi), Teshie, Nungua (Little Ningo), in addition to Tema.
Ga People of Accra,Ghana
Given that Africans have got roamed the continent for thousands of years in addition to that such migrations powerfulness have got been northward, southward, eastward or westward, the origin of whatever grouping of people inward Africa may live rattling uncertain. Any African powerfulness have relatively originated from anywhere inward Africa. The cited rootage powerfulness as good live what could live remembered almost the recent past times in addition to non the ultimate origin. For example, the Wolof call for a Rex is Fari which is rattling similar to the discussion Faro of ancient Arab Republic of Egypt and may dot to the Egyptian heritage of the Wolof inward West Africa. The Egyptian discussion for the highest god in addition to righteous begetter was Ra in addition to the Setwana discussion for begetter is also Ra.
It is hence non surprising that amidst the Ga people, those at Teshi claim to have migrated from a town called Boma on the shores of the Congo River, those at Labadi from Boney Island off the coast of Nigeria in addition to those from Gamashi from Republic of Benin City in Eastern Nigeria.
Ga Chief sprinkling traditional sacred nutrient (Kpekple) for the gods on the street of Accra. (The Sprinkling of KPOKPOI (Unleven Bread made from corn) is performed by royals such as the King, Queen, Chiefs, in addition to High Priests (wolomei) on the Festival day. This nutrient is gratis for all to swallow in addition to repose sprinkled on the ground for earthly creatures to partake inward the abundance of food. It is believed that the spirits of our ancesters are nowadays all the fourth dimension such as King Ayi Kushi, our firstly King in addition to Joshua (aka)Jesus etc.)
ORIGIN OF THE GA-SPEAKING PEOPLE
The rootage of the Ga-speaking ethnic groups from the early on Sixteenth Century inward the so Gold Coast has been a dependent of controversy, since various scholars have got given different versions of their migration stories. Most of these narrations are based on oral traditions, myths, legends, folklores, music, religious songs in addition to many other sources; including archaeological findings.
Reindorf (1895, p.18) inward tracing the rootage of the Ga indicates that F. Romer, a Dutch resident of the Christiansborg inward almost the middle of the Eighteenth Century states, “that the Gold Coast was 1 time component of the western sectionalisation of the territory of the Emperor of Benin.” To buttress this point, Romer farther argues that, “the insignia of the kings of the Akras were similar those used inward Benin, in addition to most of their religious ceremonies, e.g. killing the sacrificial animals with precipitous stones instead of knives, inward monastic enjoin non to avoid defiling them, were also used inward Akra.”
Corroborating Romer’s assertion, Henderson-Quartey (2001), citing from the piece of work of Bruce-Myers (1927, pp.70-72) quoted him as saying, “the Gas came all the way from the fundamental component of the Continent…and they are kinsmen to the Benins, who past times their ain choice, kept dorsum inward the course of study of the migration.” This gives credence to the supposition that the Ga ethnic groups were 1 time component of the people of Republic of Benin from the mid-western component of Nigeria. Existing traditional accounts of the rootage of the Ga according to Reindorf, indicates that the ancestors of the tribes of Akras, Late, Obutu in addition to Mowure are said to have got emigrated from the sea, arriving at the coast tribe after tribe.” These tribes he believe arrived together with the Adangbes either from Tetetutu or from Samè, located beyond the Volta inward the east, in addition to situated betwixt ii rivers.
Field (1937, p.142) associating with Reindorf noted that the Ga speaking emigrants began to create it in addition to settle amidst the lagoon-worshipping Kpéshi aborigines in all probability at the goal of the sixteenth century. She argued that these were emigrant refugee families of the Ga Boni, Ga Wo, Ga Mashie in addition to the Obutu fleeing inward separate parties from Tetetutu in addition to other Republic of Benin parts, in all probability travelling along the beach, in addition to eventually settled along the coastlines of the Gulf of Guinea, inward the Greater Accra region. Henderson-Quartey on his component noted that the Ga Mashi, Ga Wo, in addition to the Ga Boni inward association with some Guan groups having formed component of the emigrants that re-grouped at Tetetutu, crossed over from the due east of the Volta into the Accra Plains.
On the contrary, Amartey (1991, pp.13-14) narrating from oral traditions or folkloric sources gave a different version of the migration story of the Ga inward Gamashie Ashikwei (Origin of the Ga). According to him, historically, the Ga of Republic of Ghana were believed to have got 1 time lived along the eastern component of the banks of the River Nile during the reign of Thothmes II, the so Pharaoh of Egypt, circa 1700 –1250 BCE. This was at the fourth dimension when the Israelites had settled on the ground of Goshen, from the eastern component of the River Nile to its estuary. He postulates that the Ga were component of the Nubians that left Arab Republic of Egypt after beingness freed from slavery past times the so Pharaoh Amenhotep II.
Unlike other scholars in addition to historians, Amartey tracing the itinerary of the Nubians indicted that this grouping separated into the Ethiopian in addition to Ga ethnic groups after they had left Egypt, with each grouping next different direction. The Ga-speaking ethnic groups which consists of the Wo Kpele, Wo Krowor, Wo Doku in addition to Wo Sagba were supposed to have got travelled the south-western route past times next the Ghazal in addition to Jebe creeks, in addition to the River Ubangi which eventually led them to Boma; a town inward Congo (presently D. R. Congo).
There they sojourn for some time, before moving on to the Boni Island inward the Niger Delta Basin. He farther posits that piece inward Nigeria, these groups 1 time once again separated, with 1 component moving due west to the ground of the ancient Benins, piece the repose moved north-west to Ife inward the Yoruba land. He so traced their movements from Nigeria through Dahomey (now Republic of Benin) in addition to to Togo where they settled at Aneho, before eventually moving on to their nowadays locations inward the so Gold Coast.
Even though these narratives of the rootage of the Ga-speaking people depended mainly on the generics of oral traditions, legends, etc: it is obvious that names of sure places such as Tetetutu, Benin, Boni, Boma, Samè or Seme, Aneho in addition to others have got featured prominently inward the migration stories of most scholars of Ga history. These assertions has been corroborated past times people of other ethnic groups such as the Adangbe, Ada, Krobo in addition to Ewe speakers who were beau emigrants of the Ga groups inward their journeys from Republic of Benin inward Nigeria through Aneho inward Togo, in addition to finally to their nowadays locations inward modern Ghana.
Commenting on the to a higher spot assertions, Field (1937, p.72) intimates that, “when the Ga-speaking emigrants arrived inward the Gold Coast, neither they nor the aborigines had whatever armed forces organisation in addition to since they were all farmers, the newcomers settled peaceably amidst them wherever at that spot was a vacant territory. However, because much of the ground was of thick bush inhabited past times wild in addition to unsafe animals, hunters who opened upwards tracts of these forests were recognized as owners of such places.”
Consequently, these extended theatre unit of measurement groups comprising of both emigrants in addition to aborigines either through intermarriages or through assimilation, formed settlements that lived past times farming in addition to to some extent hunting. In monastic enjoin to protect themselves from slave raiding that has go rife, these settlements which were threatened with extinction, had to combine forces to found towns for mutual protection; in addition to the setting upwards of armed forces organizations to scrap off these invaders.
Stride in addition to Ifeka (1971, p.203) piece corroborating these assertions of Field, farther noted that it was at the goal of the Fifteenth Century that the social organizations of the Ga towns began to change. This inward their view began with the establishment of a to a greater extent than centralized management system, in addition to armed forces companies (Asafoi) nether captains (Asafoiatsemei) that played prominent in addition to of import roles inward the maintenance of law in addition to order, as good as governance of these towns.
Ga is the derivation of Gaga (soldier ants) which according to Reindorf (1895, p.24) is the names of the large dark ants which bites severely in addition to are unsafe to the white ants. However, he noted that the natives called themselves Loeiabii (children of Loei). Of course, Loei is a Ga call for some other species of dark dark-brown ants, which meanders almost inward groovy swarms; invading houses, killing in addition to devouring everything inward their way. These marauding ants known to the Akans as 'nkrang", in addition to whose aggressive nature were attributed to the powerful wandering Ga emigrant tribes; easily subdued other tribes as good as the Guans who were the aborigines of the land. This was the call ascribed to the Ga-speaking tribes due to their prowess in addition to bravery inward warfare, in addition to the Portuguese due to their difficulty inward pronunciation later on corrupted it to Akra (Accra).
THE CULTURE OF GA LANGUAGE
Ga linguistic communication according to Henderson-Quartey (2001, p.38) conveys oral traditions through which the history of its speakers are revealed, in addition to the way past times which the members of the society portion their collective experience in addition to knowledge through mutual bond.
The Ga linguistic communication as compared with other spoken words inward etymology according to Greenberg (UNESCO, Vol.1, p.304), is classified amidst the Kwa grouping of languages found on the African Continent. These classifications consists of the Kru languages, Western Kwa, made upwards of Ewe-Fon, Akan-Guan sometimes called Volta-Camoe, Ga-Adangme, Yoruba-Igala, Nupe, Edo, Idoma, Ibio, in addition to Ijo groups. Commenting farther on the evolution of the Ga language, Henderson-Quartey postulates that though it is closest to the Adangme in addition to portion a groovy deal of similarities non only inward root-words but also inward linguistic communication structure; it has nether gone some shape of changes past times borrowing words from the Yoruba, Guans, Akans, Portuguese, in addition to English linguistic communication languages to get upwards the Ga vocabulary.
Ga adult man carrying his theatre unit of measurement gods inward a shape of cockerel carving
For examples, words such as Okyeame (linguist), Asafo (company or troop), Akwashon (corrupted shape of eku eson – council of seven), bitim, odono, atumpam (types of drums), pleko (iron nail), nklakla (light soup), ampeshi (boiled plantain), etc. Besides, inward Ga religious expressions, mpai (libation), otutu (a mound of shrine) etc, are also of Akan origin. While asapatre (Shoe), goa (Guava), dashi (Bribe), gudiimin (Good Evening), moonimooni (Good Morning), feesi (First) are corrupted forms of Portuguese in addition to English linguistic communication words respectively. Of course, the Guans also on the other hand, had contributed extensively to the lexicological evolution of the modern Ga linguistic communication through the formal principles of inflexion of Ga words; in addition to grammatical features such as the usage of verb forms for the nowadays progressive in addition to the hereafter tenses, which are non found inward the Adangme verb forms.
GA STATE AND SOCIETY
The Ga Mashie community of the Ashiedu Keteke (Odododiodio) District of the Greater Accra part is believed to have got been established past times the Wo Sagba grouping of the Ga-speaking emigrants that set out to arrived in addition to settled amidst the lagoon-worshipping Kpéshi aborigines inward the hinterlands in addition to along the coast, in all probability at the goal of the Seventeenth Century. Henderson-Quartey (2001) indicates that it has been widely accepted that the Guans preceded the Ga inward settling along the coast of Accra, the duration of which Ga historians have got non been able to determine. According to him, the Ga refers to the Guans as Shits? m?i (landowners) in addition to on this basis, acknowledged seniority to them for beingness firstly to settle inward the territory.
He farther noted that the Ga assimilation of the indigenous faith of the Shiatsemei (landowners), clearly showed at that spot was some shape of Guan civilization inward existence before the arrival of the Ga-speaking people. Field on her part, states that these grouping of Ga emigrants mainly fishermen, consist of 7 families led past times Nii Tete in addition to Nii Moi: Wulomei of the Nai in addition to Onyeni deities respectively. She farther posits that the Nai We people who were worshippers of the Nai deity established their settlement at Tu?mat?, the nowadays site of the Ussher Fort. While the Onyeni deity-worshipping grouping led past times Nii Moi, settled behind the cliffs of the James Fort, which was later on built past times an English linguistic communication trading society inward 1672.
Having corroborated the assertions of Field almost the earliest Ga-speaking emigrants of the Ga Mashie community along the coast of Accra, Henderson-Quartey farther indicated that apart from the Ga coastal community, the Ga Mashie inland community could live almost iv times that of its nowadays littoral expanse with most of the surrounding hills having large towns on them. These settlements, according to him were bound on the due west past times the Densu River in addition to stretched eastward from the hills of Weija in addition to Kplagon to the Laloi River inward the Shai Plains could boast of some stone buildings with extensive Fe works. While Ozanne (1962) also noted that archaeological findings from the middens or organized pass upwards dumps stretching from the Nsaki River in addition to across the hamlet of Amanfro inward the nowadays Ga-West district have got revealed large quantities of pottery in addition to Fe slag from foundries as evidence of the advancement of this community.
In view of this, Europeans have got described both the coastal in addition to inland towns of the Ga Mashie community as the Kingdom of Akkra. Meanwhile, Astley (1968, pp.615-616) inward describing the Ga towns said “It stands half dozen leagues inland, in addition to it is called Great Akkra to distinguish it from Little Akkra situated on the coast, one-half way betwixt Kormantin in addition to Rio Volta. Little Akkra is middlemost of the maritime villages inward this kingdom; the other ii are Soko (Tsoko/Chokor) to the West in addition to Orsoko (Osukoo, i.e. Osu Forest) to the East.”
Compound inward Osu, Accra
Women grinding corn inward the chemical compound of a traditional swish theatre inward Osu, Accra, circa 1870-'80. Photo in all probability taken past times Basel missionary inward Accra.
Though the early on Ga settlement were initially nether the leadership in addition to directions of Wolomei in addition to gbaloi (prophets), these settlements were patterned on Akan armed forces organisation as the territorial expansion needed strong defence against invading forces from the Fantes (efa te wu fo) on the West, in addition to the Akyem in addition to Akwamu to the North. As a result, regime became to a greater extent than centralized in addition to armed forces companies (asafoi) nether captains (Asafoiatsemei) played crucial roles inward the management of these towns. Nonetheless, the Nai Wulom) remained the senior Wulom) with supreme ascendance over the Ga Mashie community: though he could non associate himself with temporal affairs of the community, beingness a holy adult man charged with spiritual duties in addition to the welfare of his people.
THE GROWTH OF MODERN ACCRA
The Ga Mashie community as it is known today comprise of the 7 Akutséii (quarters) made upwards of Asere, Sempi, Abola, Gbese, Akumadzei, Otublohum (Otubronu i.e. Otu’s area) in addition to Ngleshi Alata (Jamestown). These are divisions of the community jointly established past times the Ga-speaking emigrants, Fante, Obutu, Akwamu in addition to Kpéshi aborigines.
Oral traditions had it that after the devastation of the Ayawaso Township past times the Akwamu, in addition to the decease of the so Ga Mantse Okaikoi inward 1660, remnants of the Ga decided to come upwards downwards from their hilly abode in addition to bring together their friends in addition to relations along the coast. Among the early on migrants from the Asere in addition to Abora groups to the coast were Saku Olenge, Akotia Owosika, Oshamra, Ayikwei Osiahene, Osu Kwatei (who established the Kpakpatse We dynasty), Anyama Seni, Amantiele Akele in addition to others.
Ga fishermen
The main ground for this novel migration according to Kilson (1974, pp.5-6) was the presence of the Portuguese in addition to 3 other European powers that had past times so established trading posts there, in addition to were extending protection to the coastal towns in addition to villages. In his discourse of the establishment of ii out of the 7 Ga Mashie Akutséii (quarters), Reindorf avers that Ayikai Osiahene with his people settled close James Fort in addition to founded Akangmadshe in addition to Mereku, i.e. Bereku quarters. Meanwhile, Adote Nii Ashare in addition to Tete Kpéshi who with their retinue made their abode beyond the Korle lagoon returned in addition to settled past times the same Fort; in addition to their descendants also established the Sempi quarters.
This scheme according to Henderson-Quartey brought these towns within the vicinity of the 3 forts, in addition to nether the protection of the Danes (Osu), Dutch (Kinka) in addition to the English linguistic communication (Ngleshi-Alata) from the Akwamu marauders. Besides, this led to the effective command of the local population in addition to the maintenance of law in addition to monastic enjoin within these trading enclaves to safeguard the traffic of goods betwixt the hinterlands in addition to the coast for the do goodness of their respective companies.
In this way, to quote Bruce-Myers (1927, p.168), “the humble fishing villages which the Portuguese saw from their ships inward the 1490s developed into the upper-case missive of the alphabet of the independent Republic of Ghana.” Thus, this community which until the kickoff of the twentieth century was limited to the confines of the Ga traditional settlements along the coast; betwixt the Christiansborg Castle, Ussher in addition to James Forts, in addition to the Korle lagoon, has grown inward leaps in addition to bounds despite its chequered history.
The Political Structure of the Ga People
The political construction of the Ga people comprises half dozen main independent sub-states known as the traditional areas of Gamashi, Osu, La, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema. Each traditional area has several villages inward the hinterland nether it in addition to the names of the traditional areas are the same as the names of the upper-case missive of the alphabet towns from which the names of the traditional areas derive. The Mantsemei or Kings of the upper-case missive of the alphabet towns are of equal status and independent. In each hamlet or town are clans “differentiated from 1 some other past times name,
by the names of the members in addition to past times their particular religious alliances in addition to rites” (OsabuKle,2000,p.88).
Osu Mantse
Each hamlet has its ain Mantse or principal who is nether the Mantse of the traditional expanse who is the same as the Mantse of the upper-case missive of the alphabet town. Each clan is assigned a role to play inward the life of the community. The differentiation of clans past times call and membership suggests that the towns in addition to villages were founded past times previously independent groups who considered it safer in addition to convenient to Pb civilized life. The clans which
represent relations of the same patrilineal or matrilineal rootage are subdivided into families in addition to the families are farther divided into ‘houses” - people of a mutual and nearest ancestral origin. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 individual may belong to ii traditional areas, ii clans, two families in addition to ii houses at the same time, 1 past times virtue of his begetter in addition to the other by virtue of his mother.
Ga people
Each theatre in addition to each theatre unit of measurement is headed past times a wise elderberry who is usually, but not necessarily the oldest able member. Female elders caput the woman individual members in addition to male elders caput the manful individual members, but the manful individual elders additionally select on the additional responsibility of heading the houses in addition to families as a whole. When an elderberry is feeble by age some other is appointed consensually to deed as caput through a exercise known as
shuonotamo (sitting on the lap of the elderly in addition to wise).
Unlike the heads of houses in addition to families which are historic catamenia related, the selection of the clan caput is based upon merit. When at that spot is demand for a clan head, the heads of the various houses in addition to families of that clan view to prepare a listing of eligible candidates selected past times merit according to how they have got been observed from childhood. The listing is presented to an electoral college comprising the heads of the various clans, the heads of
professional groups notably the caput of farming, Okwaafoiatse, in addition to the caput of fishing, Woleiatse, the Wulomo or principal priest in addition to clan captains, asafoiatsemei and asafoianyemei. It is this same electoral college or council who assist the Mantse in ruling the town or village. The electoral college selects the clan caput past times consensus from the listing inward secrecy to avoid competition in addition to petty jealousies. At a predetermined engagement the
selected clan caput is presented ceremonially to the people of the town or hamlet where he swears oath of allegiance to the ruling college in addition to to the Mantse. The selected candidate is obligated to select business office since refusal is considered a taboo in addition to a disgrace punishable with banishment from the hamlet or town.
The selection of a Mantse is rattling similar to the selection of the clan head. Several houses, unremarkably 3 to four, constitute the majestic clan. The houses of the majestic clan provide Mantsemei past times rotation. When the curtain of succession falls upon a particular royal house, it is the responsibleness of that theatre to provide a listing of candidates selected by merit to the clan caput who, inward turn, forwards the listing of names to the electoral college. The electoral college selects the Mantse from the listing past times consensus in addition to appoints a engagement for
ceremonial presentation of the Mantse to the people of the town or hamlet where he swears in addition to oath of allegiance to the electoral college in addition to the electoral college, inward turn, swears an oath of allegiance 1 past times 1 to him.
Just as clans came together to constitute towns, villages in addition to traditional areas to enable them Pb a to a greater extent than secure civilized life, the independent traditional areas also came together to constitute the Ga State as a whole. At some dot inward time, the Gamashi Mantse was selected to live the firstly amidst equals to preside over the meetings of the Ga State Council. The members of the Ga State Council are the Mantsemei of the capital towns of the traditional areas. The speaker of the Ga State Council is the Nai wulomo.
The Culture of the Ga People
Culture comprises the knowledge base, beliefs, values, in addition to attitudes in addition to orientations of people towards social objects. Through a procedure of cultural teaching from childhood culture contributes to define people in addition to to create people think in addition to bear inward the manner they do.
The Ga people did non develop the technique of writing on newspaper to store knowledge. Instead they developed a technique for writing inward the wax of the psyche called yitsontao. The technique involved repetitive imparting of knowledge followed past times testing at each repetition to ensure that the knowledge is eventually inscribed permanently inward the yitsontao. Symbols inward the shape of images in addition to if necessary punishments are sometimes used to assistance the process.
The Ga people believe inward the existence of spirits some of which may live goodness and others bad. They believe inward the existence of a supreme spirit that created the world, but this supreme beingness has both masculine in addition to feminine properties. Accordingly, the name of this supreme beingness is Ataa-Naa Nyonmo (God who is both He, Ataa in addition to She, Naa) who is also referred to as Ofe - the 1 to a higher spot all - or Maawu. While nyonmo way god, Ataa-Naa Nyonmo, Ofe, in addition to Maawu are used exclusively only for the creator and sustainer of the world - the Most High God. Maawu has an adversary or enemy called abomsam who is the caput of the evil spirits. Because Maawu is far away, he works through a scheme of intermediary nyonmoi arranged inward a hierarchical monastic enjoin or levels. The first story in addition to closest to Maawu are DzemaWodzi (singular Dzemawong) in addition to the second level are Wodzi.
Ga women
DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi are assigned various names. Included amidst the names of DzemaWodzi are Osabu (the heaven god), Gbobu, Odame, Dantu, La-Kpa, in addition to the lagoon gods of Sakumo, Korle, Osu-Klotey, Kpeeshi (the state of war god of the Ga people), in addition to Sango. While individuals may ain in addition to worship their ain Wodzi, DzemaWodzi tin only be owned in addition to worshiped past times groups or societies. DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi may possess individuals turning them into mediums or Wulomoi (priests) in addition to Woyei (priestesses)
through whom they communicate with humans. While DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi tin be appeased with the blood of cattle, sheep, goats or fowls, Maawu tin live appeased with only praises in addition to libation. Because murder is a taboo, it is a taboo to offering human sacrifice or blood to the DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi of the Ga people. For the same reason, the Ga people do non have got whatever establishment of brafo, the organisation of executioners.
Apart from DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi, at that spot are also spirits called Bofoi who may be messengers of Maawu or Abomsam- the enemy (Satan) of Maawu. The messengers of Maawu are called Nyonmo-Bofoi in addition to the messengers of Abomsam are called mumoi fodzi - evil spirits.
All natural bodies in addition to living things such as the sky, stars, planets, moons, sea, rivers, lakes, lagoons, trees, forests, bushes, plants, animals, fishes, birds, insects and humans have got spiritual components. In particular, the spirits of the sky, stars, moons, sea, rivers, lakes, lagoons in addition to forests are DzemaWodzi (Field, 1961, pp.4-6). Death does not destroy the spirits of living things which are ever inward communication with the bodies they leave of absence behind. The human trunk is believed to comprise 3 entities, the Gbomotso (body), Susuma (the spirit of adult man associated with dreams), in addition to Kla (the sustainer of life). All people born on the same twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia have got the same Kla in addition to the same Kla call or twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia name.
When the Susuma wanders almost inward dreams, the Kla stays behind to maintain life (ibid, p.93). If both the Kla in addition to the Susuma leave of absence the trunk together, the decease occurs. If either the Kla or the Susuma leave of absence the trunk permanently, the individual dies. When humans die, their Susumai (plural of Susuma) live on to go ancestral spirits ever willing to help their descendants piece the Kla may acquire inward into reincarnation (ibid, p.94).
The spirits of animals in addition to plants tin live tapped in addition to used to create Wodzi or for healing purposes. The various stools of Mantsemei are also DzemaWodzi. Humans tin communicate with spirits through the pouring of libation. Moreover, the DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi of the various traditional areas are non the same although some may bear the same call and function. Typically, the shrines or places of worship are non the same fifty-fifty if the names of DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi coincide.
There is also a conception of trinity which is quite different from the Christain conception of trinity. The sky, Nwei, is considered a manful individual in addition to the earth, Shikpong is considered female. The matrimony betwixt Nwei in addition to Shikpong resulted inward the nascency of the sea, Nsho. This trinity of Nwei, Shikpong, in addition to Nsho sustain life, Wala. The sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of Shikpong is Th on which farming is prohibited. The sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of the Nsho is
Tuesday on which fishing is prohibited. Thus, the Ga people have got ii Sabbath days inward a week.
The Ga people also have got a value scheme of taboos that guide their behaviour. Thus, all acts of incest, homosexualism, rape, murder, disrespect for the elderly in addition to other immoral acts are considered punishable taboos - past times decease (in the illustration of murder), by banishment from society, or past times heavy fines.
The Practice, Meaning in addition to Significance of Homowo Festival of Ga People
Ga asafoiaste sprinkling kpekple on the streets of Accra
Homowo derives from ii Ga words 'homo" important hunger in addition to 'wo' important to hoot at. Homowo hence way hooting at hunger. According to legend, during the procedure of migration, the Ga state experienced famine in addition to severe hunger. However, they mustered up courage to till the land, planted corn in addition to called upon Ataa-Naa Nyonmo, the DzemaWodzi, Wodzi, in addition to Sisadzi, the ancestral spirits through libation to bless the farms to yield inward abundance. In response to their prayers deluge of rains, followed, the crops
grew in addition to yielded inward abundance. Being experts inward fishing they also caught fish in abundance which included giant reddish snappers called tsile in addition to giant tunas called odaa.
Ga adult man carrying a bowl of Kpekple
Their sheep in addition to goats also multiplied as they fed on abundance of greenish pasture. They celebrated this abundance of nutrient in addition to victory over hunger with a specially prepared diet from unfermented corn pulverization called kpokpoe which has at nowadays been corrupted to kpekple, in addition to palm nut soup of fish. They hooted at in addition to ridiculed hunger as they ate the kpokpoe with the palm nut soup prepared from fish only (notably tsile in addition to odaa), poured libation in addition to offered some of the diet symbolically to the DzemaWodzi in addition to ancestral
spirits, Sisadzi. Homowo which is celebrated annually betwixt August in addition to September is to commemorate that twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia when hunger was defeated, hooted at, in addition to ridiculed. Given the political construction of the Ga people, it is to live expected that this hooting at in addition to ridiculing of hunger powerfulness select different forms.
The principal priest of Teshie
The independence of the traditional areas in addition to the possibility of an individual belonging to to a greater extent than than 1 traditional demands that the celebrations live organized in succession such to enable interested parties to attend whatever of them. The dates for the celebrations inward the traditional areas are decided upon past times consensus a council of Wulomei representing the various traditional areas. The firstly to set out is Nungua because the
Nungua people are supposed to live the firstly of the Ga people to create it inward Republic of Ghana folowed by the people of Gamashi. Teshi is the in conclusion to celebrate beingness the youngest of the Ga towns which broke away from La in addition to was established inward 1710.
The grooming for the festival begins with the planting of crops before the rainy season that begins inward May. In June, a ritual called gbemlilaa (locking the way) bans drumming in addition to music to enable people attend to crops with seriousness. This is followed by nshobulemo or ritual to calm the sea. Another ritual called okomfemaa bans fishing in the lagoons until the Homowo festival is over. The Homowo is preceded past times yam festivals in the villages of the hinterland. This is the hamlet version of celebrating victory over hunger, but falls brusque of hooting in addition to ridiculing hunger which is reserved for the capital towns. When the engagement for the Homowo festival of a traditional expanse is near, the people of that traditional inward the villages are expected to homecoming to their homes inward the respective capital towns. The villagers set out to create it a calendar week before the celebration kickoff on Thursday, the sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of the globe when farm going is prohibited. The firstly arrivals on Thursday are called Soobii (Thursday people).
Ga kids inward UK of Britain in addition to Northern Republic of Ireland inward their traditional Ga clothes celebrating Homowo festival
The villagers create it with pomp in addition to jubilating songs bringing their harvested crops especially maize in addition to palm nuts along. They arrivals parade the streets all twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia in addition to retire only during the night. Fri of the arrival calendar week is dedicated to remembrance of those who died during the year. In the early on morn hours of Tuesday, the sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of the sea when sea going is prohibited, kpokpoe in addition to palm nut soup are prepared for the feasting.
The Mantse of the traditional area, clan heads, theatre unit of measurement heads in addition to caput of families pour libation to Maawu, Sisadzi, DzemaWodzi, in addition to Wodzi in addition to sprinkle white kpokpoe mixed with palm soup to the DzemaWodzi, Wodzi in addition to Sisadzi to give cheers them invite their blessings, in addition to to signify the kickoff of the feast. The side past times side day, Wednesday, is the day of ngoowala when immature see the elderly to wishing them log life in addition to the elderly, inward turn,
shower the immature with gifts of all sorts including money.
The chief, pouring to a greater extent than libations out on the street. His assistant to the right of him guards the bottle of schnapps.
There are some variations inward the celebrations inward the upper-case missive of the alphabet towns after the kpokpoe feast. At Teshi, Tema in addition to Labadi, for example, the feast is followed past times the Kpashimo trip the low-cal fantastic in addition to parade. At Nungua, it is followed past times Obene trip the low-cal fantastic during the night and Kpele trip the low-cal fantastic during the day. The most pop celebration after the kpokpoe feast is the Kpashimo of Teshi which attracts foreigners.
It begins on Dominicus after the feast and ends on the side past times side calendar week Sabbatum with Sesebumo. Most people from the traditional areas of the Ga State, foreigners, in addition to other Ghanaians domiciled inward the Ga State converge at Teshi to spotter the in conclusion celebration of the Homowo season, Sesebumo.
The Kpashimo of Teshi begins on Dominicus with sesefaa (the carrying of a wooden dish containing H2O in addition to sacred leaves) in addition to ends on Sabbatum with Sesebumo (the overturning of the wooden dish in addition to its contents) to cleanse the people, create their wishes come true, in addition to bless them. During sesefaa, the kpa groups from the 7 quarters of Teshi are led firstly to the palace of the Mantse. The Mantse pours libation in addition to provides
some amount of money as a customary gift of appreciation. The kpa groups proceed to the palaces of the divisional chiefs, heads of clans, heads of families, asafoiatsemei, asafoianyemei in addition to Wulomei of the town past times plough who also pour libation in addition to provide gifts of appreciation. This opens the way for kpashimo.
Kpashimo is of ii types. The to a greater extent than gentle type is inward the shape of traditional songs and dancing in addition to it is called Amlakui-Akpa important the Kpa trip the low-cal fantastic of the nobility. The sese carrying grouping engages ever inward this type. The other type is rattling democratic and aims at exposing the wrongs committed past times the nobility in addition to commoners alike during the past yr with the view of making them alter their behaviour for the better. The kpa groups from the 7 quarters of the town engage inward this type. After sesefaa, the kpa groups intermission into their separate groups promotion set out to expose the wrongdoings of the nobility kickoff with those of the Mantse. The wrongdoings of the caput of State of Ghana in addition to his Ministers may also live exposed. They so proceed to expose the wrongdoings of individuals. Any individual whose wrongdoings are exposed is expected by tradition to provide some gift usually money to limited his or her appreciation. This goes on from Dominicus to Fri piece the sese carrying grouping continues to engage inward AmlakuiAkpa in addition to people desiring special approbation shower the sese with gifts of money. Paper notes are handed over to the sese grouping leader piece coins are pose into the sese. The sese group parades through the principal streets of the town 1 time a day.
Saturday is the twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of Sesebumo to select an goal to Kpashimo in addition to the Homowo festival as a whole where all attending is focused on the sese group. In the morning, the sese grouping goes to the Mantse, in addition to elders as it did on Dominicus to greet them. The pour libation to invoke blessings from Ataa-Naa Nyonmo (the same as Ofe or Maawu), DzemaWodzi, Wodzi in addition to ancestral spirits. They repeatedly sing the song:
Sese yaabu dza neke afi.
Mee loo abaaye ?
(Sese shall non overturn 1 time again till side past times side year.
What fish shall nosotros feed on? )
After greeting the nobility, the sese grouping rests till the afternoon. In the afternoon,the sese grouping leads the kpa groups of the 7 divisions of the town who are also followed past times the towns people in addition to visiting spectators through the principal streets of the town all singing “Sese yaabu dza neke afi. Mee loo abaaye?”. The procession ends at Sangonaa close the Sango lagoon. At Sangonaa, the vocal in addition to kpashimo acquire louder, more vigorous in addition to intense till finally the carrier of the sese overturns it in addition to its contents. This overturning of the sese marks the goal of the Homowo of the Ga people in addition to the lifting of the ban on drumming.
Funerals in addition to "Fantasy" Coffins
Carpenter with his reddish fish coffin
The Ga people are known for their funeral celebrations in addition to processions. The Ga believe that when someone dies, they displace to some other life. Therefore, special coffins are often crafted past times highly skilled carpenters since this tradition spread inward the 50's. Pioneers were master copy craftsmen similar Paa Joe, Paa Willy in addition to Seth Kane Kwei from Teshie.
The coffins tin live anything wanted past times relatives of the deceased from a pencil to whatever fauna such as an elephant. Coffins are usually crafted to reverberate an essence of the deceased, inward forms such as a grapheme trait, an occupation, or a symbol of one's standing inward the community. For example, a taxicab driver is most likely to live buried inward a coffin shaped as a car. Many families pass excessive amounts on coffins because they often experience that they have got to pay their in conclusion respects to the deceased in addition to beingness buried inward a coffin of cultural, symbolic as good expensive gustation is seen as fitting.
Camera coffin
Prices of coffins tin vary depending on what is beingness ordered. It is non unusual for a single coffin to cost $600. This is expensive for local families considering that it is non unusual to view people with an income of only $50 a month. This way that funerals are often paid for past times wealthier members of the family, if such a fellow member exists, with smaller contributions coming from other working members of the family. This is needed as the coffin is only a portion of the total funeral cost that testament live incurred. Some people unusual to Republic of Ghana are known to have got been buried inward Ga-styled coffins.
Source:http://www2.carleton.ca/africanstudies/ccms/wp-content/ccms-files/Ga-People-and-Homowo-Festival.pdf
http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/blogs/blog.article.php?blog=4259&ID=1000010772
http://www.bristoldrumming.com/ghanagoods/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=63&Itemid=105
THE GA PEOPLE BY IRENE ODOTEI
Introduction
The Ga of today are the people whose territory is bordered to the due north past times the Akuapem hills, to the S past times the sea, to the due west past times the Awutu in addition to past times the due east past times the Adanme. They telephone call upwards themselves Gamei to distinguish them from other groups such as the Akan, the Ewe or the Dagomba, in addition to speak the linguistic communication called Ga. They have got a mutual annual festival called Homowo, which is a celebration of the kickoff of their novel year.
There half dozen Ga towns, viz. Ga Mashi (Central Accra), the capital, Osu (Chritiansborg), La (Labadi), Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema. Each of these towns is divided into Akutsei or quarters, in addition to each Akutso is sub-divided into Wei or patrilineal houses. Ga Mashi has 7 Akutsei, each with its ain Mantse or Chief, whereas the Akutsei of the other Ga towns do non have got separate Mantsemei. The Mantsemei of the 7 Akutsei of Ga Manshi together with the Mantsemei of the other towns (Osu, La, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema) are nether a paramount ruler, Ga Mantse, who comes from the Abola quarter (Akutso) of Ga Mashi. The Ga maintain some distinction amidst themselves past times using the names of their towns to depict 1 another, e.g., the Nungua people are known as Nunguamei as distinct from Lamei or Teshimei. There is a unopen link betwixt the Ga in addition to their eastern neighbours, the Adanme, comprising Kpone, Prampram, Ningo, Ada, Osudoku, Shai, Yilo in addition to Manya Krobo. The languages spoken past times these ii groups, Ga in addition to Adanme, are to a greater extent than closely related to each other than whatever other language. It appears that the ii languages originated from 1 stock. Reindorf acknowledged that Adangbe is “the woman parent dialect of the Ga”. By comparing lexical in addition to grammatical cognate forms (i.e. forms adjudged to live inherited from the mutual ancestor), M.E. Kropp has been able to found that, “modern Ga is the production of a large number of innovations inward the hypothetical proto Ga-Adangbe linguistic communication piece Adangbe as a whole has been relatively conservative, that is, modern Adangbe includes few modifications of the phonological in addition to grammatical systems of the proto language.”
King Taki II, the Rex of Accra, with some of his servants 1891."
Apart from the linguistic similarity, other cultural ties, such the importance of priests inward the socio-political structure, circumcision, in addition to the specific monastic enjoin of child-naming, characterize the Ga in addition to the Adangbe as beingness people from a mutual stock.
The rootage of the Ga-Adangbe people is shrouded inward myth in addition to many hypotheses have got been advanced inward an endeavour to explicate their roots. The most widespread of these hypotheses, firstly popularized past times Reindorf in addition to later accepted past times Ward in addition to Field, maintains that the Ga originated from Benin. In add-on to this premise, Reindorf records ii traditional accounts of origin. One claims that the Ga originated from the sea, in addition to the other, that they emigrated together with the Adangbe, from Tetetutu or Sameh inward the east. It is said that they came from betwixt ii large rivers, in addition to that after crossing the Volta, they dispersed over the country.
"Ga miss with broom for sweeping." 1883
N.A. Azu accepted the Sameh rootage of the Ga in addition to the Adanme. He described Sameh as “an isle situated on the south-west of River Ogum adjoining Ladah in addition to Dahomey.” He claimed that the Ga in addition to Adanme left Sameh because “they were too much oppressed past times the so mighty King Akpo of Dahomey”. Another author who tackled the work of Ga rootage was Quartey Papafio. He located they roots farther due north in addition to asserted that the Ga came to the Gold Coast through Benin, some past times ground but bulk past times canoe. He farther claimed that at that spot was “a tradition to demonstrate that, subsequently, the Phoenicians in addition to Carthaginians treated with or visited the Gold Coast previous to visits of the Portuguese in addition to also that when the Ga people arrived on the Gold Coast, at that spot red-skinned people amidst them. These were no dubiety Phoenicians in addition to Cutheans in addition to others who came to the due west coast with their idols in addition to fetish priests accompanied past times their attaches, who afterwards became the Takyis of the nowadays dynasty amidst the Akras of the Gold Coast.”[8] J.M. Bruce Myers also postulated that “in a serial of migrations the Gas came all the way from the fundamental component of the continent where they had been inward contact with ancient civilizations, the traces of which are to live found scattered through their literature.”[9]
E.A. Ammah asserts inward an unpublished history that “the Ga people are inward type of the Hamitic race in addition to inward civilization of the Semitic.” He farther stated that “the original spot of the Ga people is either inward Arab Republic of Egypt inward Africa or Mesopotamia inward Asia.”[10]
The author’s collection of oral tradition reveals that sure elements amongst the Ga, especially the educated, have got come upwards to select the various hypotheses advanced past times these writers in addition to moreover often narrate them as oral tradition. One such ‘tradition’ maintains that the Ga originated from ‘Mizraim’ (Egypt) in addition to arrived at their nowadays location inward ii groups. The firstly to create it were the Naiwebii who came past times sea (Nai is said to live a corruption of the Nile) piece the other half, Sakumowebii, arrived past times land.
It is important that other sections of the Ga-Adanme have got non accepted the hypotheses of the to a higher spot mentioned writers. For example, the nowadays Nai Wulomo does non back upwards the hypothesis postulating an Egyptian rootage for his ancestors. He claims that the firstly Nai Wulomo in addition to his followers together with the Nungowas originated from the sea.[11] The people of Labadi, together with component of the Teshi people, claim to have got originated from Bonny inward Nigeria.[12] The Osu people an rootage from Osudoku, a branch of the Adanme,[13] in addition to the Tema people claim to have got migrated from Ayigbe kpesi.[14] Among the Adanme, the Le of Kpone believe they originated from the sea.[15] The founder of Ningo, Dzanma, was said to hace originated from the Lagoon Dzangi, the principal deity of Ningo. Dzanma had the characteristics of a primitive man: he was covered with pilus in addition to fed on raw fish from the Lagoon Dzangi. It was whilst inward such a province that he was discovered past times a hunter Oklu Doso, who decided to remain with him, in addition to together they formed the nucleus around which later arrivals, such as the Kabiawe, grouped.[16] Among the inland Adanme, the Tetili of Kasunya close Asutsuare claim to have got descended from the heaven along a rope in addition to landed on baobab tree.
“Kpa n dze Hi nosotros "The rope which descended from the sky
Titi yobo lii akpa Teti Yobo people’s rope
Salo n 1 ema” Landed on a baobab tree.”
The Okpe of the Yylo Krobo also claims to have got descended from the sky, but the landed on a spot called Okpesi in addition to were led past times a dark monkey to Okpe Yo (Krobo Mountain). The other groups of the Adanme, however, say that they migrated from Sameh. Their remain inward Sameh is commemorated inward their Klama song:
“Onyue, moo huu ihe ne maya”. “Onyue protect me till I arrive at Sameh”.
The hypotheses as to the origins of the Ga pose forrard past times Reindorf, Quartey-Papafio, Bruce Myers in addition to E.A. Ammah are based on ii facors: their ain interpretation of oral tradition, in addition to cultural in addition to linguistic similarities. Reindorf interpreted the tradition that the Ga came from the sea to hateful that they came from Benin. This is based on the claim that inward his time, traders in addition to artisans who went to seek their fortunes at the Bight of Republic of Benin were said to have got gone into the sea, i.e. ‘etee nson’[20]. Investigations, however, revealed that the term ‘etee nson’ was non only limited to the people who went to the Bight of Binin, but also, to those who travelled along the eastern coast as far as the Congo. The equivalent of the term ‘etee nson’ tin live found inward a limited sense inward the English linguistic communication human face ‘gone abroad or gone to sea’. Reindorf’s hypothesis appears to have got also been influenced past times the view of F.L. Romer, a Danish author of the eighteenth century. He suggested that at that spot was 1 time an empire of Benin, vaster thatn the empire of China, which stretched from the River Niger to the River Gambia, in addition to was said to have got incorporated the Ga.[21]
Romer’s hypothesis as to the existence of this Republic of Benin empire is non tenable. In the firstly place, to back upwards his assertion he only mentioned a few cultural similarities such as circumcision in addition to the special way of killing sacrificial animals with a stone instead of a knife to avoid defiling then. Romer also claims that inward his fourth dimension at that spot sure families inward Accra who could describe their ancestry from Republic of Benin Viceroys. Romer ignores the fact that political in addition to cultural boundaries do non necessarily have got to coincide. It is almost as if evidence of Muslim practices along the coast of modern Republic of Ghana were taken to hateful that the expanse used to shape component of the ancient Caliphate of Arabia!
Romer’s claim to have got discovered the existence of Ga families who could describe their ancestry from Republic of Benin Viceroys could rattling likely live the outcome of merchandise contact betwixt Accra in addition to Benin. For example, using circumstantial evidence, Fage in addition to Wilks have got postulated that at that spot were merchandise contacts betwixt the coast of Republic of Ghana in addition to the coast of Republic of Benin prior to the arrival of the Portuguese inward 1471 in addition to that the participation of the Europeans inward the merchandise only diversified in addition to accelerated this process.[22]
Quartey-Papafio, who claimed a North African rootage for the Ga, stated that at that spot was ‘sufficient evidence’ to prove his hypothesis but so neglected to provide whatever such evidence. His claim that at that spot is a tradition to demonstrate that when that Ga firstly arrived on the Gold Coast, at that spot were red-skinned people amidst them is almost sure as shooting based on a misunderstanding. The author did non come upwards across this so-called tradition inward her fieldwork. (It in all probability reflected a preoccupation with pare calour during the early on colonial period.
Bruce Myers presumes at that spot to live sure cultural similarities betwixt the Ga in addition to the Jews: “the clothes of their principal priest inward a white loose cloth, his cap, the Nmatsu necklace, the wearing of Afili, pronouncement of the blessing, all these things recall the ancient people of God, the Jews of old, in addition to distinguish the Gas from other tribes inward this component the continent excepting their kinsmen, the Benins, who past times their ain alternative kept dorsum inward the cource of migration in addition to upwards to the nowadays are keeping inviolate these historic catamenia long observances of 1 unstained religion.”[23] He also stated that the Ga discussion ‘Gigine’ comes from a corrupted Hebrew word, without giving the Hebrew rendering of the word.
E.A. Ammah follows this method of searching for cultural in addition to linguistic similarities, he also remarks that the Ga claim of migration from an expanse betwixt ii rivers could live interpreted as migration from Mesopotamia because Mesopotamia way ‘between ii rivers’.[24] He furthermore attempts to describe Ga ancestry from Ham, 1 of the sons of Noah who peopled the globe after the flood.
The hypotheses of all these writers – Reindorf, Quartey-Papafio, Bruce-Myers, in addition to E.A. Ammah – appear to live based on a concern to link tha Ga with ancient well-known civiliasations, example, Benin, Pharaoic Egypt, the Carthaginians, Phoenicians in addition to the Jews. The protagonists of a North African or Semitic rootage of the Ga ignore the fact that the physical characteristics of the Ga are typically Negroid. Moreover, the Ga linguistic communication has no affinity with the Semitic linguistic communication family: it belongs to the Kwa grouping of languages (including Ewe, Fon, Akan, Yoruba, Edo,Nupe in addition to Ijo), which is 1 of the sub-groups of the Niger-Congo ‘family’.
"Catechist Th. Svanikier in addition to his wife, with 3 brother's children." 1861
The mere comparing of a few isolated Ga words with Hebrew words cannot live taken as conclusive evidence of linguistic affinity. Cultural similarities do non necessarily provide evidence of whatever previous connection. They could quite conceivably arise from independent cultural evolution inward separate areas.
It is inaccurate, therefore, to portray the Ga-Adanme as an illustration of the wholesale migration of a people from a unusual ground to their nowadays territory. The Ga of today are a complex mixture of people in addition to cultures which have got gradually fused into a society with distinct characteristics. Two cradles tin live suggested where such interaction took place. The firstly cradle is on the banks of the Lower Volta (Benin). Here, both the Ga in addition to Adanme lived together.the 2nd cradle is inward the Accra plains where the Ga, after leaving the Adanme inward the east, absorbed other peoples’ ideas. These include Guan in addition to Akan. The assimilation of these unusual elements business concern human relationship for the linguistic in addition to institutional differences betwixt the Adanme in addition to Ga today. It was also the Accra plains that the western grouping developed the name, Ga, to distinguish themselves from the Adanme.
According to oral tradition in addition to sure Klama songs recorded past times the author, the various groups of Ga-Adanme began to disperse inward the part of the Lower Volta Basin. Unfortunately, no dates are available for this catamenia of Ga-Adanme history. However, according to Ozanne’s study of an digging made inward Ladoku, (an abandoned settlement of the Las), distinctive pottery indicated the presence of a little hamlet or grouping of farmsteads dating dorsum to 1200-1400.[25] One tin hence conclude that at to the lowest degree some Ga-Adanme settlements were inward existence past times 1200.
It has been suggested that the Ga Mashie in addition to Nunguas left the Volta Basin together. Reindorf records: “when the Akras in addition to Nunguas were marching together inward 1 body, it happened 1 nighttime that the onetime hastily started in addition to left their dough behind them, from which they were given their surname ‘Masi’ i.e. sleepers”.
Rev. in addition to Mrs Reindorf, photographed on [his] 80th birthday, June 1914, retired inward Christiansborg."
Whether, this tradition is truthful or not, a special customary human relationship does be betwixt Ga Mashi in addition to Nungua inward modern times. Before Ga Mashi Wulomo (priest) or Mantse is installed, he has to undergo the custom Butrumwoo, which is a shape of purification ceremony. It is only a representative of the Amanfa department of Nungua who has the right to perform the ceremony.[27]
It would appear that the Ga Mashis, Nunguas in addition to Temas settled inward the Accra plains prior to the arrivals of the Las in addition to Osus. Furthermore, the Nunguas, Ga Mashis in addition to Temas founded a number of settlements before they reached their nowadays sites. Unfortunately, oral tradition is non explicit as to the sequence of these sites. The Kple vocal which deals with the early on settlements of the Ga Mashis does non aid inward solving the problem. It simply says:
1. W dz he dzek We came from afar
2. W dz wuoyi We came from the S (sea)
Ni kooyi dzi w n And the due north (forest) is ours.
3. W dz ma ko We came from a sure town
W yadam ma ko We became citizens of some other town.
Ga ay Living inward Ga.
4. Wdz Ga mli We came from within Ga.
W yanina Gam i We met Ga people
Ga ay Living inward Ga.
This vocal suggest that the Ga Mashi were a people who lived inward scattered communities stretching from the coast to farther inland, accommodating groups which moved from 1 community to the other. Reindorf mentions some of these settlements. They are: Akpadegong, Pletekwagong, Muko, Anonmole, Fanofa, Dokutse in addition to Kushibiete (Legon) founded past times the Ga Mashis. Similarly the Nunguas founded Wodoku, Kpatsakole, Lashibi, Koko-Nyaga, Wokple, Wodode, Woshagba, Wo-Akwamu, in addition to Wobobo; in addition to the Temas founded Otiribi, Tebilano, Podoku, Atsenbidoku, Alagba, Lakanmabi (Ashaman) in addition to Takimabi (Awudun).[29]
Unfortunately, at that spot is no archaeological information which exists on these old settlements. The only site to have got been dated is Ayawaso, remembered inward tradition as the in conclusion inland Ga Mashi settlement to live founded. Ozanne dates the founding of Ayawaso to the goal of the sixteenth century because the site shows early on seventeenth century imports lying rattling unopen to its base.[30]
By the kickoff of the seventeenth century, Ga Mashi, Nungua in addition to Tema had territories which stretched from inland to the coast. Ga Mashi shared a boundary with Awutu inward the due west in addition to Nungua inward the east. Nungua also shared the eastern boundary with Tema.[31]
The seventeenth century was also the catamenia when the in conclusion of the Ga towns, Labadi, Osu in addition to Teshi, were founded on the coast. Of these groups, the firstly to leave of absence the Adanme were the Las. Their town, which was situated on the hill, Ladoku, was an of import industrial in addition to trading centre.[32] La was famous for the weaving of a coarse cotton fiber textile considered inward those days to live first-class attire in addition to worn past times men of high rank. This is remembered inward the lines:
Ke iya La O: Ma wo tso bo ! If I would no longer go to La, I were meliorate clad inward the dorsum of a tree
Okoni gbe La no, Death has killed the La.
Ke iya La-O, Ma wo tso bo. Death has killed the La., I were meliorate clad inward the dorsum of a tree.
"Catechist Paul Staudt in addition to his wife." 1861
Of their Adanme neighbours, the closest to the Las were the Shais. These ii neighbors apparently became aware of the demand to maintain moral dependent inward their society in addition to hence made a mutual understanding that whoever seduced some other man’s married adult woman should live beheaded. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 La adult man was reported to have got commited this offence in addition to was beheaded inward accordance with the law. When a Shai adult man committed the same offence, however, his people refused to manus him over for the prescribed punishment. This resulted inward a state of war betwixt the Las in addition to The Sais inward which the Las were eventually defeated.[34]
The dating of the La settlement at Ladoku needs clarification. Ozanne observed: “a little hamlet or grouping of farmsteads of almost 1200-1400 were replaced in all probability before 1500 past times a rattling large town over a mile wide. Pottery types from this stage do non seem to have got lasted till 1600. The site may have got been abandoned for 40 years or so in addition to the side past times side stage of settlement was 1640.”[35] Basing his declaration on Reindorf’s recording of traditional accounts, Ozanne dates the La business of Ladoku to the middle of the seventeenth century. This implies that it was the La who occupied Ladoku after the flourishing town had been abandoned at the goal of the sixteenth century.
In contrast to this hypothesis, the author’s collection of oral tradition in addition to historical songs reveal that it was the La’s business which turned the site into the flourishing town of the sixteenth century. By the middle of the seventeenth century, when Ladoku was 1 time again occupied, the Las were already established inward the Accra plains close the Ga Mashi in addition to at that spot is no evidence to suggest that they returned to the Adanme area. This way that the La must have got left Ladoku before 1600.
Joseph Sebastian." 1861
During the flying from Ladoku, after their defeat past times the Shais, the Las left some of their fetishes in addition to other paraphernalia behind. These were later turned into playtings past times monkeys which abound inward the area.
“La-lene-bi-n-m kue pen ye w! “Ye children of Labadi! Monkeys trip the low-cal fantastic to deride you”
The Las realized en route that they had left behind the gong-gong of La kpa, their principal deity. Fortunately for them, it was said that when they reached the river Nsaki, a monkey appeared who started dancing according to the crunch of the La kpa music. They hence followed the monkey in addition to copied the rhythmic movements until they were able to do the kpa trip the low-cal fantastic without the gong-gong.
Tee Nsaki naa I reached the banking company of Nsaki
Yana kua dzo I saw a monkey dancing
Na ko eko da I haven’t seen such a sight before.
The absence of the gong-gong inward the modern kpa trip the low-cal fantastic is observed inward the song:
Ogbe midzi et miifo y Laa Ogbe’s 3 drums are sounding (crying) inward La.
O o b mli A gong-gong is missing.
The La lived at Adzagote with the Ga Mashie in addition to Nunguas as their neighbours, but later decided to displace to the coast inward monastic enjoin to participate inward the lucrative merchandise enjoyed past times the people who resided there. The exercise amidst the Ga-Adanme inward those early on days of migration was that before they moved to whatever novel settlement, the hunters would go on a scounting expedition to create sure that the novel could provide them with an adequate H2O render in addition to goodness farming ground. The La’s main involvement was focused on the rich common salt producing lagoon, the Kpeshi, which was so controlled past times the Nunguas. This possession could only live won through conquest, since the Nunguas were unlikely to give away such a vital involvement without fighting for it. War finally broke out betwixt the Las in addition to the Nunguas, in addition to at that spot ii interpretations as to its predominant cause. One version ascribes the stimulate of the state of war to a La hunter, Sowa, who went on a scouting expedition inward search of H2O in addition to common salt for his people. After Sowa had drunkard H2O offered to him past times some Nungua common salt makers, he inconsiderately broke all the H2O containers. The other version portrays the La business of the coast as a peaceful settlement. They were offered ground past times the Nunguas, but their peaceful co-existence with their benefactors was disturbed past times the kidnapping in addition to sacrificing of the La Princess Odole to the Nungua fetish Ogmu. Whatever the truthful stimulate of the war, the main outcome was that it ended with the acquisition of the Kpeshi lagoon past times the Las.
The migration of the La from their inland settlement, Adzagote, to the coast must have got taken spot sometime betwixt 1600 in addition to 1629. De Marees, for example, does call Labadi as a coastal town inward 1600, but an anonymous Dutch map of 1629 places Labadi as a coastal settlement situated betwixt Ga Mashi in addition to Nungua.
Benjamin Tete, bookbinder inward Christiansborg. 1860`s
The side past times side Ga coastal town to live founded was Osu. The firstly settlers of Osu originated from Osudoku, a grouping of the Adanme. According to tradition, their migration westwards was a way past times which to avoid a dispute or to a greater extent than seriously a civil state of war over the loss of a single bead. This bead was component of some precious beads borrowed past times a woman, Namole, to decorate her daughter, who was undergoing the Otofo[41] rites. Namole’s theatre unit of measurement offered to supplant the bead or else pay for it with 7 human beings, inward accordance with the prevailing law. The owners refused this in addition to Namole along with her blood brother Noete Doku in addition to their followers left Adanme. The bead was eventually found inward the gizzard of a fowl on the rattling twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia that the followers left.[42] Upon reaching the coast, the Osu immigrants settled inward the expanse betwixt La in addition to Ga Mashi on ground granted to them sometime before 1629.
The people of Teshi, (the in conclusion Ga town to live founded) were originally component of La. The founding of the town was a outcome of a quarrel betwixt Mantse Odai Atsem in addition to Mankralo Numo Okang Nmashi. The breach was so serious that Odai Atsem sought the assistance of the King of Accra. This led to the latter advising Okang Nmashi to leave of absence La. On their journeying eastwards Okang Nmashi in addition to his followers found an old man, Trebi of Lashibi living with his theatre unit of measurement on the beach belonging to Nungua. Trebi had moved to the beach to aid cure the fish of some Fante fishermen who had come upwards on annual fishing expedition. Okang Nmashi decided to settle on the coast with Trebi in addition to his family; but before he could do that, he had to seek permission from the Nunguas. An acknowledgement of Nungua ownership of the ground was maintained past times the annual presentation of a sheep past times the Teshis to the Nunguas. Teshi continued to maintain some customary ties with La long after moving to their nowadays site. Indeed, until recently, Teshi used to send a moo-cow every yr to La for sacrifice to the Lakpa, principal deity of the Las.
Pastor Reindorf, Christiansborg." Date: 1914
The settlement of the Ga inward the Accra plains led to changes inward their socio-political organization. According to tradition, prior to the arrival of the Ga, at that spot were people who hadalready established scattered settlements on the Accra plains. The Ga founded their ain settlements amongst these pre-existing communities, of which the best remembered inward traditional accounts are the worshipers of Nai, whose Wulomo (priest) is acknowledged today as the most senior of all the Wulomei of the Ga towns. According to Reindorf: “The aboriginal race all along the sea coast in addition to inland at some points 15, 20, 30 in addition to 40 miles were nearly all of the Guan Kyerepong, Le in addition to Ahanta tribes speaking different dialects of the Ahanta, Obutu, Kyerepong, Late (LE) in addition to Kpesi languages.”[46]
Of these Guan speakers, the groups with whom the Ga had the most intimate contact were the Kpsi, the Le, in addition to the Obutu. The Ga were able to absorb the people of Kpesi in addition to of Le but were non so successful with the Obutus.
The main influence which the Guan communities exerted over the Ga was religious. This is observed inward the Kple cult, which tin live found inward all the Ga towns. According to Field, the Kple songs are inward “the forgotten Obutu dialects in addition to are often mere gibberish to both singers in addition to hearers.”[47] Field’s declaration is non completely true. Kple is non a mere adoption of a Guan cult past times the Ga. She, herself suggested that the “Kple gods could in all probability live sub-divided again, for they doubtlessly correspond intermingled cults, but at that spot is trivial to live gained past times attempting this almost impossible task.”[48]
By comparing Kple music with the Adanme Klama music, Nketsia finds that “they have got sufficient similarity inward style to suggest that Kple is non as unusual to Ga tradition as the evidence of the multilingual ground of its texts suggests at firstly sight.” He sees the possibility of Kple beingness a “Ga cult which at some catamenia absorbed Guan elements both inward honor of gods in addition to the usage of linguistic communication in addition to laterAkan as stylistic element.”
"Catechist P. Fleischer, his wife, in addition to a nephew." 1861
The author’s collection of Kple songs indicates that they are non ‘mere gibberish’. They were sung inward comprehensible Ga with only a few intermingled lines of archaic in addition to unusual words. The similarity betwixt Kple in addition to Klama suggests that the Ga had already developed the ground of the Kple cult before they left the Adanme inward the east. However, whilst inward the Accra plains, their cult was influenced past times that of the Guan. On the ground 1 could assume that although the various Ga groups moved into the Accra plains inward waves of independent migrations, at that spot was a unifying chemical element amongst them inward the sense of a cult Akin to modern Kple. Another unifying factor was of course of study the linguistic identity.
In spite of these similarities, the Ga organized themselves into independent groups which were comprised of major in addition to small-scale lineages. Within the groups, each lineage has its ain god, in addition to at that spot was furthermore a senior god for the whole group. The priests of the supreme gods were the leaders of the groups. For example, the Las were nether the leadership of the Lakpa Wulomo (priest).
Reindorf remarked that: “the Accra King was at the same fourth dimension the priest of the national high fetish, but gradually, to avoid the violation of the sacredness of the priest inward appearing often inward world in addition to especially when the spot of regime was removed from Ayawaso to the coast, the ii pawers were separated.”[50] Reindorf is wrong inward dating this separation of powers to the catamenia after 1680 when the spot of regime had been removed from Ayawaso. The adult man who was referred to as King of Accra inward the seventeenth century was non high priest of the Ga.
In reality, each Ga grouping evolved its internal scheme of secular ascendance at different times. Although inward the seventeenth century, the Ga acknowledged the King of Accra as their sovereign, they maintained the priestly leadership within the private groups. Furthermore, the King of Accra was inward fact from Ga Mashi, in addition to Ga Mashi had already instituted secular powerfulness at the goal of the sixteenth century. This alter was in all probability a response to European trading activities inward Accra during the 2nd one-half of the sixteenth century. Although the Portuguese started trading on the Gold Coast inward 1471, their interests were limited to the due west coast as far due east as Asebu. In 1505, Pacheco Pereira remarked that the Portuguese had so far non established whatever merchandise contact with the inhabitants of the Accra coast.[51]Portuguese involvement seems to have got been invigorated past times the English linguistic communication trading expedition to Accra inward the middle of the sixteenth century. Between 13th May in addition to 2nd June 1557,[52] the English linguistic communication trader Towrson (who already led ii trading expeditions to the Gold Coast) was able to obtain 50 1b. of golden from Accra in addition to Winneba. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 few years after these expeditions, the Portuguese established a trading fort inward Accra.[53] However, their remain inward Accra was short-lived, for, owing to ‘some mischief’ they did to the inhabitants, the Ga attacked the fort in addition to razed it to the ground inward 1576.[54] In response to this, the Portuguese sent a punitive expedition nether Martin Afonso, who “absolutely conquered the district.”[55] After this, the fort was non rebuilt, but the Ga still traded with all the Europeans who anchored inward their waters.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 combination of the Portuguese armed forces expedition in addition to the rising economical importance of Accra must have got instilled inward Ga Mashi the demand for a to a greater extent than effective shape of regime than that which their priests provided. Reindorf records a struggle for political supremacy amidst the Ga Mashi which coincides with this period. He does non give whatever date, but his listing of the early on Ga dynasty in addition to his connexion of the political struggle with the founding of Ayawaso suggests that the rift occurred towards the goal of the 16th century.
On this struggle for supremacy, Reindorf states: “Wyete the King of Accra, arrived although belatedly yet rattling grand, having plenty of golden ornaments on his person; hence it was proposed past times the Akras, that he should live Rex for all the immigrants. Upon refusal to select that offer, the Akras took take hold of 1 of his arms, his people holding the other arm which rattling unfortunately was plucked off; he hence retired inward the sea.”[56] Another group, whom Reindorf calls Aseres claimed the ruling powerfulness on business concern human relationship of their commercial strength, but this so infuriated Ayi Kushi (the leader of 1 of the groups known as Tunmawe) that he retired into the sea, leaving his boy Ayete who founded Ayawaso.[57]
The struggle for powerfulness In Ga Mashi tin live seen as struggle betwixt their factions; firstly the supports of wealth, backing Wyete on business concern human relationship of his gold; secondly, the believers inward armed forces in addition to commercial strength symbolized past times the Aseres, in addition to thirdly, those who wanted to maintain the status quo symbolized past times Ayi Kushi. It seems that Ayite (Ayi Kushi’s son, who founded Ayawaso)favoured inward both wealth in addition to armed forces strength. His upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso, was in all probability chosen because of its strategic advantage. Situated at the crossroads of an of import trading route to the gold-bearing regions of the interior, it was close plenty for effective merchandise with the Europeans yet far plenty away to foil whatever undue interference inward Ga affairs. Moreover, the defence potentialities of basing the upper-case missive of the alphabet on a colina were non overlooked. Ayete’s success inward the founding of Ayawaso inward commemorated inward the Kple song:
Tele o inpin k ba “I carried powerfulness with me
Tele Awoyo k ba I carried powerfulness with me
Ayite ma ko yabla Ayite, I settled inward a sure town.
Ayite was able to build a strong fundamental regime based on the sanction of armed forces power, in addition to inward doing so he realized that such powerfulness could live used as a prerequisite for large-scale political re-organisation. As a outcome of this newly developed strong government, the Ga Mashi were able to spread their political powerfulness inward all directions. This inevitably brought them into conflict with their neighbours. Brun remarked inward 1614 that the people of Accra lived inward “great enmity with their neighbours” in addition to he gave a detailed description of a state of war betwixt the Ga in addition to the Atty which culminated inward the massascre of the Ga army.[59] By 1634, the territories of the King of Accra comprised Ayawaso (Greater Accra), Small Bereku, Little Accra (the coast), Labadi in addition to Ningo.[60] The King of Accra’s ground expanded only gradually, but he did gain suzerainty over the Akwamu[61] in addition to also added Labadi[62] to his kingdom. Eventually, his kingdom stretched as far as Adanme. Romer remarked inward the eighteenth century that “both the Adanme in addition to the mount Negroes ancestors had been enslaved past times the accras, they had placed past times the sea shore to fish in addition to on the mount to cultivate the fertile land.[63]
Apart from the farmers in addition to the fishermen, the kingdom of Accra was also comprised of salt-makers who depended on the rich salt-producing lagoon on the coast, in addition to traders who transacted business concern betwixt the coast in addition to the interior. These traders carried European manufactured goods, common salt in addition to fish to the interior in addition to sold them inward commutation for golden in addition to slaves.[64] The kingdom of Accra hence comprised in addition to economically mixed population of farmers, fishermen, salt-makers, traders in addition to blacksmiths.
The dynastic history in addition to management of the kingdom of Accra during the Ayawaso catamenia is testimony to the secular nature of the political superstructure at this time. Ayi Ayite founded Ayawaso, was succeeded past times Niiko Nalai. He inward plough was succeeded past times Mampong Okai. Traditioinal accounts refer to him as Owura Mampong Okai because he was known to ride inward a carriage.[65] This is non surprising when 1 considers that it was during his reign that the Datch were permitted to build a trading lodge at Accra. In soliciting his permission, the Dutch would have got been compelled to shower many presents on him.
Mampong Okai married Dode Akaibi as his married adult woman was a political move, an endeavour to absorb the obutu, who were on the western frontiers of the Ga kingdom. An heir conceived with the Obutu princess would live a symbol of that fusion. There is no direct evidence to demonstrate how far Mampong Okai succeeded with this scheme, although, Reindorf[66] does province that the King of Obutu became 1 of the hammock carriers of the King of Accra. It is non clear whether this happened inward Mampong Okai’s reign. Mampong Okai was himself murdered on 17th January, 1642.[67]
According to traditional accounts, Dode Akaibi acted as regent for her boy Okai Kwei in addition to was remembered past times the Ga for beingness a tyrant. Many lives were lost inward an endeavour to ship out orders such as the capture of a live ‘tiger’ or lion. She also ordered the massacre of all the old men inward the country. Unable to tolerate this tyranny whatever longer, the Ga stoned her in addition to so buried her live inward a well, which she had previously ordered them to dig with their ain hands.[68] Unusually, contemporary written records do non call the regency of Dode Akaibi. The Dutch referred to a sure ‘Commander’ or ‘Governor’[69] who had command of Accra after the murder of King Mampong Okai. There ii possible explanations for this omission. Either, the ‘Commander’ acted as a liaison betwixt Dode Akaibi in addition to the Europeans, to such an extent that the latter were non aware of Dode Akaibi as the figure who wielded effective powerfulness inward the kingdom, or the, ‘commander’ took over powerfulness after Dode Akaibi had been buried alive.
The interregnum of Mampong Okai in addition to that of his boy Okai Kwei was non peaceful. Hendrick Caarloff reported inward 1646 that merchandise was inward confusion because ‘the kingdom of Accra is ruled past times a ‘Governor’ against whom have got placed themselves the 3 sons of the deceased king, who tried past times all way possible to spot the ground inward ruin, inward monastic enjoin thereby to deprive the ‘Governor’ of the tolls in addition to to select them nether themselves; over which they stimulate the inhabitants who take hold with the Governor groovy molestation in addition to also openly stimulate the traders to live plundered inward their golden or goods. Although the community against this have got set upwards a king, nevertheless, he cannot spot the kingdom nether his ascendance because the rivals have got too many adherents hence it is all the worse in addition to all the 3 parties stand upwards continually inward arms against the others”.[70] This appears to live the description of the struggle for a lucrative secular ascendance rather than that of priestly power. Surely, the resort to brute strength would non have got been the most effective way of determining who should live high priest of the land.
Despite the turbulence of the regency period, Okai Kwei was able to gain political command of the kingdom of Accra. Okai Kwei, nicknamed ‘Afadi’ [71] (the prosperous) past times the Ga, was apparently an shrewd statesman. This was fully displayed inward his human relationship with the Europeans in addition to his African neighbours. His terminal autumn from powerfulness inward 1680 in addition to the consequent collapse of the kingdom were non due to whatever administrative weakness, but instead to the inherent wickedness of the king, which the Ga found objectionable. Okai Kwei had all the trappings of a secular monarch, including many wives, courtiers in addition to musicians at his court.[72]
Although the Ga scheme of regime was monarchical, powerfulness was non concentrated absolutely inward the hands of 1 man. In an understanding signed past times King Mampong Okai with the Dutch West Bharat Company inward 1642, reference was made to a sure Teij, who was regarded as the King’s lieutenant.[73] The King also had ii viadors.[74] De Marees described a viador as the Ki9ng’s treasurer who “keepeth his golden in addition to other riches, receiveth in addition to payeth all in addition to doth all other business concern of the king. He is side past times side to the king, in addition to he commonly hath to a greater extent than golden rings almost his neck, arms in addition to feet than the Rex himself.”[75] Another regime official was described as the Puij Macardor, or Captain of the traders.[76] He resided inward Ayawaso in addition to had total powerfulness to set taxes in addition to prices for selling. He was also empowered to forestall quarrels, differences in addition to controversies which powerfulness arise inward merchandise transactions. The traders were said to have got feared him to a greater extent than than the Rex himself, because non only did he punish offenders according to his pleasure, but inward cases of dissension, was prepared to block all the merchandise paths until he had been suitably pacified.[77]
The viadors in addition to Puyj Marcador of the kingdom of Accra could conceivably live described as Ministers of Finance in addition to merchandise inward modern terminology.
Assisting the Rex inward oter matters of province was the council of elders, referred to inward contemporary European documents as Caboceers, Caboceros or Cappeceers. There was a council of elders inward each Ga town. Similarly, the immature men, referred to as Mansebos past times the Europeans, had organizations through which they made their influence felt inward their respective towns.[78] It was from this grouping of immature men that the Rex was able to recruit his army. Dapper commented that the King of Accra was able to create total 15 tio 16 G men iin times of war.[79] Romerr remarked that at the outbreak of state of war with the Akwamu inward 1677, the King of Accra had “many G archers, assagay or spear-men in addition to sword-men, in addition to each of his 80 generals carried a gun with 10 charges of gun pulverization in addition to bullets.”[80]
Supported past times this management in addition to army, the King of Accra was able to maintain law in addition to monastic enjoin inward his territories despite the fact that the accommodated an ethnically mixed population of Ga, Adanme, Guan in addition to Akan. On the king’s power, Dapper remarked: “the King of Accra hath, (and non without cause) the repute of a strong prince… He hath a to a greater extent than absolute sovereignty over his subjects that whatever of his neighbours so that he is an unlimited monarch.”[81]
Although Dapper’s remark as to the unlimited nature of the king’s powerfulness is perhaps exaggerated, at that spot is no dubiety that inward the firstly one-half of the seventeenth century, the King of Accra was able to found some of political ascendancy in addition to authoritative command inward the Accra plains. This was completely different scenario from the previous century, when the different Ga groups had existed as various in addition to independent units.
It was during this period, when a grade of political unity amongst the Ga had been achieved in addition to to a greater extent than importantly when the kingdom of Accra was inward the procedure of territorial expansion that the King of Accra permitted European companies to found trading forts inward his kingdom.
THE KINGDOM OF ACCRA AND THE EUROPEANS 1600-1680
The Dutch, the English, the Swedes in addition to the Danes were all permitted to build forts in addition to lodges inward the Kingdom of Accra during the 17th century. Of these, it was the Dutch who were the firstly to gain a foothold along the coast. In 1612, the Dutch West Bharat Company sent a robe, a rapier in addition to a chapeau to live presented to the King of Accra “for the honour in addition to service of the fatherland. In 1614, the Dutch gave armed forces assistance to the Ga inward their state of war against Atty.
On 14th Oct 1624, it was reported to the states General that the West Bharat Company of the Gold Coast had made an alliance in addition to understanding with the King of Accra which stated that he would merchandise with no 1 but those from the Company.
"George Lomotey in addition to his wife. Trader inward Osu." Date: 1861-1880
This was the firstly of iv agreements made betwixt the Dutch West Bharat Company in addition to the kingdom of Accra. From a reading of these agreements 1 tin glean that the predominant concern of the Dutch was to gain in addition to maintain monopoly of merchandise on the Accra littoral.
The 2nd understanding was signed with the Rex on Oct 1633. According to this agreement, the Rex in addition to his elders were, upon their demand, given ii marks golden inward cash, (64 pounds) a reddish curtain in addition to most importantly, a hope of 3 ounces 8 angels inward golden every month. However, these gifts would only live provided if the Rex kept his words non to allow anyone but the Dutch to merchandise inward Small Bereku, Accra, Labadi in addition to Ningo.
The Dutch were non satisfied with this agreement, in addition to hence the Director General to the Gold Coast, Van Yperen, advised the Company to found a fort with a garrison of men at Accra. Van Yperen demands of the Rex of Accra evidently did non view with the spontaneous success that the Dutch had envisaged, as the directors of the Company later complained to the newly appointed Director General Van Amersfoot that, “Op dato” Van Yperen had non been able to obtain permission to build a fort, fifty-fifty though a goodness offering of a nowadays of 1.5 marks golden had been made.
It was until 1642 that the 3rd understanding was signed, a fact that demonstrate that the Dutch had been unsuccessfully line-fishing for the favour of the King of Accra for at to the lowest degree 30 years! The understanding signed with Mampong Okai, King of Accra on 30th August 1642 was a remarkacable improvement on the firstly two. It gave Ruychaver, on behalf of the Dutch West Bharat Company, the right to build “a lodge or house, fifty-fifty a fort as it shall delight him, for the amount of 8 large bendas of gold.” In addition, the Company was also to pay a monthly ‘gifts’ of 2 ounces of gold.
The difficulties encountered past times the Dutch before they were finally able to convince the Rex in addition to sign the 3rd understanding shed low-cal on Accra commercial policy towards the Europeans during the firstly iv decades of the seventeenth century. Out of all the people inhabiting the Gold Coast, the Ga provided a singular illustration of hostility towards the erection of forts on their shores. On the western coast, e.g. Sabu, Fetu in addition to Agona, the chiefs were to a greater extent than than willing in addition to sometimes fifty-fifty invited the Europeans to come upwards in addition to build inward their territory. In 1611, Sabu went so far as to send ambassadors Carvalho in addition to Marinho to Kingdom of the Netherlands to asking the assistance of the Dutch against the Portuguese. This resulted inward the edifice of the firstly Dutch fort, at Sabu inward 1612. Why then, should the Ga live so overtly hostile to the West Bharat Company’s endeavour to erect a lodge?
"Christiansborg. - Counting cowries." 1861
It appears that from the outset of the King of Accra was suspicious of Dutch intentions. If merchandise could live transacted efficiently in addition to comfortably from the ships, so at that spot was no demand to build forts which would imply daily in addition to hence to a greater extent than intimate contact. This suspicion was farther compounded past times past experiences with the Portuguese. The before Portuguese punitive expedition[9] against the Ga would have got made them extremely reluctant to allow whatever European to build forts on their shores, especially because some of those who had witnessed the expedition in addition to had lost friends in addition to relatives In the attacks were in all probability still live inward 1630. The fact that King Mampong Okai stated inward the treaty that the Dutch should build the forts whether his people at the beach wanted it or not, implies that he expected opposition.[10] Such opposition did indeed manifest itself when, within iv months of signing the agreement, King Mampong Okai was murdered.[11]
After the demise of King Mampong Okai, the Dutch felt it necessary to consolidate their spot past times signing some other understanding with his successor Okai Kwei, inward 1649.[12] This inward effect became the quaternary understanding betwixt the West Bharat Company in addition to the kingdom of Accra. The understanding conferred enormous powerfulness upon the Company. The firstly clause was the confirmation of the 1642 agreement. The 2nd clause stated that when the Ga traders sailed to the western coast with ‘beads in addition to accory’[13] to trade, they should usage the proceeds from the golden to purchase European manufactured goods. They were not, however, to merchandise with other unusual nations but only with the factories of the Dutch Company e.g. Elmina, Mouree or Adja. This is a rattling of import clause so far as it reveals the extent of Dutch ambition. The Dutch were non content but to command merchandise on the Accra seaboard, but wanted to command the Ga traders’ activities exterior Accra as well.
The possibility of Ga traders flouting the terms of the understanding was provided for inward the quaternary article. This stated that if the Dutch factor or whoever else powerfulness have got ascendance at Accra, caught a Ga individual trading with anyother European Nation, he had the powerfulness to seize non only the purchased goods but also to confiscate on one-half of them for turn a profit of the Company in addition to the other one-half for the Rex in addition to his Caboceers. Obviously therefore, the success of the actual implementation of these causes, depended on the strength of the Dutch garrison inward Accra.
The 5th in addition to in conclusion article incorporated a hope past times the King to punish “with all rigour” wanton subjects who would hurt whatever of the Company’s servants. The clause made the implementation of the quaternary article easier for the Dutch. It meant that whatever Ga trader pose upwards a scrap whilst hey “illicit” goods were beingness seized past times the Dutch in addition to the latter received whatever injury inward the struggle, the Ga trader would live punished “with all rigour) past times his ain king.
These agreements appeared highly advantageous to the Dutch, but the existent examine of their effectiveness lay inward the powerfulness in addition to willingness of contracting parties to adhere to the terms. The renewal in addition to confirmation of the agreements demonstrate that the Dutch had difficulty inward ensuring that the King of Accra would proceed to grant them monopoly rights to merchandise inward the kingdom. Later agreements betwixt the King of Accra in addition to other European Companies demonstrate the Dutch fearfulness in addition to skepticism was non groundless.
The firstly threat to the Dutch monopoly came from the English. In 1646, it was reported past times the Dutch, that since the divergence of their ships, the people of Accra had requested that the English linguistic communication factor, Thymen Mulgrave employ a yacht to merchandise on their coast. Mulgrave accepted the invitation, but sine his only yacht had been dispatched to Benin, the affair was postponed. However, he told the Ga that firstly they must drive the Dutch away from Accra. This occurred during the regency established after King Mampong Okai’s death.
Th. Swanikier [sitting], Brother C.F. Aldinger [sitting], Th. Wulff [standing], Paul Fleischer [standing]." Date: 1861 -1865
When the caboceers were reminded of the 1642 understanding in addition to the Dutch threatened to take away the company’s goods, set can to the lodge in addition to evacuate the port, as they had done at Cormatyn, this “caused such a scrap amidst them that they promised non to select inward the English.”[14] As a outcome threats, donation of presents in addition to the influence of Hendrick Caarloff (the acting factor of Accra) the Dutch seemed to have got temporarily warded off the English linguistic communication danger. On July 3rd 1647, it was reported that the King had forbidden his subjects to merchandise with whatever Englishmen inward Accra.[15] Furthermore, inward a leter dated 26th September 1647, it was alleged that inward spite of the entreaties of Middleton (the English linguistic communication factor at Cormantyn) to build a lodge at Accra, the Rex declared that he testament never intermission the alliance with the Dutch West Bharat Company.
In 1650 however, this hope was broken. In the human face of direct Dutch opposition in addition to protest, a political party of English, estranged from their English linguistic communication Republic of Guinea Company, was permitted past times the King of Accra to build a lodge at Osu. Even though the English linguistic communication abandoned the lodge when the estranged political party was reconciled to the Company, this was believed to live only a temporary retreat in addition to non a consummate abandonment. Consequently, they saw no ground why they could not, inward 1657, resume their trading activities inward Accra.[16] The only factor which seemed to have got checked their enthusiasm was the Dutch threat to select retaliatory measures past times edifice a lodge at Winneba, the port of Agona, where the English linguistic communication also had a lodge.[17]
The English linguistic communication resumed negotiations for the establishment of the lodge at Accra inward 1659. This fourth dimension they sent “a sure black” to the courtroom of the Rex of Accra to negotiate for them.[18] This evolution caused such panic that Sol, the Dutch factor, did non hold back the monthly canoe to dispatch the intelligence to the Director General, Valckenburgh at Elmina.[19] Instead instructions were straight off sent to Sol to have got the expanse where the English linguistic communication intended to build continually occupied past times slaves in addition to soldier or ii in addition to non to abandon it for whatever reason, “except for extreme violence” inward which illustration he was to tender an enclosed written protestation to the English. Such was the grade of consternation that inward 1659 the Dutch sent their representative, Harman Jansen, to the King of Accra inward Ayawaso, to banking company check the veracity of the intelligence in addition to to protestation against it.[20]
The human relationship betwixt the kingdom of Accra in addition to the English linguistic communication trading society appears to have got been fragile. This was due to the lack of continuity of policy resulting from the constant reorganization of the company.[21] In 1661, the Republic of Guinea Company was succeeded past times the Company of Royal Adventurers into Africa. According to Davies: “the whole venture was to a greater extent than reminiscent of an aristocratic treasure hunt than an organized business.” Even after the reorganization inward 1663, the company’s finances were chaotic. The commercial rivalry betwixt the English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch farther weakened the English linguistic communication company, before opened upwards state of war broke betwixt the English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch inward 1665. De Ruyter had deprived the English linguistic communication of all their settlements on the Gold Coast.
English linguistic communication commercial activities on the Gold Coast received fresh impetus when a novel company, the Royal African Company succeeded the Royal Adventurers into Africa inward 1672. In this same year, the Royal African Company was permitted past times the King of Accra to build James Fort, close the hamlet of Soko. The novel fort would live situated due west of the Dutch fort Creveceour in addition to to a greater extent than importantly within its artillery range.
Other threats to the Dutch monopoly inward Accra came from the Swedish in addition to Danish African Companies. The shareholders of these ii companies were mostly Dutchmen who were dissatisfied with the Dutch West Bharat Company. Hendrick Caarloff, who had previously served as financial inward the Dutch Company, tin live seen as the principal histrion amongst these distinguished Dutchmen.[22] In 1652, Caarloff exploited the friendship which had existed himself in addition to the Ga whilst he was inward the service of the Dutch West Bharat Company, to obtain permission for the Swedish African Company to build a lodge inward Osu. When Caarloff left the service of the Swedish African Company, he seized the lodge at Osu for the Danish African Company. The Danes afterwards lost it to the Dutch inward 1659, only to finally regain possession of it inward 1661. According to the Danish version of the incident, they only achieved this victory when aided past times the King of Accra, who ordered the Dutch to evacuate the lodge.[23] Alternatively the Dutch maintained that Jost Cramer, the Danish representative, sent to the fort a sure Joan Jacob Ragot, who with the assistance of several hundred natives, drove away the employees of the Dutch West Bharat Company, in addition to stole their merchandise.[24] What is important is that inward both versions of the trial described, the Ga decided to aid the Danish Company, although the accounts conflict on whether this assistance came from the King or the mutual people. The Danes for their component evidently felt they had every right to the lodge since it was built past times the Swedes, who had afterwards lost it to them through legitimate conquest.
If this conquest theory is pressed to its logical conclusion, 1 wonders why on 18th August 1661 the Danes signed an agreement[25] with King Okai Kwei of Accra to obtain the same slice of ground which the claimed to have got already acquired past times conquest. From the terms of the understanding on tin deduce that the Danes were moved past times the fearfulness that they would live ousted from their newly acquired possession: conquest solitary was no guarantee of long term occupancy.
The Danish understanding with the King of Accra deferred but from the previous Dutch treaties in addition to was a to a greater extent than realistic in addition to workable document. More of import than the fact that the Danes paid a lump amount of 50 bendas of golden for the land, was the absence of whatever endeavour to found a monopoly on the coast. Instead, the Danes were given ground “to build a fort at the firstly opportunity”. The Rex understook to offering all assistance inward the edifice of this fort in addition to to aid defend the Danes against whatever attacks from either Europeans or Blacks. This was exactly what the Danash Company needed at a fourth dimension when it was just kickoff to found itself inward the competitive Gold Coast merchandise with comparatively inadequate way of protection: it allowed them to lean on the king’s powerfulness to consolidate their ain position. To demonstrate how seriously the Rex meant to select his pledged discussion in addition to moreover to seal the understanding made with the Danish Company, he drunkard the fetish named Aquandoe[26] inward the presence of Ahen (the boy of Henequa, deceased King of Fetu). Ahen has been specifically sent to Accra past times Jan Classen, a powerful merchant in addition to Dey[27] of Fetu to witness this oath.
In add-on to the presence of the English, Swedes, Dutch in addition to Danes who had trading forts on the Accra coast, the expanse also accommodated other European traders such as the Portuguese in addition to French.
The Portuguese, whose before economical command of the Gold Coast had been destroyed past times the Dutch seizure of their forts inward 1642, later renewed their commercial interests inward Accra. In 1679, they were able to gain command of the Danish fort Christianborg at Osu, when a Portuguese adult man named Julian de Campo Barrreto bought the Danish Fort from the Commandant Pieter Bolt for 30 half dozen pounds weight of gold.[28] The fort was renamed St Francis Xavier past times the Portuguese. However, inward response to protests from the Danish Company, the King of Portugal ordered the fort to live returned to the Danes. After the Portuguese had handed over the fort inward 1683, they continued to merchandise from their ships on the Accra littoral.
Evidence of French trading activities inward Accra is provided past times Barbot, agent of the Fench African Company. Barbot transacted business concern inward Accra in addition to fifty-fifty paid see to Ga upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso inward the society of Ofori, 1 of the Ga Princes who succeeded King Okai Kwei inward 1677.
All these European traders were attracted to the Ga coast for 1 paramount reason: its reputation as a lucrative golden trading centre. Seventeenth-century European records abound with comments extolling the pre-eminence of the golden merchandise inward Accra. De Marees observed at the kickoff of the seventeenth century that the Accra traders “come with groovy store of money bringing the golden as it is found inward the hills.”[29] Van der Broecke also observed that “to this spot of Accra comes downwards indeed the most in addition to best golden of this whole coast.[30]” Brun commented on parties of traders from Accra with “about 60 or 70 pound weight of the best gold.[31] In Feb 1634, the Dutch West Bharat Company reported that, “the same port of Accra has inward the in conclusion 7 months, yielded a considerably larger quantity of golden than previously which has caused to maintain that spot good assorted with every form of merchandise.”[32]
In 1646, Ruychaver stated: inward the lodge of Accra it has been rattling distinguished for the circumstances of the fourth dimension in addition to 238 marks, 101/2 angels traded there.[33] If the port could live properly supplied with merchandise it could undoubtedly select inward 60-70 marks monthly in addition to various novel Acanists from a sure hamlet Aquema have got sometimes appeared there, who have got spent inward a calendar month 20-30, yea, 40 marks of extremely fine gold. It was also found that some Acory, but non rattling fine, was to live obtained at a reasonable price, of which a trial would live made; so that out of the spot if goods are non lacking something goodness is to live expected.”[34]
In Dec 1646, the Dutch West Bharat Company reported that the Accra monthly canoe had arrived with in addition to extract of the sales, consisting of 99 marks 4 ounces 12 engels.[35] Unfortunately, the figures for the other European traders are non available in addition to so do non allow a total appreciation of the volume of merchandise inward Accra. However, Dapper claimed that “little Accra has been many years the chiefest spot of merchandise upon the Gold Coast, side past times side Mauree in addition to Kormantyn, where unusual merchants ship Fe in addition to linen, which they commutation inward barter for gold, with much greater gain than on the other places of the Gold Coast.”[36] He farther stated that Accra “produced a 3rd component of the golden that was to live had on all the Gold Coast.”[37]
The Royal African Company also remarked that “Accra is ever a goodness spot of goodness golden in addition to sometimes plenty of slaves. This is the easternmost spot of merchandise of goodness gold.”[38] Accra,s render of slaves during this catamenia was estimated past times Dapper to live a relatively little 3 hundred per year. Hence, although Accra sure as shooting supplied slaves inward the seventeenth century, golden was past times far the to a greater extent than of import in addition to profitable merchandise at this time. European records consistently cite golden as the main attraction which tempted traders to the Accra coast in addition to ensuring commercial rivalry betwixt the different companies.
From the Dutch perspective, the presence of upwards to v other European merchandise nations inward Accra meant that inward spite of their previous treaties, they were non able to maintain the monopoly of merchandise inward the kingdom. The Dutch saw the violation of these treaties as evidence of the treachery of the Ga. In 1650, when the Swedes had failed inward their firstly endeavour to found a lodge at Osu, Arent Cock, the Dutch Director-General, was convinced that upon the imminent arrival of a novel ship, the Swedes would inevitably succeed inward their side past times side endeavour because “the infidelity of the state is groovy plenty to invite them to do it.”[39]
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 closer exam of the Ga-European human relationship shows that at that spot to a greater extent than complex reasons for the violation of the treaties. There seem to have got been differences of interpretation as to the terms in addition to ultimate important of the agreements.
As far as the Dutch were concerned, they had bought “the whole of the Accra beach with ports in addition to habours thereof, together with the merchandise in addition to traffic falling there.”[40] Consequently, the King of Accra had no right whatsoever to allow whatever other European society to build or merchandise there. To the Dutch this was tantamount to a consummate transfer of ownership. Conversely, the behavior of the King of Accra suggests that according to his interpretation, he had conceded to the Dutch only what N.A. Ollenu calls ‘occupational right.’[41] This meant that absolute ownership still rested with him alone. He could hence quite legitimately invite other unusual nations to build on gratis ground inward his dominions. In 1659, he made it clear to the Dutch that although he had no intention of driving them away, if on the other manus they decided to leave of absence of their ain accord, others would sure as shooting live allowed to occupy the vacated land.[42]
K.Y. Daarku[43] views these conflicting interpretations of the treaties as the outcome of fundamentally different attitudes towards ground tenure that pertained inward Europe in addition to on the Gold Coast. In Europe ground was owned past times in addition to private or a society in addition to could live expeditiously alienated. Conversely, on the Gold Coast, in addition to indeed inward many parts of Africa, ground tenure was communistic. And private could non hence undertake a consummate alienation of ground to strangers: as Ollenu puts it, “land is owned past times a vast theatre unit of measurement of whom many are dead, a few are living in addition to a countless host are still unborn.[44] This ground for the different interpretations of the treaties tin only really live applied to the initial stages of Dutch contact with the Ga. The rattling fact that the Dutch had to pay a stipulated monthly amount of 2 ounces[45] of golden to the King of Accra must have got meant that they were aware that they were non the absolute owners of the land. Instead, they deliberately chose to telephone call upwards these payments gifts, implying that the donor had no right of refusal inward granting them.
The mental attitude of the Dutch documented inward other component of the Gold Coast illustrates that they were aware that the territories did non really transfer ground ownership to the Europeans. For example, inward 1639 the French protested against the Dutch activities inward Komenda on the pretext that they had already made an understanding with the King in addition to hence the Dutch were intruding on their rights. The Dutch, however, dismissed this protestation on the ground that the expanse belonged to the King of Komennda in addition to non the King of French Republic in addition to hence he had the right to give permission to whomsoever he pleased.[46] This principle, so expediently upheld past times the Dutch, did non forestall them from claiming on the strength of the 1642 understanding with the King of Accra that the latter had lost his sovereignty over the Accra beach. This time, it was the plough of later arrivals similar the Danes to dot out to the Dutch that Accra belonged to the King of Accra in addition to non to the Dutch West Bharat Company.
This illustration illustrates the extent to which Europeans upheld the local King’s sovereignty in addition to ownership of ground only if they were non the firstly to acquire a trading postal service inward a particular state.
The 2nd ground behind the violation of the treaties was the King of Accra’s anxiety to create as much turn a profit as possible from the European presence on the coast. De Marees remarked that the Ga are “a crafty in addition to subtle people in addition to the subtlest of all that coast for both traffique in addition to otherwise.”[47] This thought was fully displayed inward an interview inward 1659 which the King granted at his courtroom at Ayawaso to Haran Jansen, a representative of the Dutch West Bharat Company. the main ground motivating the Dutch to seek this audience with the Rex were:
1. To protestation against an alleged English linguistic communication endeavour to build a fort inward Accra.
2. To protestation against the presence of a lodge in addition to the prevalence of merchandise inward a department of Accra known as Osu, since this was a contravention of the 1642 in addition to 1649 agreements in addition to hence they wanted to persuade the Rex to have got the lodge demolished.
3. To persuade the King to allow the inland traders Akanists (Akans) to come upwards in addition to merchandise straight with the Dutch on the coast.
4. To persuade the King to give the Give the Dutch temporary recess from the monthly payments, as merchandise returns were rattling depression at the time.
The replies to the questions pose to him past times the Dutch representative suggest that the King was fully aware of the implications of the agreements, but that he was to a greater extent than concerned almost filling his treasury than almost pleasing the Dutch.
Jansen:- whether a asking had been made past times the English linguistic communication state or past times anyone on their behalf, or whether the King himself had made the asking to them, that state should found a lodge in addition to ship on merchandise here?
King:- the English linguistic communication had made no asking for that purpose nor likewise past times him.
Jansen:- Whether he understands that this tin or may live done.
King:- Will non give a reply to this question.
Jansen:- If nevertheless the English linguistic communication or others made attempts to do so would non the King forestall it?
King:- Says yes he testament forestall it.
Jansen:- Whether the King is still bearing inward psyche the understanding entered into?
King:- Replies yes.
Jansen:- Whether inward pursuance of the same he testament exactly discovery that understanding in addition to maintain it inward total vigour.
King:- Replies that at the same fourth dimension as the understanding was made it had been decided past times the contracting parties in addition to the councilors that the Honourable Director testament cook prices so as to merchandise as was traded at the other factories to windward.
Jansen:- Why does the Rex allow merchandise at Osu contrary to the agreement?
King:- Says that he ould non have got the fort or lodge at Osu removed.
Jansen:- Whether so he understands that the understanding allows the trade?
King:- Replies yes.
Jansen:- As past times that understanding it tin live considered otherwise, whether he, the king, would resolve to renounce the merchandise at Osu or not?
King;- Declare sure as shooting not, for that manufacturing flora if producing greater profits.
Jansen:- What other reasons displace him?
King:- Says he won’t do it.
Jansen:- Whether the King would non resolve to forbid his subjects inward monastic enjoin to comply with the understanding to the merchandise with whatever other state which they are doing daily, except with the Hollanders?
King:-Declares the he testament past times no way forbid them such.
Jansen:- Why does he maintain the path closed to the Accanits so that they are prevented from beingness able to merchandise with our state here?
King:- Says the ground is that no dashes are given, but if to a greater extent than presents are given him he testament view to it.
Jansen:- As at present, no merchandise whatever is done hither inward the lodge Crevecoeur in addition to it advisable to halt that merchandise for a time; whether the King understands, that their Honourable High Mightinesses in addition to their Chartered Directors retain their right of ownership to the purchased land, ports in addition to harbours.
King:- Says that on their divergence others testament indeed come upwards inward the spot , but he is non driving them away.
Jansen:- Whether the King understands that if the Honourable General decides for the service of the Honourable Company to renew the merchandise again, this may live done at whatever time.
King:- Declares, yea, provided the usual customs are paid.
Jansen:- Whether inward the absence of our nation, the Rex would allow whatever unusual nations to build in addition to ship on merchandise hither on the Honourable Company’s lands?
King:- But if it live advisable inward monastic enjoin to spotter for trade, to proceed to remain hither inward the Lodge Crevecoeur during the lack of merchandise (they beingness the stimulate of it) would he sympathise – (it is stated with all courtesy) – that the payment of the monthly customs would live suspended until such a fourth dimension as all the traders (as hitherto) were allowed access to the factory?
King:- Declares that he is non willing to forgo 1 cacra of his usual monthly customs.[48]
The King of Accra was shrewd plenty to realize that he could obtain meliorate prices. There is evidence to demonstrate that European goods inward Accra were to a greater extent than expensive than on the Western Coast. On 1st Feb 1643 Ruychaver, the Dutch Director-General, reported that he had fixed the cost of linen at Elmina at 120 in addition to at Accra at 110 per benda. He intended to pose it 1 at 112 in addition to 100 respectively if at that spot was a goodness demand for it.[49] In 1646, the Dutch Director-General admitted that for some yr at that spot had been a difference of 30 in addition to 40 benda on linen, 10-12 1b. copper per benda in addition to 1-2 engels on Fe rods. The Ga traders at firstly tried to avoid the high prices inward Accra past times travelling to sell their goods on the Western Coast inward monastic enjoin to secure a goodness bargain. Indeed, it was this disparity inward cost which, according to the Ga, prompted them to invite the English linguistic communication representative Thymen Mulgrave to send a yacht to Accra inward 1646.[50] The province of affairs seems to have got temporarily rectified, for, on 18th March 1647, Director-General Van del Wel reported on the remarkable improvement inward the receipt of golden “which greatly the stimulate that nosotros give things somewhat inexpensive at Accra.”[51]
It is clear that the prices were non stabilized. They fluctuated according to demand in addition to the competitive nature of the merchandise inward a particular area. It was this factor which the King of Accra naturally exploited past times permitting as many European traders as possible to transact business concern along his coast.
The policy for allowing to a greater extent than than 1 European state to merchandise inward Accra had other advantages apart from that of the command of prices. In add-on to the lump amount in addition to the gifts which were presented to the King upon the signing of the treaties, he collected monthly rent of 1 benda from each European society which had a lodge or fort on his land. The King of Accra also collected customs duties from each European ship that anchored inward Accra waters. The Danes for example, had to pay one-half a benda for each ship that anchored at Osu. They also had to pay a taxation on each item they unloaded, eg. One bar of iron, 1 anker on liquor in addition to 10 pieces says type of cloth.[52] The amount of money the King received would hence live straight proportional to the number of European trading inward his territories.
Commercial rivalry betwixt the European traders meant that the maintenance of the Dutch monopoly over the lucrative Accra merchandise became impossible, especially since, past times seeking a monopoly of trade, the Dutch were trying to contrary a province of affairs which had ever prevailed on the Accra littoral. According to Dapper, merchandise inward Accra “was gratis to all, till the Hollanders West Bharat Company had engrossed it to themselves.”[53] It would seem obvious that the other European traders would non live prepared to sit down in addition to spotter piece the Dutch enjoyed a monopoly of the profitable Accra merchandise on the strength of uncomplicated agreements in addition to presents alone.
The establishment of forts on the Accra coast enticed the Ga people from the inland in addition to from villages farther afield to come upwards in addition to settle nether the forts. These settler were still, however, nether the command of the King of Accra, in addition to he resented whatever endeavour past times the Europeans to exercise ascendance over them. For example, inward August 1646, a Ga dependent who apparently was a friend of some Caboceers was rebuked past times the Dutch sub-factor, Reynier Carstens, for bringing inward 3 quaternary (3/4) of an ounce of imitation golden for sale inward Crevecoeur. When the King heard of the reprimanding of his subject, he closed the merchandise path leading to the Dutch fort.[54] Consequently, the Dutch had to pay to a greater extent than than 1 grade of gold[55] before the paths were re-opened.
This powerfulness of the King to obstruct the current of merchandise to the forts was dreaded past times the Europeans. They tried hence non to incur his displeasure and, to ensure this, solicited his favour past times presenting him with gifts. These gifts con live divided into ii categories. The firstly were voluntary donations made past times the Europeans at their ain convenience. For example, inward 1680, the Danish African Company presented to the King of Accra a reddish velvet textile with golden embroidery, a chapeau with the Danish King’s coast of arms, an umbrella, a muskets, gun pulverization in addition to brandy.[56] The 2nd were customary presents, which though they were non stipulated inward the agreements had go good established through long practice. For illustration the Danes had to pay 4 bendas to the King as a welcoming gift on his annual visits to the coast. They also had to pay 1 barrel of gun powder, (about 10-12 lb) in addition to charge of almost 16-20 lb. when the King was engaged inward war. After the state of war they were expected to congratulate him in addition to aid him to mourn the soldiers he had lost inward the battle.[57]
The donation of these gifts was limited to the individual of the King alone. The King’s sons, wives in addition to councilors were likewise presented with gifts each fourth dimension they visited the forts.[58] The most influential men inward the kingdom also expected to have presents from the Europeans. In 1642, when the treaty was signed with the Dutch West Bharat Company, Teij, the King’s lieutenant, received 1 oz. 14 engels gold, the king’s children received 1oz 2 engels, the Caboceers of Grater Accra 3oz … engels worth of goods whilst those inward Little Accra received 5 oz. 8 engels. The Mansebos also r eceived 6.5ankers of liquors.[59] In 1680, the Caboceers of Grater Accra received from the Danish Company 1 anker French brandy in addition to half dozen bars of iron, whilst those inward Osu received one-half an anker French brandy in addition to half dozen bars of iron. Likewise, the Mansebos received 1 anker corn brandy in addition to iv in addition to iv bars of iron. The oldest of the king’s brothers also received one-half slice of says, 4 bars of iron, ½ a slice of says, ½ anker of French brandy in addition to little pieces of coloured Indian silk. The Paij-Marcador or Minister[60] of merchandise also received ½ a slice of says, ½ anker of French brandy in addition to 2 bars of iron.[61]
"Boys' boarding schoolhouse inward Christiansborg." 1861
Each grouping of Europeans had special friends amongst the Ga. Cornellison, the Danish factor at Osu from 1661-7, described Kwei Blanco, the oldest of the king’s brothers as his ‘special friend’[62]. Likewise the Dutch had the back upwards of St Jago, 1 of the principal men inward Accra. The Dutch claimed that he brought downwards 1 3rd of the golden that came from the coast in addition to that he had never been seen trading with other foreigners. St Jago went to see the Dutch Director-General at Elmina in addition to presented him with a fine sheep, for which he received 6 ‘pees’ inward return.[63] It was this same adult man who informed Sol, the Dutch factor, almost the English linguistic communication intention to build a fort inward Accra inward 1659. The English linguistic communication similarly used the services of a ‘certain black’ to negotiate with the King inward 1659, when they wanted to re-establish themselves inward Accra.[64]
The private grapheme in addition to mental attitude of the Europeans inward the service of the merchandise companies inward Accra helped to determine the nature of the Ga-European relationship. When Hendrick Caarloff was acting factor for the Dutch inward Accra, the human relationship betwixt the people in addition to the society was rattling cordial. Thus, when the Dutch needed lime, they found ready aid from the Ga, who negotiated for them to acquire oyster shells from Prampram, 5-6 miles from Accra.[65] It is non surprising to discovery later examples of Caarloff capitalizing on his friendship with the Ga after he had left the service of the Dutch West Bharat Company to obtain permission for firstly the Swedes in addition to later the Danes to build trading lodges at Osu.[66]
Another European retainer who was able to win the friendship in addition to confidence of the Ga was Christian Cornellisson, who worked for the Danish Company inward Accra from 1661-7. His 7 years’ experience inward the service of the Swedish Company proved rattling useful to the Danes. It was said that he was so loved past times the Ga that they protected him from poisoning in addition to other such dangers. Numerous babies were fifty-fifty named after him. When he finally left the Gold Coast, he was evidently missed past times the Ga, for, on his divergence from Accra, the Rex ordered all his wives in addition to his entire courtroom to escort him to the boat.[67] In 1680, 13 years after leaving the Gold Coast, nosotros still discovery Cornellisson sending presents to Okai Kwei, King of Accra in addition to his elders.[68]
"Christiansborg. Shoe-maker Bohner's workshop."
The love in addition to friendship exuded past times Caarloff in addition to Cornellisson contrast with the to a greater extent than usual sense of resentment, perhaps best personified past times the Dutch factor Col. He was reported to live ni constant dispute with the Ga, treating them improperly inward discussion in addition to deed in addition to driving them out of the lodge with bare weapons.[69] It was non surprising that merchandise returns for this catamenia were rattling depression – 15 marks, half dozen in addition to 3 quarter engels as compared with the average of 70-80 marks which the Dutch usually obtained when merchandise was running smoothly.
The overall film of the human relationship betwixt the kingdom of Accra in addition to the Europeans is that it was essentially commercial, each political party trying to create the maximum turn a profit from the province of affairs regardless of understanding or convention. For example, inward instructions given inward 1680 to the newly appointed governor-general of the Danish forts were directives stating that he should never pay anything to the Rex if the latter had no right to it; if he did have got a right to it, the governor-general should assay his best to cut back the amount involved past times one-half or less. He should, however, do this diplomatically, so as non to incur the wrath of the King.[70]
When 1 farther analyses the Ga-European human relationship as it existed during the 17th century, it becomes apparent that the Rex of Accra was the supreme player. Despite the complex connections of mutual responsibleness in addition to dependence which characterized the relationship, it was ultimately the King who controlled the current of merchandise in addition to goods which supplied the European forts. In essence, the prosperity in addition to survival of the private trading companies depended on the King’s goodwill.
It has been seen that the prosperity of the Accra kingdom depended on a audio economical policy inward relation to the Europeans. Ironically, it was the rattling pursuit of such policy which caused friction betwixt the Ga in addition to neighbouring states during the seventeenth century.
THE KINGDOM OF ACCRA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS 1600-1680
In the middle of the eighteenth century, Johannes Rask observed that Ga women were often to live seen attempting to sift golden from the river with wooden bowls. The maximum amount they collected was twelve shillings worth for a whole twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia work, but to a greater extent than often than non the obtained nothing.[1] This golden collected past times the Ga women was manifestly non the whole amount traded inward Accra during the seventeenth century: since Accra had no golden mines, the commercial quantities of golden traded inward the kingdom during the seventeenth century came from the golden producing hinterland. It was predominantly this which caused friction betwixt the Ga in addition to their neighbours. In essence, the role of the Ga was that of middleman, in addition to consequently the prosperity of the kingdom of Accra lay inward its powerfulness to channel the current of merchandise from the primary areas of production to the European trading forts on the Accra coast.
A.H. Engmann, Maria Engmann, instructor inward Christiansborg, both mulattos." Date: 1861 -1880
At the kickoff of the seventeenth century, the Ga acted as oarsmen in addition to interpreters for the inland golden producers who came to merchandise with the Europeans on the coast.Brun has left a detailed description of the human relationship that existed the Ga in addition to the inland traders. In 1614, he observed: “when the Ga go out to sea, they have got canoes, skillfully constructed from a hollowed tree, inward which 20 or to a greater extent than men are able to sit. They have on no wearable other than a little Quaquahy, with which they cover their loins in addition to genitals, the repose of the trunk beingness quite naked. But the Akan traders, who may select to this spot out of Acania say 60 or 70 lbs weight of the best gold, have got also an outer garment a textile worn over the shoulders, in addition to they create it inward a stately manner, wuth say 150 or to a greater extent than slaves. For the Akan have got no horses, but the goods for which they sell their golden are rattling heavy, iron, copper, brass basins, beads, mattocks in addition to other large knives. These things, the slaves have got to ship spot on their backs similar donkeys. They know no other linguistic communication than Akan in addition to so they usage an Accra as interpreter, who may thus cleverly deceive the visitors. They usage weight of ii kinds; when they are purchasing they usage the heavier weights; in addition to sell with the lesser. When, however, they come upwards on board ship, they to a greater extent than often than non go sick for they are non strong past times nature in addition to are non used to seas storms. For this reason, they have got to go dorsum to dry out ground quickly, in addition to the Accras are entrusted with the transaction which they ship out as required from them. When they select the merchandise goods to land, the Akan are non so content with them, so they go dorsum to the ship in addition to fetch a trivial spirits, which is gratefully in addition to copiously drunk, so that they autumn soundless in addition to repose content.”[2]
The policy of allowing the Akan access to the coast to merchandise straight with the Europeans was abandoned as a outcome of the ascension of the Accra kingdom. In 1647, the Dutch Director-General, Van der Wel, complained that the people of Greater Accra would non concord to their asking to allow the Accanists in addition to other inland traders to move through the beach to trade.[3] Dapper also remarked: “the King of Accra suffers none out of Aquemboe (Akwamu) in addition to Aquimmera to come upwards through his ground to merchandise with our people, but reserves that liberty to his ain subjects only, who ship the wares brought from our people to Abonce in addition to commutation them at that spot with groovy profit.[4]
The King of Accra realized that his people would gain greater turn a profit from the European presence if they had the monopoly of the merchandise on the coast in addition to inward its immediate hinterland. Through the monopolistic policy Accra exploited its spot as both a coastal in addition to an inland state. The kingdom of Accra stretched almost 20 miles inland with its upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso centrally situated 11 miles into the interior.
Accra’s external merchandise was so organized that traders from the neighbouring states were non fifty-fifty allowed to ship on commerce inward the upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 barrier of at to the lowest degree 20 miles was set betwixt the producers of the golden in addition to the ultimate purchasers on the coast. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 special marketplace was established northwest of Accra: a Dutch map of 1629 refers to it as the A.B.C. marketplace of Accra.[5] The marketplace was situated almost 21 miles from the coast in addition to was doubtless the same 1 referred to past times Dapper as Abonse, which he located as beingness ii hours journeying from Greater Accra.[6]
Abonse was the marketplace where the European goods such as cloth, basins, knives, gun in addition to rum were exchanged for golden in addition to slaves. In add-on to the imported commodities, make such as salt, fish in addition to cattle were sold past times the Ga inward commutation for crops from the fertile inland regions. Dapper made a special reference to the cattle merchandise which was the principal business of the people of Labadi. According to his account, the merchandise of the inhabitants “consists chiefly inward cows, whereof they breed some upwards themselves in addition to others they fetch overland from Ley, a spot 8 or 10 miles lower, which they sometimes sell 1 time again to the Akraman blacks in addition to those of the upper most places.”[7]
Abonse was a good organized marketplace with its ain government minister assigned to regulate prices in addition to levy taxes on transactions. It had specific marketplace days, which according to Dapper were held 3 times a week, “with groovy resort of people out of all the neighbouring territories.”[8]
Special marketplace days must have got been inward existence inward Accra fifty-fifty before the arrival of the Europeans on the coast. Towrson observed inward 1657 that at Accra they would have got no traffic with the Negroes, but 3 or iv days inward the calendar week in addition to all the repose of the calendar week they would non come upwards at us.”[9] Pieter De Marees, who visited the coast inward 1601, remarked that the Ga “come non often to purchase wares, but discovery sure days inward the calendar week to that purpose in addition to so they come upwards with groovy store of money, bringing the golden as it is found inward the hills.”[10] It is to a greater extent than than likely the Abonse marketplace of the seventeenth century existed inward the sixteenth century or at to the lowest degree was the successor to an before 1 which had existed on the northern frontiers of Accra.
Among the neighbouring states who traded at the Abonse marketplace were the Akyem on the north-western frontier, known past times the Europeans as the Great Akany. Dapper remarked that the Akyem “rarely come upwards to the coast to merchandise to merchandise with the whites but conduct their merchandise inward gold, textile in addition to other wares with their neighbours to the north. The mainly go the Abonse close Akora (Sic) because they commutation most of their golden for European goods.”[11]
On the northern frontier was Aboera, which tin live identified with modern Aburi. Dapper claimed that “very much golden is found hither which the inhabitants select to the marketplace at Abonse.”[12]
Further due north was Tafoe, whose territory was excessively rich inward golden in addition to most of this golden is brought to Abonse. Some is occasionally brought to the sea side hamlet of Moure.”[13] On the north-eastern frontier was Akaradi, which was said to possess “very much golden which the Akanier brought to the markets. The inhabitants select it to the marketplace at Abonse.”[14] Further north-east was Kwahu, where “gold is also dug in addition to taken to the marketplace of Greater Accra for sale.
Accra’s policy to forestall these inland traders from negotiating straight with the Europeans on the coast contrasts with the policy of the province on the Western component of the Gold Coast during the seventeenth century (Axim, Sbu, Fetu, Commenda in addition to Fante). There, the Akan traders from the interior were allowed past times the kings to come upwards in addition to merchandise with Europeans on the coast so long as they paid their tolls. These inland traders went so far as to found pockets of trading colonies inward the coastal states. In Cape Coast inward 1680, a adult man referred to as “Captain of the Akanists” was 1 of the most influential people inward the kingdom of Fetu.[15] Dapper also remarked that the Akanists “bring two-third of the golden which the whites purchase on the Gold Coast each year. Normally, they come upwards to trivial Kommando, Kormantin in addition to especially to Moure to trade. Many of them live with their wives in addition to children at Mouree in addition to aid novel traders who come upwards to the coast in addition to have got to pay customs duties on their goods. They are deceitful in addition to cunning inward trade. Their slaves ship the goods which they purchase to various markets inward the interior. They are able to move anywhere with groovy freedom, though, Ati, Sabu in addition to other surrounding territories, relish groovy liberty in addition to are welcomed past times everyone.”[16]
The success of Accra’s monopolistic policy depended on the effective protection of her frontiers. Whilst at that spot is no direct evidence to suggest that Accra had a special strength to protect its people from intrusion in addition to smuggling, at that spot is evidence indicating that Accra had toll collectors on the major merchandise routes.[17] One tin hence surmise that these toll collectors would have got been backed past times some sort coercive powerfulness so as to avoid the possibility of beingness overpowered past times larg groups of unusual traders.
The success of Accra’s trading policy also depended, to some extent, on the absence of alternative markets in addition to merchandise routes within the immediate vicinity of the kingdom. The eastern frontier created no problems, because the kingdom stretched right Adanme ground to the Vlta.[18] However, the western in addition to northern frontiers did nowadays difficulties in addition to brought Accra into conflict with Agona, Latebi in addition to Akwamu.
West of Accra was the kingdom of Agona, a stretch of coast which had likewise attracted European traders inward the 2nd one-half of the sixteenth century. For example, inward 1557, the English linguistic communication merchant Towrson traded for golden inward Bireku in addition to Winneba.[19] Agona’s merchandise with the Europeans suffered a lapse at the kickoff of the seventeenth century, for example, inward 1601, De Marees remarked that the Frenchmen ‘used to’ anchor at Bireku in addition to the Breku used to purchase groovy store of Fe but since the ships had stopped trading there, the inhabitants travelled to Accra to trade.[20] Although Agona may have got ceased to attract the Europeans traders, she sure as shooting carried on merchandise with her neighbours. De Marees observed that at Winneba the inhabitants usage groovy traffique along the coast past times selling their cattle; in addition to because that at that spot are many proper women; drivers of Negroes come upwards from other places of the county thither to purchase women in addition to to fetch slaves to serve their turnes
Withal.”[21] Dapper also remarked that the Agona had “but little merchandise for European wares in addition to is therefore, trivial frequented. The best dealing is for slaves of Breku with the akerache (Accra) merchants which come upwards thither, who commutation them for serges, viz a slice of serge for a slave or else ii ounces of gold.”[22]
To remedy to this paucity of European merchandise inward Agona, the Rex allowed the English linguistic communication to build a trading lodge at Winneba. In 1656, the Dutch also claimed they had been invited past times the King of Agona to build at Winneba.[23] It is clear that past times the mid-seventeeth century, Agona started to attract the European traders. Barbot observed inward the 2nd one-half of the seventeeth century that Accra in addition to Agona “are good seated for trade, when they are non at state of war with their neighbours, for when they are, at that spot is trivial golden in addition to few slaves to live had.” He farther commented: “the Accra blacks come upwards downwards to this coast to trade, when they hear the ships riding , that had a good sorted cargo, of such goods as they have got occasion for, viz.: says, old sheets, cosvelt linen, bugles, Fe in addition to brandy.”[24]
It appears that the kingdom of Accra became jealous of this revival of European merchandise inward Agona. Accra’s policy towards Agona was hostile but the latter seemed to tolerate this hostility, probably, for fearfulness of beingness completely subjugated. By 1634, Accra had already incorporated the Agona town of trivial Bereku, Which was famous for the industry of arms, into the kingdom of Accra.[25] In 1655 however, state of war finally broke betwixt the Ga in addition to the Agona as a outcome of Accra’s aggression. It was reported past times the Dutch upper factor Isaac Shutt that “through some crss (accras) there,great disturbances had arisen, who going almost Obu (Obutu?) came in addition to plundered the corn of the agunas, almost which beingness many times warned, they would not, however, cease so that the Agunas have got massacred twelve of them in addition to wounded three.”[26]
Ga raids on Agona had some other underlying factor, which was to a greater extent than straight off of import than commercial jealousy. Accra suffered from intermittent shortage of food. Dapper remarked that provision inward Accra was rattling “scarce, especially fruits in addition to bread-corn, so that whatever whites pose into this spot to merchandise must of necessity provide themselves good with all necessary provisions.”[27] In 1640, the Dutch Director-General, Arent Jacobsen Van Amersfort, noted: “there is a bad harvest 1 time again at Accra from which it is feared much would perish. The port of Accra had produced null for months. It appears that the traders are so impoverished through the famine in addition to non half dozen marks golden a calendar month has been received.”[28] Oral tradition likewise talks of a groovy famine which the Ga so severely that when it finally ended it became an occasion for a national celebration, Homowo, during which the ghosts of the ancestors were invited to portion inward the feast.”[29]
In contrast to the scarcity to nutrient inward Accra, Agona was endowed with abundant supplies. De Marees observed that “the ground people (Agona) thereabout are goodness hubby men, in addition to sow much millie, presse goodness store of palm vino in addition to select groovy number of immature cattle up.[30]” the Ga hence capitalized on this abundance past times raiding Agona corn whenever at that spot was nutrient shortage inward Accra.
In 1655, Agona used these on their corns as a justification for finally settling the Ga menace on its eastern frontiers. They were in all probability incited to opened upwards state of war past times a hope to aid the Ga’s traditional enemies, the Akwamu, in addition to indeed evidence records that the Akwamu did go allies of the Agona inward this war. In 1637, it was reported past times the Dutch Director-General, Valckenburgh, that merchandise had been especially bad at Accra “though the state of war of the Agunase (Agonas) who has set waste matter the whole ground of Accra in addition to set it inward ashes.”[31]
Valckenburgh’s study somewhat exaggerated the province of affairs that existed inward Accra inward 1657. It is to a greater extent than than likely that the Agona only succeeded inward burning some of the Ga towns, rather than laying waste matter to the whole of Accra. If the Agona’s defeat of Accra had been so decisive, the state of war would doubtless have got ended at this stage in addition to peace would have got been established. Valckenburgh mistakenly interpreted the long duration of the state of war as due to the fact that “the blacks have got a custom that they must win or lose twice inward succession ere they create peace.”[32] Evidently, Valckenburgh misunderstood the local custom, whereby it was only when the warring parties were every bit matched in addition to the battle was indecisive, that they needed to secure to consecutive victories to live acknowledged undisputed victors.
In essence, the long duration of the Ga-Agona state of war tin live attributed to the fact that other states were invited to bring together as allies. For example, inward response to the Agona-Akwamu alliance the Ga won the back upwards of the Akyem. In the course of study of the state of war valckenburgh reported: “The King of Agona inward alliance with Akwamu a district situated behind Accra, is waging state of war against Accra, against whom the Acrase who have got those of Akyem or Great Acanis to their assistance were stirring inward the interior inward the hindrance of the merchandise at the aforenamed place, which has indeed fallen badly to our (Dutch) portion that nosotros have got given them over to God to pacify the state of war of which at that spot is trivial probability. However, our diary tin evidence to the problem nosotros have got already for a long fourth dimension taken therein inward the hopes that the Rex of Agona beingness of Minse descent would allow himself live persuaded past times way of the aforesaid Minse. Accra shows itself disposed but it is idle in addition to beyond our powerfulness to spot obstacles inward the way of the war, for furtherance of peace….it is best that the contending partiesshow themselves to live tired in addition to they testament so accommodate themselves.”[33]
By Feb 1659, Agona had expressed her willingness for a peace settlement. On 4th Feb inward this same year, Valckenburgh recorded inward his diary that he called upwards the Caboceers of Elmina in addition to informed them that the King of Agona “would at nowadays live glad to select their mediation, rejected past times him to pacify him with Aquim in addition to Accra”[34] in addition to that the peace settlement should select spot before Valckenburgh’s divergence from the Gold Coast. The Caboceers inward plough informed Valckenburgh that a similar asking had been pose to them on behalf of the King of Agona, in addition to “as he was descended from amidst them they would hence also gladly concern themselves inward the affair but non without beingness paid for their problem because of that in addition to they would likewise send a message to the Agona Rex almost this.” The Caboceers, therefore, requested Valckenburgh, “to have got the Accra King sounded almost it” past times the Dutch factor inward Accra.[35] It appears that this peace betwixt Accra in addition to Agona was short-lived, for inward 1677 the latter 1 time to a greater extent than allied with Akwamu against Accra.
The work of Accra’s northern frontiers is farther highlighted inward her human relationship with both Latebi in addition to Akwamu. Latebi, which appears on 1629 map as situated northeast Accra, is at nowadays modern Late inward Akuapem. An oral tradition recorded past times Meyerowitz relates that the Late people were immigrants from Binin who founded the early on settlements of La Doku Labadi. As a outcome of a quarrel betwixt the La, the Nungua in addition to the Ga Mashi, a principal of the La known as Fianko Adeyite led a bulk of his people in addition to settled some 30 or twoscore miles inland.[36]Kwamena Poh also relates that the Late Kubease people claim to have got emigrated from Republic of Benin whilst the Late Ahenease people describe the migration of their ancestors from the coast betwixt Tema in addition to Labadi.[37]
The author’s collection of oral tradition from Labadi indicates that the Late people originally formed component of Labadi. Whilst inward Labadi, their leader Late was unusually fond of cuasing the decease of pregnant women. The Lakpa priest was so enraged at this obstruction to the population increment of the Las that he exiled Late together with his followers into the hills to bring together the Guan. This incident is commemorated inward the Kple song:
“Otwi live inward bo le.”
The exiled Late in addition to his followers were called Labadi past times the Ga, i.e. Late’s children. From these records of oral tradition it is likely that the Late are a mixture of Ga but with Guan as the predominant element.
The spot of Latebi or Late on the 1629 map coincides with the old settlement of the Late Ahenease. According to Late Ahenease tradition, (recorded past times Kwamena-Poh), they settled “at the eastern human foot of the Akuapem hills, a spot they called Mantim, inward a number of little settlements inward the expanse where Ayikuma in addition to other nearby Shai towns are today. These were 30 inward all.”
The strategic spot of Latebi on the eastern human foot of the Akuapem hills made it an ideal spot for marketplace centre. According to Dapper, Latebi had “a groovy fair or marketplace wither all sorts of wares are brought; much exceeded past times that of Abonse.”[39] In essence, Latebi provided the inland traders with an alternative marketplace to Abonse. More importantly, it also meant that prices inward Abonse marketplace could live modified past times prices inward Latebi.
The kingdom of Accra was determined to command or destroy the Latebi market, so as to ensure that their monopoly over the inland merchandise was absolute. On 27th Oct 1646, the Dutch Director-General Van de Wel received a study from the financial Hendrick Caarloff detailing how the of Small in addition to Greater Accra had marched together to create state of war on the people of Latebi. There had been a severe battle on the 22nd Oct which had resulted inward the defeat of Latebi. One G heads were brought inward past times the Ga, in addition to they promised that their victory would live rattling favourable for trade.[40] Although the Latebi were defeated inward this war, it seems that the Ga were non able to gain the consummate command over merchandise which they had desired. Moreover, the number of Latebi became a enquiry of some contention betwixt Accra in addition to her northern vecino Akwamu.[41]
The history of the Akwamu prior to their settlement inward the Ga hinterland has non documented. However, Ivor Wilks, basing his evidence on the Akwamu oral tradition, suggests: “the Akwamu majestic clan, Abrade, claims to have got originated from Twifo. Earliest documentary sources for Akwamu history, however, belong to the seventeenth century, when the Akwamu province was already constituted inward something similar its nowadays form, though at that time, it was alternatively known as Oquie, i.e. Okwi.[42]”
The Akwamu are remembered inward Ga oral tradition as strangers who were given land, Nyansoase, on which to settle.[43] Romer wrote inward the middle of the eighteenth century that the Akwamu “came to the King of Accra, asking for his friendship, which they got, in addition to were allowed to settle a trivial inland iv miles from the sea. Within one-half a century, they became a groovy people.”[44]
The story suggesting that the Akwamu were offered ground past times the Ga, differs from that which Rask recorded at the kickoff of the eighteenth century. According to him, it was the Akanists (Akyem) who “out of kindness” granted a component of their ground to the Akwamu for settlement.[45]
Regardless of whoever granted Akwamu the ground on which they settled, at that spot is no dubiety that a unopen human relationship existed betwixt the Akwamu at Nyansoase in addition to the Ga. The human relationship was at firstly that of vassal in addition to suzerain, in addition to indeed Tilleman remarked at the goal of the seventeenth century that the Akwamu had had to pay tribute to the King of Accra until at to the lowest degree 1677.[46] Likewise, Reindorf, basing his business concern human relationship on oral tradition remarked that, “in every yearly grand feast of the Accra king, the chiefs of Obutu in addition to Akwamu were his hammock carriers, or, at whatever rate, the chiefs over these carriers.”
Christians carrying stones to the edifice site inward Christiansborg." Date: 1905
Romer records the story of the Akwamu prince beingness sent to the King of Accra to ‘learn something’ but does non give whatever engagement for the presence of this Akwamu prince inward the King of Accra’a court.[48] He does, however, province that whilst the prince, later nicknamed Akotia, was inward the courtroom of the Accra King that the Portuguese arrived inward Accra.[49] Akwamu oral tradition credits Akotia with the founding of Nyansoase,[50] which way that Nyanaoase must have got been founded inward the 2nd one-half of the sixteenth century. This thought is supported past times archaeological evidence, for, according to Ozanne’s study on excavations inward Nyanaoase, the site was settled at the goal of the sixteenth century.[51]Ivor Wilks postulates that the Akwamus were encouraged past times the Ga to settle on their northern frontier inward monastic enjoin to commutation in addition to consolidate merchandise inward the Accra kingdom. He suggests: “to Akotia, aware of the vaue of the Accra golden trade, in addition to with a firsthand acquaintance with the pattern of the Akan-Portuguese commerce inward the Accra area, resettlement at Nyanaoase nether Accra patronage was obvious way of insinuating the Akwamu into the venture. To the Accras, permitting the Akwamu to settle at Nyanaoase as tribute paying clients, non only was at that spot an immediate gain inward revenue, but also the peril to utilize the newcomers inward strengthening the northern frontier.”[52]
If strengthening of her northern frontiers was Accra’s motive for encouraging the Akwamu immigrants to settle inward Nyanaoase, so the Ga must have got been disappointed. By 1646, the Akwamu no longer behaved as tribute paying vassals of Accra. Conversely, they had managed to found command over a substantial component of the northern frontier of Accra. Describing the Akwamu (Oquy) inward 1656, the Dutch financial Caarloff stated: “the kingdom lies 3 or iv miles due north of Greater Accra, is bounded inward the due west past times the Fantyn (Fante) district in addition to running farther to the East of Accra as far as Aquimena, in addition to includes Latebi which this Rex of Oquy claims to live his, in addition to extends northwards upwards to the district of Acany; in addition to although this Oquy Rex has received some golden from the Accras (Ga) inward monastic enjoin that the Latebes powerfulness freely arrive at to the Cras without his opposition…there is no groovy love betwixt the Oqys in addition to the Accras…”[53]
It is important that it was the Ga who had to pay golden to the King of Akwamu inward monastic enjoin that the Latebi should have got unhindered passage to Accra.this is surprising when 1 considers that it was Accra which had defeated Latebi.[54]
The payment of golden past times Accra to Akwamu does non necessarily mean, as suggested past times Ivor Wilks,[55] that past times 1646 Latebi had been drawn into the Akwamu powerfulness complex. Kwamena-Poh, basing his declaration on Romer, Reindorf, Biiorn in addition to farther archaeological evidence, has established that it was only after the Ga had been defeated inward 1681 that the Akwamu started ruling the Latebi.[56] Kwamena-Poh’s hypothesis way that either the Ga were able to re-establish command over Latebi after a temporary lapse inward 1646 or else the Akwamu threat from 1646 onwards was limited to a want to command the merchandise route from Latebi to Accra rather than a consummate ownership of Latebi. In fact Kwamena-Poh describes the Akwamu menace inward 1646 as “a mere economical blockade of Accra.”[57]
The Accra-Akwamu conflict shows that past times 1646, the Akwamu had begun to displace away from the spot of vassals towards that of beingness a major threat to Accra on her northern frontier. Further Akwamu-Ga hostility was displayed inward 1656-9, when the onetime allied with Agona inward state of war against the latter.[58] However, the hostility betwixt the kingdom of Accra in addition to Akwamu only erupted into opened upwards warfare inward 1677
Reindorf suggests an before engagement for this war. According to his sources, Okai Kwei committed suicide inward the state of war against Akwamu on 20th June 1660, when he realized the treachery of the generals inward the land of battle.[59] This date, however, is untenable. It was the same Okai Kwei who signed an understanding with the Danish African Company inward 1661,[60] in addition to he was sure as shooting still live the Danish representative Cornellisson left Acrra inward 1667. Moreover, 13 years after cornellisson’ divergence from Accra he sent a missive of the alphabet in addition to presents to Okai Kwei.[61] The catamenia is long plenty for Cornellisson to have got heard of Okai Kwei’s decease if he had died straight off after the Danish representative’s divergence from Accra inward 1667.
Conversely, Barbot, a French trader who inward Feb 1679 visited his friend “King Fouri” at Little Accra, dates the defeat of the kingdom of Accra to 1680-1681.[62] Finally, Eric Tilleman, a Danish trader who was inward Accra inward the 1690s in addition to was sent on a mission to the Akwamu upper-case missive of the alphabet inward 1698, dates the Ga-Akwamu state of war to the yr 1677.[63] From these sources 1 tin deduce that the Ga-Akwamu state of war must have got started inward 1677 in addition to ended inward 1680.
Accorsing to Reindorf, the Ga-Akwamu state of war was caused past times Okai Kwei’s error inward next the advice of his councilors in addition to circumcising the Akwamu prince Odei whilst he was staying at his courtroom inward Great Accra. The circumcision was performed so as to enable prince Odei to participate inward the ceremonies associated with the king’s courtroom in addition to with the worship of the Ga gods. The councilors who advised Okai Kwei on the circumcision manifestly wanted to incite problem betwixt Okai Kwei in addition to the Akwamu, because they would have got been aware that circumcised people were non allowed on the throne of Akwamu. As before long as Pince Odei had been circumcised, the Ga chiefs, led past times the warlord Nikoilai, informed the Akwamu of the circumcision in addition to pledged to aid them to acquire rid of the ‘perfidious’ Okai Kwei. Prince Odei was consequently recalled to Akwamu, where his people noticed the circumcision in addition to bypassed him inward the succession to the throne in addition to instead made Ansa Sasraku King of Akwamu. Both Odei in addition to Ansa Sasraku persisted inward demanding from Okai Kwei the restoration of his foreskin, which manifestly proved to live an impossible feat. As a outcome of his failure, Okai Kwei convened a coming together of his generals in addition to chiefs, who advised him to send a full general “to plunder the Akwamu.” Hence, state of war inevitably started the Ga in addition to Akwamu.[64]
Reindorf’s business concern human relationship was partly based upon Romer’s 18th century rendition of the same incident.[65] Romer states that due to the loss of his foreskin, the circumcised Prince was nicknamed Akotia (the midget, the short) past times his subjects. He also states that the Akwamu Prince was sent to the Accra King’s courtroom when the Akwamu were given the ground on which they settled. He farther to a greater extent than makes it quite clear that the Ga King who circumcised the Aakwamu Prince was non the 1 who later fought against the Akwamu.
It has already been stated that Nyanaoase was settled past times the Akwamu at the unopen of the sixteenth century.[66] Romer’s business concern human relationship therefore, makes the circumcision of the Akwamu Prince a belatedly sixteenth century or early on seventeenth century episode. Romer’s narration also implies that OkaiKwei, who succeeded to the Ga throne after his begetter had been murdered inward 1642, was non responsible of Akotia’s circumcision, as stated past times Reindorf.
The dating of this circumcision episode based upon Romer’s narration is marginally to a greater extent than acceptable than that of Reindorf’s. The plausibility of Romer’s business concern human relationship is based on the notion that sure weather condition must live necessary before whatever province testament send its heir apparent to some other province to larn their customs. Either the host province is suzerain over the kingdom of the heir-apparent in addition to hence tin perhaps demand him as security against rebellion inward the vassal state, or else at that spot must live cordiality in addition to trust betwixt the ii states.
However, it has already been stated that past times 1646 the Akwamu had moved from beingness vassal of Ga to beingness threat to the kingdom of Accra on its northern frontier. The Ga fifty-fifty had to pay golden to the Akwamu to allow the Late traders access to Accra.[67] In this same year, it was stated categorically past times Hendrick Caarloff that “there is no groovy love betwixt the Oqis (Akwamu) in addition to the Accras because some years ago, the Accras had killed this king’s father.[68] If this genuinely was the case, why would the Akwamu send their heir-apparent to the courtroom of such a Rex to study? One should also bear inward psyche the fact that the Akwamu allied with the Agona to scrap the Ga from 1655-59.[69] In short, Akwamu-Ga relations from the 1640s onwards were anything but cordial. Ti is rattling doubtfull whether the Ga would have got tolerated the presence of an Akwamu heir-apparent inward their courtroom inward the 2nd one-half of the seventeenth century, as it would have got been tantamount to the Ga exposing their weaknesses in addition to the intricacies of regime to their enemy. Moreover, it is possible that it was the rattling circumcision of Prince Odei that the Akwamu referred to as an deed murder inward 1646. It was stated that Akotia was never able to gain consummate command over his subjects due to the loss of his foreskin. He was fifty-fifty compelled to hope at an assembly that he would regain his foreskin from the King of Accra. He consequently sent messages to the King of Accra to select his foreskin together with a fetish priest to restore it to its original place.[70] This loss would have got tormented Akotia to his grave. Both the Ga in addition to Akan have got a belief that sorrow tin stimulate death.
Dele gbeE Me. Grief kills.
Awerehow kum sumsum. Grief kills the soul.
Although Akotia was unable to settle this work with the Ga before his death, his successors must have got continued to nurse his grievance. This antagonism towards the Ga would have got been compounded past times Accra’s rigorous economical policy, which forbade the Akwamu access to the coast. In short, the circumcision, if it did occur all, was a remote rather than an immediate stimulate of the Ga-Akwamu state of war of 1677-80.
The chronological confusion inward the presentation of Reindorf’s business concern human relationship is in all probability due to the fact that he collected his oral tradition to a greater extent than than a hundred years after Romer, in addition to so the information he received had undergone the modifications in addition to omissions typical of such evidence. In Reindorf’s time, Okai Kwei had in all probability go so unpopular that whatever inauspicious events inward Ga history would live attributed to him fifty-fifty if the events had occurred long before his reign. The existence of this form of imitation accusation amidst the local people is summed upwards inward the Akan proverb:
“Ade se prako” Evil befits the pig.
In reality, the pretext for the Ga-Akwamu state of war of 1677-80 was provided past times the Ga generals. According to oral tradition, Okai Kwei’s boy murdered the boy of Nikoilai, the groovy Ga general. Instead of Okai Kwei apologizing for the murder, he treated Nikoilai as if the deed were triviality.[71] Nikoilai inward revenge plotted with the other Ga generals to acquire rid of Okai Kwei. He managed to amass this back upwards because of Okai Kwei’s wickedness. He is remembered inward Ga tradition as a cruel king, boy of cruel woman parent Dede Akaibi,[72] i.e. “kaa fEE loofiE”, “the crab does non beget a bird.” He encouraged his boy to perform hostile in addition to vicious acts on his subjects. For example, they were said to have got murdered the sons of the Ga chiefs in addition to seduced other men’s wives.
Nokoilai in addition to his beau conspirators sought the assistance of Akwamu inward monastic enjoin to acquire rid of the tyrant Okai Kwei. They promised that if Akwamu declared state of war against the Accra king, they would non can their guns against the Akwamu army. However, the Akwamu saw this offering inward a rattling different light, regarding it as an chance for a consummate defeat of the kingdom of Accra. Thus, whilst the Ga saw the conspiracy on 1677 as a coup d’état with Akwamu assistance against a despotic king, the Akwamu saw it as an opened upwards state of war to live waged against the kingdom of Accra. The Akwamu hence begun to seem for allies inward illustration the Ga generals should alter their minds during the battle. The hired the Agona in addition to the Acron for this purpose. More importantly, they also purchased the neutrality of the Akyem, supposed allies of the Ga.
Okai Kwei, although aware of the Akwamu preparations for war, did non select whatever effective counter-measures. Instead, he treated the Akwamu threat with contempt, firstly because his soldiers were good armed in addition to secondly, to a greater extent than importantly, his regular army outnumbered the Akwamu in addition to their allies past times 10 to one.[73] Okai Kwei was manifestly non aware of the conspiracy of his generals, he is said to have got cursed the Ga in addition to committed suicide.[74] With his death, the Ga naively thought that the state of war would live over. It was only when they realized that the Akwamu were bent upon their consummate annihilation that they started to select the state of war seriously. However, instead of uniting together to human face the Akwamu onslaught, they broke into disputing parties over who should succeed Okai Kwei.
According to Romer, at that spot were a number of pretenders to the throne, each of which was backed past times armed supporters.[75] This disputed succession was in all probability the ground why Ofori, whom Barbot referred to as King of Accra inward 1679, chose to have got his residence inward Small Accra nether the Dutch fort Crevecoeur, instead of at the upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso.[76] At to the lowest degree on the coast he would have got felt secured from his warring rivals in addition to the endemic menace posed past times the Akwamu.
The 3 European companies residing inward Accra inevitably became involved inward the war. The rattling fact that King Ofori chose to live nether the Dutch fort shows that he had considerable faith inward their support. In 1679 the English linguistic communication ship ‘Isabella’ was sent from Cape Coast to aid inward the “realizing of Ofori, Rex of Accra.”[77] The Danes likewise thwarted an Akwamu endeavour to capture Osu.[78] The English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch either changed sides during the state of war or diplomatically supported both Akwamu in addition to the Ga. Tilleman commented that the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch, dissimilar the Danes, complied with every whim in addition to fancy of the Akwamu.[79] In July 1680, the English linguistic communication sent fusees to Ansa Sasraku, King of Akwamu, as presents. Furthermore inward September they lent him 1 hundred muskets in addition to iv barrels of gun pulverization for his terminal onset upon the Ga.[80]
The Akwamu finally succeeded inward taking possession of the kingdom of Accra inward 1680. According to Romer, the took wages of the disputes amidst the Ga in addition to fought 3 battles inward 1 yr which ended inward the total defeat of the Ga.[81] The king’s sis along with her ii children in addition to a few slaves escaped in addition to fled eastwards to Little Popo.[82] In Barbot’s account, King Ofori fled to Fetu, because he was a close relation of the Fetu King Ahen Penin Asirifi.[83] It is likely that Ofori later left Fetu to bring together his subjects in addition to kinsmen inward their novel settlement across the Volta.
In 1698 Tilleman made reference to a King Ofori of Little Popo, 1 of the novel settlements founded past times the fugitive Ga.[84] Bosman likewise made reference to ‘Aforri’, a deceased King of Little Popo who he described as beingness rattling warlike inward contrast to his blood brother who was a adult man of peaceful disposition in addition to who was ruling at the fourth dimension when Bosman visited Little Popo.[85] Bosman’s description of the belatedly King Ofori’s grapheme corresponds with Barbot’s description of King Ofori of Accra inward 1679. According to Barbot, Ofori was “a adult man of goodness mien, a groovy friend of Europeans but of too restless a spirit which at in conclusion occasioned his ruin.”
]
"Mrs Rottmann in addition to miss with girls inward Christiansborg.
Oral tradition collected from Fio Agbano II, paramount ruler in addition to descendant of the Ga who left Accra to found the novel settlement inward the nowadays twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia Republique du Togo, suggests that, inward the wake of the defeat of the Ga, ii Princes, Foli Bebe in addition to Foli Hemazro, took ii thrones from Accra to their novel settlements, 1 made of ivory in addition to the other of “ebene incrute d’or.” The ii princes were men of opposite temperament. One was calm in addition to peace-loving in addition to the other irascible. Foli Bebe in addition to his followers founded Glidzi, whilst Foli Hemzro took the thrones in addition to hid them at Zewla, half dozen kilometers from Glidzi. The ii brothers visited the Rex of Tado, who received them kindly in addition to gave them permission to settle. After Foli Bebe in addition to his blood brother founded their settlements, other Ga refugees came to bring together them. The leaders of these different groups of Ga refugees founded a number of straggling settlements amongst the Ewe inhabitants. Among the settlements founded past times the Ga refugees were Glidzi, the upper-case missive of the alphabet in addition to nowadays abode of the paramount ruler, situated almost 3 miles inland Zewla, where the stools brought inward past times the Ga were kept in addition to still inward hiding, in addition to Aneho, the sea side settlement in addition to port also known since the seventeenth century as Little Popo.
The Ga refugees did non live peacefully inward their novel settlements. According to Bosman, their main enemies were the Cotosians, who occupied the eastern banking company of the Volta. Both Popo in addition to Coto were hired past times the Akwamu to aid them inward their wars against each other, in addition to inward some cases the Akwamu forces inevitably found themselves fighting on opposite side. This was particu;arly truthful during the catamenia when Akwamu was ruled past times ii kingd, Basua in addition to Ado, the onetime bacing Popo, the latter Coto. In 1700, the Popo touted the Coto in addition to forced them to leave of absence the country. However, the Coto were reinstated on their ground when Akonor became King of Akwamu inward 1702.
Popo, nether the leadership of warlike King Ofori, became involved inward the wars of the Dahomean coast. According to Bosman, inward response to a telephone call upwards for aid from the King of Ardra (Allada), Ofori led a punitive expedition against the “Fidalgo, or Viceroy of Offra”, vassalof Adra. Another telephone call upwards for assistance from the Adra King involved an expedition against the Whydah. However, due to the fact that a convoy of reinforcements sent to King Ofori was attacked past times the enemy, this motion was ultimatively unsuccessful. Consequently, Ofori had to create a fast retreat from Whydah dorsum to Popo. On his homecoming to Popo he decided to punish his old enemies of Coto, who were said to have got attacked his kingdom during his absence. It was during this state of war with Coto that Ofori met his death. His blood brother in addition to successor duly avenged this decease on the Coto.[89]
According to the traditional sources, Foli Babe’s younger boy of Assiongbon Dadje, who was also warlike in addition to restless, left Popo in addition to became a full general inward the Dahomean army.[90] However, he became the object of jealousy inward the Dahomean upper-case missive of the alphabet because of the many successful expeditions he had led against the enemies of Dahomey. He finally escaped a plot to assassinate him in addition to fled dorsum to Popo with a department of the Dahomean army. An ensuing expedition sent past times the King of Dahomey to capture Assiongbon was completely routed.
The oral tradition describing these events is supported past times wider documentary evidence. In 1737, the Danes reported that the kingdom of Ardra in addition to Whydah were at state of war with the Popo in addition to had pursued them as far as Keta, where the Dutch had a fort. The Dutch later reported that the Dahomean regular army had ruined their fort at Keta. This regular army was inward pursuit of Ashanmo (Asjembo), a Caboceer of Little Popo who had affronted them in addition to afterwards fled to an isle inward the Volta River. Ashanmo joined forces with his cousin, described as “a sure Accra adult man named Ofori Caboceer of the Crom Ocoy”, in addition to together with the Crepe, they surrounded the Dahomean regular army in addition to totally defeated them. On this incident the Dutch Director-General De Bordes commented: “the only consolation that nosotros have, however, inward this pitiful occurance (i.e. the devastation of the Dutch fort at Keta) is that the United Accras have got fallen upon these plunders in addition to defeated them, yes indeed of the 13,000 Dahomean men, non a single 1 was able to escape.”[91] After the defeat of the Dahomean forces, ashanmo was able to gain command of the expanse from Little Popo to Keta in addition to beyond, maybe to the oral cavity of River Volta.[92] The Popo were said to live on the proceeds from slave-raiding expeditions against neighbouring states. They established a notorious reputation amongst the European companies for cruelty in addition to dishonesty inward their merchandise transactions. Bosman went so far as to depict tham as “fraudulent in addition to thievish.”[93]
The fugitive Ga maintained a strong human relationship with those who remained inward Accra after 1680. Popo in addition to the neighbouring towns became an Asylum for the Ga whenever problem arose with the Akwamu (especially inward 1708 in addition to 1724, when Accra was invaded past times the Akwamu forces).[94] The exiled Ga also gave active aid inward punishing those who offended their kinsmen inward Accra. For example, inward 1725 the Danish lodge at Keta was attacked, because It was believed that the Danish Governor Hern had invited the Akwamu to invade Accra. More fundamentally, the fugitive Ga also showed their willingness to subsidise the rebellion, which resulted inward the collapse of Akwamu powerfulness inward 1730. In homecoming for such generosity inward spirit, the Ga exiles expected reciprocal assistance from Accra when necessary. For illustration inward 1758, King Ashanmo sent an diplomatic mission to Tete, King of Accra in addition to his Caboceer Okaidza, to inquire for aid against Dahomean threat.
Such were the fortunes of the Ga people who fled from Accra after the Akwamu state of war of 1680. Those however, who chose to remain inward Accra had to adapt themselves to a rattling different environment. In 1680 the Ga upper-case missive of the alphabet Greater Accra had been destroyed, in addition to consequently the inhabitants were obliged to go in addition to live nether the protection of the European forts, or to displace to other Ga coastal towns. According to Barbot, it was only the presence of European forts that saved the Ga from consummate annihilation at the hands of the Akwamu: “had they wanted for that secure retreat, few or none of them had been left live or at best inward whatever status to drive the merchandise they at nowadays have.”
"Catechist Karl Rheindorf with his married adult woman in addition to begetter - inward Odumase."
Of all the coastal towns, it was Aprag or Little Accra, which suffered the worst Akwamu devastation. Aprag, which lay nether the protection of the Dutch fort, was the town where King Ofori used to have got his residence. However, during the onset most of the houses were burnt downwards in addition to lost. Bloome, an English linguistic communication factor at Accra, remarks inward his memoirs of 1693 that the Ga town Soko[100] (which lay nether the protection of the English linguistic communication fort) was “one of the finest in addition to largest of the Gold Coast”. This was because Soko had been enlarged past times a number of families who had fled to the town from Aprag.[101] By 1697, however, the other towns Aprag in addition to Osu must have got improved, for Tilleman observed that Aprag could make 500 armed men in addition to Osu 300, as compared to only 60 which could live produced past times Soko.[102]
In the aftermath of the Ga defeat inward 1680, came far-reaching changes inward the social in addition to political construction of the kingdom of Accra. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sure Nii Ayi (son of Okai Kwei’s sis past times a adult man of the majestic house) emerged as Rex of the remnant Ga. To allay people’s fears as to his eligibility to regulation he composed the kple song:
“AtseE mi Tunma Ayi Ablade “I am Tunma Ayi of majestic birth,
Nhie Ablade, nsee Ablade” I am Royal on both sides.”
Nii Ayi, who had his residence inward Aprag (Usshertown), was unable to wield whatever lasting influence over the Ga towns. Instead, each private town, nether the leadership of its petty ruler, acknowledged the supremacy of the Akwamu king. The onetime kingdom of Accra had go an agglomeration of separate units, which although still bound[104] together past times kinship, linguistic communication in addition to customary ties, had to acknowledge the King of Akwamu as its suzerain.
THE GA UNDER AKWAMU RULE AND EUROPEAN PROTECTION 1680-1728
The defeat of 1680 precipitated important alter on the Ga littoral. The Akwamu people, who had formerly been prevented past times the King of Accra from coming to merchandise on the Acra coast, at nowadays had untrammeled liberty to merchandise to all the Ga towns. However, due to the Akwamu’s relative inexperience in addition to the linguistic communication difficulties encountered when trading with the Europeans, they were unable to capitalies on this newfound freedom. Indeed the Ga were able to proceed acting as middlemen betwixt the Akwamu traders in addition to Europeans. Both Rask in addition to Romer commented that the Ga made enormous turn a profit from their spot as middlemen in addition to often cheated the Akwamu traders.[1]
However, some of the Akwamu who came to merchandise or seek their fortunes inward the Ga towns became permanent settlers. For Example, the ancestors of the Otublohun quarters of Ga Mashi are of Akwamu origin.[2] The leaders of these settlers, Pieter Pasop in addition to Amo, wielded enormous unflence as a outcome of their dual roles as Akwamu Governors inward Accra in addition to brokers for the powerful Dutch company.[3]
Commercially, at that spot was a gradual but ultimately crucial alter on the Gold Coast during the catamenia of Akwamu suzerainty. The slave merchandise started to gain importance. The Akwamu began to realize that it was to a greater extent than to capture slaves in addition to sell them to the Europeans than to rely solely on their gold-producing neighbours, especially when it became clear that Europe was visibly increasing its demand for slaves during these years.
The most important alter which resulted from the defeat of 1680 was a loss of status on the component of the Ga. People who had previously been overlords of the Akwamu in addition to the European trading companies at nowadays became vassals of Akwamu in addition to protégés or subjects of the European companies. Thus the Ga at nowadays had ii masters.
The Akwamu kings who ruled the Ga were Ansa Sasraku,[4] who died shortly after 1680, his successor Basua (who shared the throne with a sure Ado until his decease inward 1699), Ado[5], who ruled until his decease inward 1702, in addition to Akonor[6], who reigned until 1725. Akonnor was succeeded past times Ansa Kwao,[7] whose reign ended with the autumn of the Akwamu empire inward 1730.
The Ga, due to their spot as vassals to the Akwamu, had sure obligations to fulfill. The most cumbersome was the requirement to provide men inward fourth dimension of war. This meant that they had to risk their lives to strengthen an empire whose ascendance they resented. According to Tilleman, the Ga regarded the Akwamu as null to a greater extent than than “uncouth farmers.”[8] Consequently, the Ga displayed reluctance to aid Akwamu whenever the chance arose. For example, inward 1702 in addition to 1707 they refused to aid Akwamu to scrap Akyem.[9]
The Ga were also expected to send annual tribute to the king, consisting of a per centum of their products such as salt, corn in addition to cattle. According to Tilleman, these payments did non amount to much inward terms of monetary value, but served but as a symbol of Ga subjection.[10] The King of Akwamu was also entitled to a component of all buffaloes, elephants, tigers in addition to leopards killed inward his dominions.[11]
Apart from these recognized acts of vassalage, the Ga were also dependent to arbitrary extortion. Whenever the King of Akwamu felt the demand for to a greater extent than money, he would demand it from the nearest available source. For example, inward September 1719 it was reported that King Akonnor had marched to the leeward villages due east of Accra with the intention of extorting subsidies from them, in addition to had promised afterwards to descend upon Accra.[12]
The mains business office of the kings of Akwamu inward their role as suzerain was that of presiding over justice amongst the Ga. Since they were primarily interested inward the money to live gain inward the proceedings, they concerned themselves primarily with litigation amidst the rich in addition to used every chance to extort all they could from these litigants.[13] The kings themselves used women as bait to incriminate wealthy, unsuspecting men. According to Romer, the kings of Akwamu held special courts inward the towns to assay cases of adultery. The women involved inward these adultery cases were the king’s agents, especially chosen to seduce the men inward the towns.
The Ga also suffered ii major invasions. From 28th Nov 1708 to 1st Apr 1709, King Akonnor invaded Accra.[14] This invasion was in all probability provoked past times the systematic refusal of the Ga to select an active role inward the invasion of Adanme, the Volta expanse in addition to Kwahu inward 1702, 1707 in addition to 1708 respectively.[15] Rask who arrived on the coast straight off after the invasion, discovered that at that spot were only a few Ga caboceers left, due to the ravages of the Akwamu.[16] Likewise, according to Romer, Caboceer Puij (Okpoti) of Labadi lost ii G men, including his family, children, slaves in addition to slave children. Okpoti himself fled ii or 3 hundred miles into Crepe. It was only when King Akonnor granted an amnesty that he, together with his other Caboceers who escaped, felt it security to homecoming to Accra.[17]
During the invasion, the Akwamu went so far as to dig upwards every theatre where they knew a caboceer had 1 time lived. This was because Ga caboceers were usually buried inward their ain theatre amongst some of their wealth.[18] According to Romer, Akonnor afterwards regretted this harsh handling that he decided “to create 1 people of the Akwamu in addition to the Ga. This he did past times giving dorsum to the Ga the heads of their ancestors. He also gave ii Ga Caboceers, Okpoti of Labadi in addition to Dacon of Aprag (Usshertown), Akwamu noblewomen to marry.[19]
It would appear that King Akonnor’s regret as to the suffering he inflicted upon the Ga was only shot-lived. In 1710 it was rumoured that he had threatened to ruin Aprag (Usshertown), because they had stolen some of his subjects whilst he was absent fighting inward Kwahu. Furthermore, he was said to have got been nursing grievances against them from the fourth dimension of the 1708 invasion.[20] Fortunately for Aprag in addition to Soko, Akonnor spared them from this threatened ruin.
Akonnor, however, resumed his threats inward 1715. It was reported past times the Dutch inward March of that yr that the King had resolved to “ruin in addition to exterminate all the Ga”. This threat caused such consternation that “they publicly resolved to maintain their existence.”[21] Learning that the Dutch had received reinforcements from Elmina in addition to were taking precautionary measures, Akonnor declared that he had no quarrel with the Ga, but instead had come upwards to the beach, “for a trivial piece to amuse himself.” The Ga were, however, understandably apprehensive. When it was rumoured that the Akyem would onset the Akwamu, ‘Old James’ (an Adanme caboceer) was said to have got implied to King Akonnor that the Ga would sure as shooting select wages of the Akwamu, if the Akyem succeeded inward routing them. He hence warned that it would live safer for Akonnor to pre-empt the Ga in addition to destroy them firstly before going to scrap the Akyem.[22] Although, this rumoured state of war betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu was averted, it was reported inward Apr 1716 that Akonnor had at nowadays asked the Fante to aid him against the Ga, because they had been unwilling to march with him against Akyem.[23] But the Fante refused to ally with Akwamu against the Ga, in addition to hence Akonnor left the coast for Akwamu. However, fifty-fifty after Akonnor had left the coast, the Ga were said to live “still inward dubiety whether the Akwamu would undertake anything against them.”[24]
Akonnor, however, had decided to extort money from the Ga instead of threatening them with war. In May 1716, Akonnor claimed ii hundred bendas from the Ga as settlement for their differences.[25] The Ga sent ii bendas to Akonnor to purchase a caprine animal in addition to wine. Since this was non plenty for him, they added ii bendas half dozen pees “to opened upwards his mouth, 1 benda 1 pees, for the sheathing of his sword in addition to for ‘potje’ for the other Akwamu Caboceers.” This was still non plenty for Akonnor, who claimed 20 bendas more.[26]
In September 1716 Akonnor was still attempting to wrest sixty-three bendas from the Ga. They promised to send 15 bendas “in the hope that Akonnor would allow them a goodness reduction in addition to allow them pay the repose from fourth dimension to time.” The case, however, dragged on until the next year, when Akonnor decided to see Accra personally to demand payment. Akonnor manifestly had no faith inward the Ga hope to pay him as before long as the corn was ripe, because he arrived with over 1 G guns.[27] It appears that the Ga must have got temporarily satisfied Akonnor.
In 1719, having decided to create peace with the Akyem, wrath he had incurred during the Akyem-Asante state of war of 1717-18, Akonnor marched to the villages due east of Accra with the intention of extorting subsidies from them. He threatened to come upwards to Accra afterwards “to worry the natives living at that spot a bit”[28] in addition to was said to have got already forged a illustration of adultery betwixt the Ga Caboceer Ama Kuma in addition to 1 of his wives, for which he demanded 15 to 16 G bendas. It was 1 time again reported inward Dec 1719 Akonnor was demanding payment non only from his ain districts but from the others farther afield, inward monastic enjoin to cover the expensive peace with his powerful enemies.[29] These troubles continued into the next year, when it was reported that “the continual palavers betwixt the Ga in addition to Akwamu were a groovy hindrance to trade.”[30]
The side past times side major Akwamu invasion of Accra occurred inward May 21723. The Ga in addition to the Dutch blamed the Danish Governor, David Hern, whilst the Danes blamed the Ga Caboceer, Ama Kuma. Hern seized v slaves belonging to Ama Kuma as recompense for the fact that he in addition to some other Ga caboceers had been caught trading with interlopers inward Danish waters at Labbadi. Ama Kuma found an chance to avenge himself on Hern during the Ga Homowo festival of 15th August 1722. Hern had been invited past times the Dutch factor Svarte to witness the Homowo celebration inward Aprag. On his way spot from the celebration he was stopped past times some Aprags. His wig, chapeau in addition to stick together with his hammock in addition to the slaves who had been carrying him were seized in addition to his Danish flag was torn to pieces. He was so beaten in addition to dragged to the ground. All this happened, according to Danish sources, without the Dutch factor Svarte coming to Hern’s aid, apparently because he had been bribed past times Ama Kuma. Hern finally succeeded inward retiring to the Dutch fort in addition to straight off sent a message to King Akonnor, who was staying on the coast, to escort him dorsum to Christiansborg.[31] After this episode, Hern accompanied King Akonnor on a motion eastwards. They visited Kpone, Prampram in addition to Ningo, in addition to so Akonnor continued farther eastwards alone. It suspected that on this journey, Hern in addition to Akonnor conspired against the Dutch, the English linguistic communication in addition to also the Ga who had chosen to reside nether their respective forts.
The suspicion was vindicated when, straight off after Akonnor’s homecoming from the motion inward May 1723, he invaded Soko in addition to Aprag with 10 to twelve G soldiers,[32] carefully sparing the Danish Ga. The Dutch factor Svarte went so far as to accuse Hern of having bribed Akonnor with a hundred bendas’ worth of merchandise.[33]
Conversely, the Danish Company placed the blame for the invasion of 1723 upon the Ga Caboceer Ama Kuma. According to the Danish narration, Ama Kuma was unable to pay the 15 to 16 G bendas demanded past times Akonnor as compensation for adultery, he sent 8 people to Akyem with muskets in addition to presents to inquire for assistance inward attacking the Akwamu. Akonnor seized Ama Kuma’s messengers in addition to sent him a alert that he should purchase all the muskets in addition to pulverization that the Dutch fort held, because the King would live coming against him “with sticks, stones in addition to gravel to create an goal of him.”[34]
The invasion of 1723 should live seen as a outcome of an amalgam of different tensions – King Akonnor’s personal quarrel with the Ga in addition to especially with Ama Kuma, David Hern’s intrigues in addition to ultimately the instability that characterized the Gold Coast during these years. The invasion had repercussions non only inward Accra but also inward towns farther to the east. Many Ga left Accra to bring together their kinsmen inward Little Popo. In March 1724 the Danes complained that at that spot was a scarcity of nutrient inward Accra, which could Pb to widespread starvation. Aprag in addition to Soko, which had 1 time been “grainaries” for the other towns, had been completely ruined past times the Akwamu.[35] In August the Danes reported that the Ga who had previously fled to Popo in addition to neighbouring towns had non returned, whilst those who had originally remained inward Accra were at nowadays leaving to bring together their kinsmen farther east. The Danes attributed this exodus to the “villainous nature of the Akwamu.”[36]
The Ga also had to scrap with the intrigues of the European trading companies. The primary duty which the Ga had to perform for the Europeans was that of attracting merchandise to the forts nether which they lived. Through their capacity as interpreters, agents in addition to hosts of the inland traders, the Ga were inward a spot to persuade traders from the interior to purchase goods from a particular fort. Yet merchandise with European interlopers often proved to a greater extent than lucrative. The interlopers, who were non encumbered with the maintenance of forts in addition to their staff, sold goods at a much cheaper cost than the established European companies.[37] The Ga hence traded with interlopers whenever they had the chance to do so.
In a missive of the alphabet to London the English linguistic communication Council at Cape Coast wrote that the Brandenburg in addition to Danish companies were primarily supported inward their merchandise past times English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch interlopers.[38] Tis accusation is vindicated past times contemporary Danish documents. In a missive of the alphabet September 1725 Suhm, the Danish Governor, wrote that his predecessor David Hern had had a flourishing merchandise during his tenure of office, partly because he was lucky plenty to have got bought at a rattling inexpensive cost all the goods of a French interloper.[39]
It was the frequency with which Danish ships visited the Gold Coast that compelled the Danes to rely on interlopers to replenish their stocks. The interlopers were openly in addition to lavishly entertained in addition to sometimes fifty-fifty delivered letters to Copenhagen in addition to Christiansborg . inward 1702 the King of Akwamu sent a message to the Danish Governor asking him to purchase him guns from an interloper who had anchored inward Christiansborg.[40] The Ga would manifestly have got found it hard to sit down past times in addition to spotter the Danes purchase goods cheaply from interlopers, only to have got them sold at much higher prices. However, they ran the risk of their goods beingness confiscated past times the European companies if caught trading with the interlopers themselves.
European companies tried to command the activities of Ga traders non only within Accra but also inward the surrounding areas. On 1ST July 1722 the Danish Governor reported that he would endeavour to create the Ga hope to desist from selling common salt to whatever traders from the western coast. This was to encourage the Akyem traders to come upwards in addition to pass their golden inward Accra instead of concentrating their activities on Cape Coast in addition to Elmina, where the Danes had no forts.[41]
Other duties demanded of the Ga past times the European trading companies involved providing manual labour inward illustration of repairs or extensions of the forts.[42] They were also expected to provide armed men inward fourth dimension of need. In Feb 1698, the Osu Caboceers promised to “risk their life in addition to blood” for the Danish company.[43] In 1699, when an Akwamu trader in addition to Caboceer Asameni set upwards a canoe at Labadi to merchandise with interlopers, the Danish Governor sent a dispatch of armed caboceers in addition to their followers, assisted past times white soldiers, to destroy the canoe.[44] Only after this tactic had failed did the Danish Governor appeal to the King of Akwamu to send orders for Asameni to leave of absence Labadi.
In commutation for their services to the European companies the Ga caboceers received monthly stipends in addition to New Year's Day gifts. These payments were distinct from the monthly ii ounces of golden paid past times the 3 European companies to the Rex of Akwamu. The English linguistic communication marked the distinction past times calling that which they paid to the King of Akwamu ‘ground rents’[45], whereas the Dutch used the term ‘kostgeld’ in addition to the Danes ‘Costum’ to depict the payments made to both the Ga caboceers in addition to the King of Akwamu.
Another prerogative claimed past times the European companies involved a perceived right to maintain law in addition to order. For example, inward 1702 the Danish Governor settled a dispute which involved fighting betwixt opposing factions led past times the ii most of import caboceers inward Osu.[46] In 1717 at that spot was a dispute betwixt ii separate quarters inward Aprag (Usshertown), during which iv or v people were killed in addition to many to a greater extent than were wounded.[47] The Dutch factor inward Accra was consequently instructed past times the Dierctor-General, Bobertts to enquire carefully into the dispute in addition to grab the “authors in addition to miscreants.”[48]
The maintenance of law in addition to monastic enjoin was not, however, a uncomplicated issue. Because ascendance over the Ga was claimed past times both the Europeans in addition to Akwamu, at that spot was bound to live conflict over the jurisdictional right to deal with sure cases. For example, inward July 1727 King Ansa Kwao of Akwamu came to Accra inward monastic enjoin to settle some disputes that had arisen betwixt the Aprags in addition to Sokos.[49] The Dutch Director-General wanted to seize the chance to create the Sokos pay for a onetime misdemeanor for which the previous Dutch factor Jan Pranger had held them responsible. This he wanted to do before the Soko-Aprag illustration was settled; hence Norre questioned Ansa Kwao’s right to arbitrate inward such a illustration in addition to to exercise ascendance over “Dutch-protected people (Aprags) within the arrive at of their guns.” He ‘absolutely’ ordered the Aprags non to settle the dispute with the Sokos until the Dutch had obtained satisfaction inward Soko’s illustration with Pranger. He moreover, threatened that the Dutch society would never allow Ansa Kwao whatever presents, salutes of honour or ‘kostgeld’.[50]
Since the Akwamu King had come upwards to Accra solely to settle this dispute, he disregarded the Dutch threat in addition to completed his arbitration. He sent a caboceer in addition to ii servants to the Dutch in addition to assured them that as regards to compensation, the Aprags would bear according to the laws in addition to customs of their towns. He would also ensure that the Sokos repaid to the Aprags all the expenses they had incurred inward winning the case. The only work was that the Director-General’s sanction was needed to assure these conditions; hence Ansa Kwao offered him a caprine animal in addition to iv bendas in addition to moreover; pledged that the adult man Larte, who was the stimulate of all the trouble, would live compelled to go to the Dutch factor in addition to inquire for his pardon.[51]
The Ga, similar the King of Akwamu, were inclined to select a quick in addition to peaceful solution to the dispute. Whilst Ansa Kwao had non threatened to declare opened upwards state of war on them as in1723, he was sure as shooting inward the spot “to create it as fearful for them as whatever state of war had ever been for them.” If the Ga were attacked nether the fort, they could acquire protection; but if the routes were closed to the H2O whole beyond the arrive at of the fort, it would outcome inward the total ruin of their town. The Aprags hence entreated Norre with “clasped hands” non to live too headstrong inward the dispute, since the Sokos were “poor in addition to have got trivial to spare from which anything could live claimed from them.”[52]
Norre rejected the King of Akwamu’s presents, saying that he would live satisfied with null less than the caput of Larte in addition to threatening to leave of absence the Ga inward hereafter as “prey to the plundering of the Akwamu.”[53] Yet Norre’s objection to the Akwamu King’s arbitration was unjustified. The Europeans had acknowledged the suzerainty of the Akwamu over the Ga, in addition to furthermore, the Dutch society had fifty-fifty stated inward a treaty which they had signed with King Akonnor inward 1703 that “the Accra people shall live nether the regulation of the Akwamu King.”[54] Moreover, Norre’s ain subordinates inward Accra, de la Planque, did non believe that Ansa Kwao was beingness presumptuous inward seeking to settle the illustration betwixt the Aprags in addition to the Sokos. In a missive of the alphabet to Norre, de la Planque stated that the onetime could non realistically forestall the King of Akwamu from settling the dispute since the Ga were “having been subdued past times them past times strength of arms.” He also reminded Norre that Ansa Kwao had late exercised his right past times fining the Sokos xc bendas on business concern human relationship of a imitation palaver which they brought against the Aprags.[55]
Other controversies amongst the Ga over the enquiry of law in addition to monastic enjoin arose because of European companies. Occasionally, the Europeans co-operated with each other to maintain law in addition to order. For example, on 26th March 1721 Butler, the Dutch Director-General, wrote to subordinates inward Accra that “the Knavish Accras must live brought to submission,” in addition to that instead of complaining that the English linguistic communication were violating Netherlands territory he should co-operate with them.[56] Another illustration of co-operation betwixt the European companies occurred inward 1726, when a Danish soldier, Frans Andersen, was shot past times a Soko adult man in addition to lost 1 arm. The Danish in addition to English linguistic communication companies solved the work amongst themselves, in addition to the Sokos were made to pay for the lost arm with iv manful individual slaves.[57]
The European companies sometimes extended their commercial rivalry into the sphere of territorial rights in addition to rights of jurisdiction. They often could non concord on whether a adult man who had committed in addition to offence inward some other town should live dealt with past times the Europeans inward the town where he originated from or past times those inward the town where the offence was committed. In August 1721 the Dutch Director-General Butler protested to the Danish Governor Ostrup almost “the continual arrest of (Dutch) Accra natives (by the Danes), which the caboceers of the Dutch fort had complained about.”[58] The Danes, of the other hand, felt that they had every right to seize whatever Ga, live he a Dutch, English linguistic communication or Danish protégé, who was caught trading with interlopers inward Danish waters, since this was seen as a violation of Danish territory.
European rivalry was such that they plunged themselves into disputes which could have got been to a greater extent than effectively settled past times the Ga themselves. For example, inward 1725 a manful individual resident of Osu, who also had friends at Aprag, was killed past times an Osu man. Aprag undertook to punish Osu for this crime, but when the criminal escaped, the people of Osu agreed to settle the illustration amicably with Aprag. The Europeans, however, decided to interfere inward this purely Ga affair. The Dutch dispatched an assistant factor, who along with some Aprags travelled one-half way to Osu. They so demanded that the Danes should likewise send a society employee together with the Osus to them so that they could settle the case. The Danish Governor refused to comply with this demand. He suggested that if the Aprags had whatever quarrel with Osu, they should send their caboceers to Osu to settle the case. He refused to acknowledge the illustration was nether the jurisdiction of the Dutch company.[59]
The Europeans often created disorder past times dragging the Ga into their ain personal quarrels. For example, inward July 1722 Davd Hern the Danish Governor felt himself to live injured past times allegations made almost him past times James Phipps, the English linguistic communication Agent-General at Cape Coast. These allegations were pose forrard because Hern’ predecessor Niels Ostrup, the interim Danish Governor, had quarreled with Benjamin Martins, the English linguistic communication factor at Accra. This Ostrup-Martins quarrel had erupted into a scrap with each contestant backed past times his ain grouping of armed Ga.[60]
The role played past times the European companies inward fostering disharmony in addition to disputes amongst the Ga was remarked upon past times Smith inward 1726. On Accra, he commented: “here are large Negro towns belonging to all the forts in addition to though the natives are the most courteous in addition to civil to strangers of whatever form on the Gold Coast, yet the inhabitants of ii of these towns, which almost bring together together, tin never good agree, each distinguishing themselves past times titles of either English linguistic communication men or Dutch men.”[61]
In conjunction with the maintenance of law in addition to order, European claims to ascendance also involved helping in addition to protecting the Ga inward times of crisis. Apart from isolated instances,[62] this responsibleness was non adequately discharged. For example, 1716 when King Akonnor claimed sixty-three bendas[63] from the Ga, the latter asked for a loan of 20 to twenty-four bendas from the Dutch society in addition to offered to give them their children as pawns. Although it was the Dutch society which had advised the Ga to settle their illustration with Akonnor “in the smoothest way possible”, it afterwards refused to aid with this loan, accusing the Ga of ingratitude in addition to of thinking that the whites were their financiers, nether “an obligation to render it to them.” The Dutch society hence advised the Ga to seek for the loan from their ain large traders, who are able to pass so much money on the interlopers in addition to sometimes acquire 50 to 60 bendas on credit from there.”
The spurious nature of the European responsibleness for protecting the Ga is exemplified past times the ii invasions which they endured at the hands of the Akwamu. In the 1708invasion, the Europeans shirked their responsibleness as protectors of the Ga from the outset; indeed, the English linguistic communication openly supported the Akwamu.[64]
Unfortunately, Dutch records are soundless on this invasion. The only reference to it concerns Harring, the Dutch factor inward Accra. When transferred to Kormanting fort, he asked permission to remain for some fourth dimension inward Accra “because of the standing state of war at that spot over which he had spent much money.”[65] There is no evidence as to whether Harring had spent this money on the Ga or Akwamu.
The Danes were ambiguous inward their back upwards during the war. Twenty-four bendas’ worth of guns which arrived with a Danish ship inward 1707 were sold on credit to Osu, Labadi in addition to Nungua.[66] There is no evidence to suggest that the Danish Governor Lygaard sold these guns specifically for the 1708 invasion; but he must have got been aware of the implications of selling them to the Ga at this time. In a missive of the alphabet dated seventh Jan 1707 he stated that the guns sold to the Akwamu were used mainly for trading inward slaves but those sold to the Ga were used for defending themselves against the Akwamu.[67] Lygaard also admitted that he had had goodness merchandise with the Akwamu during the invasion, suggesting that he armed both the Ga in addition to the Akwamu inward anticipation of their confrontation.[68]
Frans Boye, a Danish employee who later succeeded Lygaard as Governor, went so far as to accuse him of having conspired with the Akwamu against the Ga.[69] The Ga also defendant Lygaard of beingness the stimulate of their ruin, because he had promised to aid them but had failed to honour his pledge, so that many Ga were eventually trapped in addition to massacred past times the Akwamu on a cliff right nether Fort Christiansborg.[70]
In 1709 a committee of enquiry was set upwards past times the Danish society inward Christiansborg to probe the affair. Many of the Dutch employees who gave evidence at the Commission attempted to exonerate Lygaard. They claimed that he had tried to dissuade the Ga from state of war with the Akwamu in addition to hence could hardly live blamed for refusing to aid inward a state of war which he had advised against.[71]
The European display of bad faith towards the Ga during the invasion tin live attributed to ii facts: firstly, they were concerned with ensuring their ain safety, in addition to secondly they wanted to turn a profit from the situation. Even if they could have got given the Ga active back upwards inward the war, they powerfulness have got mediated on their behalf to preserve them from the ravages which followed the invasion. Instead they tried to absolve themselves from blame past times depicting the state of war as a purely ‘negroes’ affair. In a missive of the alphabet to the Directors of the Danish society inward Copenhagen, Lygaard asserted: “the state of war did non concern the fort but the Negroes residing nether the forts.”[72]
In contrast to the 1708 invasion the European companies were openly involved inward the invasion of 1723. Danish involvement was illustrated past times Governor Davis Hern’s intrigues with Akonnor.[73]
Dutch participation inward the invasion tin live attributed to personal animosity towards the Akwamu rather than to whatever want to aid the Ga. Dutch relations with Akonnor had been strained since Nov 1720, when Amo reported to the Dutch Director-General Butler at Elmina that Akonnor was rattling angry almost his in conclusion see to Accra, because he had been rudely treated past times Overshie, the Dutch factor there.[74] It was farther reported inward Dec that Akonnor was demanding some considerable amount of golden as compensation from the Dutch company. this was because Akwamu who was involved inward a quarrel with a Dutch society slave had shot him himself “out of malice” whilst nether the Dutch fort Crevecoeur.[75]
The appointment of Hartman as Director-General inward 1722 did non improve this situation. He was sure as shooting hostile to the Akwamu, for when it was rumoured inward 1723 that Akonnor would invade Accra, Hartman recommended to Savrte that “those robbers (the Akwamu) should live at 1 time properly punished.”[76] Consequently, instead of the Dutch negotiating for peace to forestall the invasion, they started making grooming for war. Svarte reported that he was keeping a goodness watch, as “the Accra had sworn to live faithful to 1 another” in addition to the English linguistic communication had also promised to assist him inward defending the Ga.[77]
It is hence no surprise that the Dutch in addition to the English linguistic communication companies suffered during the invasion of 1723. After Akonnor had defeated the Ga, he blockaded the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication forts for 3 weeks, in addition to the Dutch had to give substantial gifts as peace offerings to Akonnor before they were permitted to unload their ship which had arrived inward Accra.[78] It is the conduct of the Dutch during the blockade that emphasizes the extent to which they had no genuine involvement inward defending the Ga. For example, they handed over to the Akwamu all the Ga women who had sought refuge inward Crevecoeur, inward monastic enjoin that Akonnor would get upwards the blockade against the fort. Moreover, Benus, the acting factor inward Accra, was reported as beingness pleased at the loss of the properties of those Ga who had managed to last the invasion. His joy emanated from the hope that since all the private traders were ruined, they would live obliged to go in addition to merchandise nether the fort in addition to so farther get upwards the turn a profit of the company.[79]
The European betrayal of the Ga people at the fourth dimension of their greatest demand tin live readily explained. The Europeans were living inward Accra during the fourth dimension of Akwamu suzerainty; hence they were tenants of Akwamu in addition to non tenants of the Ga. More importantly, they were on the Gold Coast primarily to merchandise in addition to exploit in addition to non necessarily to seek the interests of the inhabitants. This fact was never denied past times the Europeans. In 1716, the Dutch Director-General Roberts stated inward a message to the Ga that “the society does non maintain such a considerable fort at that spot (Accra) in addition to does non incur such excessive expenditure but for the defence strength of the natives in addition to to ship on their affairs. But merchandise is the ground in addition to centre upon which the affair turns.”[80] Similarly, inward 1730 the Danish Governor Wacro declared: “I have got come upwards hither for the turn a profit of my masters in addition to that consists solely inward merchandise in addition to non inward war.”[81] The Europeans hence found it to a greater extent than profitable to delight their powerful landlords, the Akwamu, than to aid their weak protégés, the Ga.
The Europeans sought to gain the goodwill of the Akwamu kings past times sending them gifts. On 22nd August 1699 the Danish Governor decided to send the King of Akwamu “a trivial present” inward monastic enjoin to attract merchandise to the Danish fort.[82] Between 1st June in addition to 31st July, 1704 the Dutch sent a cane with a golden knob in addition to a fine musket worth 3 oz. 8 engels “for the furtherance of trade.”[83] The English linguistic communication on 21st September 1717 sent the King of Akwamu “a costly bed with fittings.”[84] In Apr 1707 the Danish Governor Lygaard complained that he had to send gifts to the King of Akwamu, for otherwise traders in addition to farmers would live stopped from coming to the fort.[85]
The European /Akwamu human relationship was such that fifty-fifty Europeans suffered occasionally from Akwamu high-handedness. The Akwamu King had the habit of blockading the forts whenever he was displeased with the Europeans or felt that the Akwamu were non receiving plenty presents from them. For example, on 17th May 1700 a messenger from King Ado arrived at the Danish fort with the threat that the fort would live blockaded if the Danes did non send him a substantial gift in addition to to a greater extent than importantly cut back the prices of the company’s goods. This alert was carried out in addition to the blockade was non raised until the Danes agreed to pay 4 bendas.[86] In 1703 the route to the Dutch fort was closed; it was non opened until the Dutch factor had paid 5 bendas.[87] In the same year, the roads to the English linguistic communication in addition to Danish forts were closed on the pretext that the English linguistic communication factor in addition to the Danish Governor had conspired to murder King Akonnor. The Danes in addition to English linguistic communication had to pay a substantial fee inward recompense before the roads were re-opened.
The trend of the King of Akwamu to unopen the roads leading to the forts hung over the Europeans similar a sword of Damocles. Bosman remarked at the kickoff of the eighteenth century that although at that spot 3 forts inward Accra, the ascendance of the Europeans was inward fact confined to within their ain walls, “for if nosotros should create whatever endeavour on the Negroes, they would sure as shooting goal inward our destruction.”[88]
The catamenia of Akwamu suzerainty tin live seen as fourth dimension of oppression[89] when the Akwamu threatened in addition to intimidated Ga in addition to European alike. Ultimately, however, it was the Ga who were the principal victims, beingness forced to endure Akwamu tyranny without receiving whatever effective protection from the Europeans.
THE GA REBELLION AND THE COLLAPSE OF AKWAMU POWER
It would seem likely from the events described inward the previous chapters that sooner or later the Ga would experience compelled to rebel against the oppressive regulation of the Akwamu. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of factors precipitated the outbreak of this rebellion inward 1728. The firstly in addition to most of import was the murder of Otin, cousin of Ansa Kwao, King of Alwamu; the 2nd was the assurance of back upwards offered past times some of the Europeans in addition to past times Amo, the Akwamu representative inward Accra, in addition to the 3rd was the well-founded hope harboured past times the Ga of gaining allies from other disgruntled vassals in addition to neighbours of Akwamu.
Otin’s murder which occurred at Fort Crevecoeur inward Jan 1728, was the catalyst which sparked the rebellion. He had been sent for confinement inward the fort at the asking of Ansa Kwao, because he was said to have got robbed people of their slaves in addition to property. After the murder the Dutch factor, de la Planque, sent to Ansa Kwao “a little nowadays of spirits to have got no farther difficulties with him over the occurrence.” However, the latter rejected this insulting gift in addition to threatened to onset Crevecoeur in addition to send de la Planque in addition to his subordinates “also to the other world.” In response, de la Planque assured Ansa Kwao that the Ga were non responsible for the murder. He added that if the Akwamu began whatever hostilities against the company’s fort or its servants, “he would await with pleasance what they powerfulness undertake.”[1] He so rejected the demand of 2,000 bendas pose forrard past times Ansa Kwao as compensation for the murder.[2]
At the fourth dimension of Otin’s murder, the human relationship betwixt the European companies in addition to the Akwamu was non especially friendly. Of 3 European companies, the Danes were the to the lowest degree hostile; but fifty-fifty they, inward 1727, had been compelled past times Ansa Kwao to pay a fine of 46 bendas for selling the Akwamu golden pawns.[3]
In contrast to the Danes, past times 1728 the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch were sure as shooting non feeling amiable towards the Akwamu. In the previous yr an Akwamu prince had conducted a raiding expedition on the eastern coast. He proceeded to plunder the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication lodges at Keta, in addition to the Danes later reported that at that spot was a palaver betwixt the English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch companies in addition to the King of Akwamu. They stated that the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch would non declare opened upwards state of war on Akwamu but would persuade Asante,”the most powerful state inward the surrounding districts”, to scrap on their behalf.[4]
The Dutch were overtly hostile. This was greatly influenced past times the grapheme of the adult man inward accuse of Dutch affairs inward Accra in addition to Elmina. Norre, who was appointed Dutch Director-General on 11th March 1727, had immense confidence inward the powerfulness of the European canons. His pronouncements on sure events which occurred on the coast reveal much of his character. For example, inward September 1727, when the Fante asked for the thirty-five ships which the Dutch owed them at Kormantin Fort, Norre decided non to pay the ships’ gifts until the Fante had settled a debt of 80 bendas which he claimed they had owed to the Dutch since the fourth dimension of Director-General Sevenhuysen. This meant that the debt was almost 30 years old. The Fante claimed that they had already settled the affair but when they insisted on their payment, Norre wrote to his subordinate inward Kormantin: “we do non hateful to concern ourselves whatever to a greater extent than with their demand rascalities. Mr. Valckenier had left hither in addition to today nosotros are at Elmina in addition to await what they testament undertake… We inward no way intend to think of ships gifts for the Fantees before they have got ended the old palaver to our satisfaction; much less do nosotros intend to court, or to create state of war on them, but nosotros are indeed ready to demonstrate them that nosotros inward no sense esteem, much less fearfulness them; in addition to if they set out anything against us, nosotros shall demonstrate how far our powerfulness extends.”[5] Similarly, inward Nov 1727, when the Agona overlord Kusi Adu threatened to unopen the way to Apam fort if the Dutch did non pay the rent which they owed, Norre replied: “We are inward no way disposed to allow Kusi Adu ‘Kostgeld’ before he makes goodness to us our half dozen slaves inward gold, or inward acceptable slaves. He is talking large with his threats but nosotros absolutely disregard them.”[6] It was this same Norre who thought that Ansa Kwao was beingness presumptuous past times settling the disputes betwixt the Ga inward 1727.[7]
Norre’s subordinate inward Accra, de la Planque, was of a similar temperament. In May 1727, when he felt that the Fante were damaging merchandise inward Accra, he wrote to Norre at Elmina: “if your highness is pleased that I give a goodness thrashing to the firstly 1 I acquire into my hands I believe that people (Sic) would non come upwards hither so often inward monastic enjoin to ship on their trade.”[8]
Men of Norre’s in addition to de la Planque’s temperament had their counterparts amongst the Akwamu leaders. Ansa Kwao was said to have got preferred the counsel of “young hot-tempered rascals” to that of the wiser in addition to older councilors.[9] The combination of such impetuous leaders in addition to unstable weather condition meant that problem was bound to flare upwards at the to the lowest degree provocation. It is hence non surprising that the Akwamu demand for ii G bendas was instantly rejected without whatever endeavour at bargaining. The Dutch must have got known that it was usual amidst the inhabitants of the Gold Coast to create demands far inward excess of what they really expected on the understanding that it was them upwards to the culprit to negotiate for a reduction inward the demand.[10] De la Planque treated the Akwamu demand as a challenge to Dutch powerfulness rather than as a claim for satisfaction for someone who had been wronged.[11] He was fifty-fifty supposed to have got shown powder, bullets in addition to other state of war materials to the Akwamu messengers in addition to told them that he would rather pay them with state of war than with goods.
The Dutch broker, Amo, supported the Ga inward their programme to rebel inward 1728. His backing was crucial, since he was also the Akwamu representative inward Accra.[12] Amo previously claimed to have got taken an oath of allegiance with the Akwamu majestic theatre unit of measurement during King Akonnor’s reign,[13] in addition to Ivor Wilks proposed an explanation for his alter of loyalty. According to Wilks, Amo was the rightful heir to the throne after the decease of Akonnor, since he was Akonnor’s sister’s son. He was however, bypassed inward favour of Ansa Kwao, Akonnor’s sister’s daughter’s son. Amo was disqualified because, having lived for 14 yr away from the spot of regime inward the subordinate spot of Akwamu representative inward Accra, he had apparently lost the right to live King of Akwamu.[14] Amo, hence saw the rebellion as a peril for him to regain his rightful throne from Ansa Kwao.
The 3rd factor which encouraged the Ga to rebel was their hope of securing allies from other vassals in addition to neighbours of Akwamu. The Ga were non the only people who suffered nether Akwamu rule. According to Romer, the King of Akwamu in addition to his chiefs “knew what form of roguery went on inward this land.”[15] The Akuapem, for instance, were forced to endure raids past times armed bands, known as siccadings,[16] who roamed the country, stealing innocent people in addition to selling them as slaves. According to Romer, “Aquando allowed his people to steal in addition to plunder amidst themselves in addition to to maintain of Negroes in addition to the Adampees.” Romer farther stated that the King of Akwamu had over 1 G siccadings.[17] The activities of the King’s nephews, Oten Abransamadu in addition to Oten Agyare, likewise caused grave discontent. Reindorf’s declaration that they “used the middle of the breasts of immature women of Akuapem as target inward exercising their newly arms”[18]should non live taken literally, but does dot the hatred felt towards them. In 1726, King Ansa Kwao informed the Dutch factor at Accra that he intended to onset the people of Brekuso, because they had shot dead 1 of his swordbearers. Amo was hence summoned to bring together an expedition against Brekuso.[19] The Brekuso men reacted to the threat of onset past times killing their wives in addition to children in addition to taking flying so the Akwamu were obliged to retire to their ground with null achieved.[20] It would seem apparent, therefore, that at that spot was considerable discontent inward Akuapem past times 1728.
The Adanme in addition to Ewe were also prepared to back upwards the rebellion inward 1728. In add-on to the siccading raids, they had been the victims of several Akwamu invasions, for example, King Ado’s inward 1700, in addition to Akonnor’s inward 1708 in addition to 1722.[21]
In Apr 1727, the Danes reported that an Akwamu prince, Amega, “who lived on null but robbery”, was stealing people’s belongings on the eastern coast. He was plundering 1 town after another, in addition to because of these ravages his victims had marshaled their forces in addition to eaten fetish to punish him. Their combined forces proved too strong for Amega, in addition to he had to seek reinforcement from the Akwamu. King Ansa Kwao dared non to send the reinforcement from Akwamu for fearfulness that Ofori’s successor inward Akyem would onset Akwamu inward the absence of his troops. Amega, however, received reinforcement, from his father, Asumansu, an of import caboceer inward Akwamu, who inward plough was able to acquire assistance from most of the other caboceers inward Akwamu.[22] Asumansu’s activeness showed that past times 1727 the king’s ascendance fifty-fifty within the Akwamu province was weakening. With such reinforcements Amega was able to proceed inward his plundering of the towns. In response, some of the towns either sued for peace or the people took flight. In September 1727 it was reported that the Keta people had fled to Aflao, a town farther east.[23] By Feb 1728, Amega reached Ningo, in addition to his arrival hither coincided with the murder incident of 1728.[24]
Of all Akwamu neighbours, the Akyem were the Ga’s most promising allies. From the goal of the seventeenth century to the outbreak of the rebellion inward 1728, the Akyem-Akwamu human relationship had been predominantly characterized past times war, or at to the lowest degree past times the threat of war. The underlying stimulate of all these conflicts was the Akwamu policy of disallowing the Akyem access to Accra coast to trade.[25] In Jan 1699 the Danes reported that merchandise was disrupted because the King of Akwamu was inward conflict with the Akyem.[26] By Jan 1700 the Akyem had acquired a “little town” from the Akwamu[27], in addition to inward February, Ado informed the Danes that Akyem wanted to wage state of war on him.[28] In monastic enjoin to forestall this war, Ado had to send presents to Akyem.[29] However, Ado’s presents did non select whatever durable peace, for inward May 1702, Ado’s married adult woman sent a message to him whilst on motion inward Popo in addition to the eastern coast, entreating him to homecoming to Akwamu immediately. It was feared that since the Asante-Denkyira state of war had ended, the Denkyira inward alliance with Akyem would onset Akwamu, who were allies for Asante.[30]
In 1704 state of war finally broke betwixt the Akyem in addition to Akwamu. The Danes reported that merchandise had ceased because the King of Akwamu was at state of war with Akyem in addition to “other Negroes”[31]. This state of war lasted for ii years, in addition to it was non until March 1706 that the Rex of Akwamu informed the Europeans that hostility betwixt him in addition to the Akyem was “nearly over”.[32] However, inward 1713, Akyem-Akwamu hostility seems to have got resumed. The Danes reported inward May 1713 that the King of Akwamu was 1 time once again living inward discord with the Akyem in addition to the surrounding nations. This had caused a decline inward merchandise due to the fact that Akwamu had closed its roads so as to forestall Akyem from coming to merchandise with the Europeans.[33]
In March 1715 King Akonnor informed the Dutch factor Zelst inward Accra that he was involved inward serious dispute with King Ofori of Akyem. Whilst Akonnor was staying inward Accra, his hamlet in addition to theatre inward Akwamu were burnt down. His chiefs sent a message to warn him that the Akyem were 1 time again threatening to invade Akwamu.[34] In May the Dutch factor Boerhaven was informed that the Akyem were preparing to scrap against the Akwamu in addition to that the Agna had taken an oath with Ofori in addition to Apintin non to unopen the paths but instead to sell the Akyem all the pulverization in addition to muskets they needed. Akyem traders, therefore, travelled daily to the coast through Agona.[35]
There was an endeavour at an Akyem-Akwamu rapprochement but this was brusque lived, for inward Oct it was said “positively’ that the Akyem would march against Agona in addition to Akwamu. The Akyem caboceers Apintin in addition to Ofori had joined in; Ofori had sent a considerable nowadays to the Zaay of Asante in addition to obtained his approbation on the coming battle, in addition to caboceer Apintin had sent spot Akonnor’s daughter, his wife.[36] After this, at that spot was 1 time again an endeavour at a peace settlement, but 1 time to a greater extent than this broke down. Yet, inward spite of preparations for war, no battle was investigated. inward March 1716, it was reported from Bereku that the Akyem had ‘shamefully fled to their country.”[37] According to Finn, the ground for this Akyem retreat was that the Asante threatened to acquire inward the state of war at the asking of the Agona.[38]
After the retreat of both the Akyem in addition to Akwamu forces, at that spot was negotiation for peace. In September, Snoek at Accra reported that the differences betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu were non yet settled because “the demands which the Akyems create cannot live agreed to, inward monastic enjoin to settle everything.”[39] However, the Akyem eventually modified their terms in addition to made peace with the Akwamu, primarily due to the fearfulness of an Asante attack. War did finally bkeak out betwixt the Asante in addition to Akyem, but the latter were able to defeat the Asante inward 1717. However, the state of war ended inward tragedy for both sides, resulting inward the decease the Asante King Osei Tutu in addition to the Akyem leader Apintin.[40]
Akwamu tin live seen to have got acted treacherously towards both Akyem in addition to Asante during this war. Before the state of war commenced Akonnor promised to demonstrate the Asante a way past times which they could onset the Akyem in addition to “very easily overmaster them.” At the same fourth dimension Akonnor also agreed to select tending of Akyem women in addition to children until the state of war was over. Akonnor, however, betrayed the motion of the Asante forces to the Akyem army, who consequently used this information to defeat the Asante. Upon their defeat some of the Asante forces, struck past times famine, retreated to their supposed allies, the Akwamu, for help. However, it seems that these unfortunate men were sold past times the perfidious Akwamu to the Europeans “with groovy tranquility.”[41] Akonnor also seized the chance provided past times the Akyem-Asante state of war to plunder in addition to pillage Akyem. He fifty-fifty went so far as to sell a number of the Akyem women in addition to children entrusted to his care. It is, therefore, non surprising that intelligence of the Akyem victory should have got caused fearfulness in addition to apprehension amongst the Akwamu.
The Dutch factor inward Accra thought it likely that the Akyem caboceer Ofori “may good come upwards to demand business concern human relationship of the many Akyem natives whom Aquando had sold in addition to seized their goods they had with them.”[42] Ofori was, inward fact, so enraged at Akwamu’s treachery that the fugitive Akyem women who were returning to their ground from Akwamu were sent dorsum along with the message that “he would come upwards in addition to demand them all dorsum from Aquando at 1 fourth dimension in addition to so have got the residue given past times each one’s friends inward monastic enjoin to discovery those lacking.”[43]
After this duplicity, relations betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu became increasingly antagonistic.
Eight years after the Asante-Akyem war, Akwamu’s ‘treachery’ was still beingness recounted inward Accra. In seeking to explicate the ground for Akyem- Akwamu hostility inward 1725, the Danish Governor reported that during the Asante-Akyem state of war of 1717 the Akyem had sent their women to Akwamu for safe-keeping. At the goal of the war, the King of Akwamu had non only kept the women instead of returning them as promised, but furthermore, had given the women in addition to children to his people in addition to fifty-fifty sold some of them as slaves. Indeed, the King himself had kept the Akyem King’s sis in addition to treated her as a slave. She remained inward Akwamu despite the fact that Akyem had sent presents to secure her release. This was the ground why the roads had been closed to the Akyem for so long in addition to at that spot appeared to live no hope of their beingness re-opened, as long as Akonnor lived. With Akonnor’s death, however, the Danes were filled with the hope of a possible Akyem-Akwamu friendship, because “the novel King finds himself surrounded past times enemies in addition to his powerfulness at nowadays is rattling weak so he testament seek for friendship.”[44]
The possibility for whatever shape of friendship betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu became bleaker when Ofori died inward 1727. There was a province of uncertainty inward Akwamu, because Ofori’s successor was said “to have got ever been hostile to the Akwamu.” Moreover, it was the custom of Akyem that, before the novel Rex sat on the predecessor’s tool; he had to prove his bravery past times fighting an enemy.[45] By 1728, on the eve of the outbreak of the Ga rebellion, Akyem in addition to Akwamu were said to live “deadly enemies.” Hence Akyem saw it advantageous to back upwards the Ga inward their insurrection. Their spot tin live summed upwards past times the Ga saying “Kwao Mensa ni miitao Gua aya inward atsu le Anomabo,” which literally way “Kwao Mensah, who wants to go to Cape Coast, instead has been sent to Anomabo.” The proverbial Kwao Mensah is used to depict an opportunist.
By 1728 the possibility of Akwamu obtaining aid from Asante, Fante in addition to Agona, the states which were traditionally acknowledged as friends was rattling faint. The Asante, similar the Akyem, had non forgiven the Akwamu for their conduct inward 1717.[46] In 1718 in addition to 1722, Rumours had suggested that the Asante would ally with Akyem to punish Akwamu. Although these rumours did non materialize, past times 1729 it was possible for Akyem to purchase Asante neutrality past times offering Asante v hundred slaves inward commutation for beingness allowed v months within which to defeat Akwamu.[47]
By 1728 Fante’s friendship with Akwamu was also precarious. In 1716 an alliance had been formed betwixt Fante in addition to Akwamu due to the rumour of an Akyem attack,[48] in addition to inward 1724 the Akwamu had conspired against Agona during the Fante-Agona war.[49] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 disagreement betwixt Fante in addition to Akwamu after this war, maybe over the sharing of the spoils, had eventually been settled inward Nov 1724. In 1726 the Dutch society attempted to intermission the Fante-Akwamu alliance. The Dutch Director-General Valckenier, instructed his subordinate Pranger inward Accra to persuade Akwamu to bring together an Asante-Dutch alliance against Fante “to instruct them a lesson for their maliciousness.” Valckenier suggested that the Fante were committing “every possible insolence” past times panyarring Dutch canoes on the heads of natives who owed them nothing. He was prepared to pay the Akwamu 30-40 bendas inward goods in addition to shelter all the Akwamu women in addition to children inward the forts, if they agreed to march uup in addition to bring together the Asante army.[50] Unfortunately for Valckenier, Asante withdrew her forces unexpectedly, when recalled past times King Opoku Ware. He claimed that his conflict was only with Intiere of Wassa in addition to that he was too weak to select on the Fante army.[51]
After the Asante retreat, rumours started to circulate that the Akron were trying to acquire Akyem to declare state of war on Akwamu. Apparently the King of Akwamu had sent ii hundred muskets in addition to some other goods to the King of Asante in addition to promised him that as before long as Asante came to onset Fante, Akwamu in addition to the district of Agona would autumn on the Fante from behind.[52] These rumours reveal that, past times the goal of 1726, Fante had no confidence inward Akwamu friendship. In 1727 it was reported that Fante, Asante, Assin, Akyem in addition to Kwahu had together resolved to onset Akwamu.[53]
Agona’s human relationship with her powerful friend, Akwamu, was also weakened past times 1728. In 1716, when Akonnor was returning from his state of war with Akyem, he had indulged inward “some plundering amidst the Agona.”[54] In 1718 it had been reported inward Bereku that “Aquando has received displeasure against his groovy friend Janconcoe, Headchief of the Agonas.[55] Furthermore, Akwamu had acted treacherously towards the Agona when the latter was attacked past times Fante inward 1724. During the attack, the King of Agona with 10 of his caboceers in addition to almost iv G men fled to Akwamu[56] believing them to live friends, or at rattling to the lowest degree neutral. Akonnor, however, captured the refugees in addition to promised to portion the booty with Fante.[57] After this deceit, Akonnor attempted to regain the friendship of Kusi Adu, the novel overlord of Agona, past times sending him a “golden morion”, golden arm ring, a string of Conte de terre beads in addition to twoscore cattle. The Dutch remarked: “such a nowadays is seldom made out of courtesy, but 1 usually sees that inward that way difficulties are removed in addition to a union results. “[58]
At to the lowest degree component of Agona still nursed grievances against Akwamu for her conduct inward 1724. Because if this, their mental attitude at the outbreak of the Ga rebellion inward 1728 tin been seen as double-edged. The Dutch reported that Agona “still inward appearance remains the friend of Aquamboe, so that they testament pay Aquamboe with the same coin, which they (Agona) received at the fourth dimension they were defeated past times the Fantees. They, too, thought that Aquamboe was their friend in addition to hence seem refuge with them, in addition to were all made prisoners past times them.”[59]
From the to a higher spot analysis, it is clear that past times 1728 Akwamu was isolated. King Ansa Kwao himself admitted to the Danes that his enemies were ‘numerous.’ The Ga therefore, had sufficient stimulate to believe that circumstances were ripe for rebellion against Akwamu.
The firstly people to endorse the thought of fighting against Akwamu were the Aprags in addition to Sokos. Led past times Amo in addition to Ayikuma,[60] they were able to persuade other Ga towns, Osu,Labadi, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema to bring together them. Each town paid a subsidy to the state of war inward proportion to its size. According to the Danish Governor, Wellemsen, Osu paid 3 ounces of golden (48 rix-dollars), because they were led to believe past times Amo that the subsidies were going to used merely to pacify Akwamu snd non as contribution towards the war.[61] Even if the Danish versionis right in addition to Amo in addition to Ayikuma did deceive the town of Osu into paying the 3 ounces, it is clear they did non afterwards withdraw their support, when they realized that their contribution state of war meant for the war.
When Wellemsen realized that the Aprags were trying to persuade Osu in addition to Labadi to bring together them inward the scrap against Akwamu, he called the Caboceers of Osu in addition to Labadi to the fort on twelfth Nov 1728. Here, they were able to select an oath pledging that they would non go involved inward the war. The Caboceers were thereupon given presents worth sixty-two rix-dollars past times the Danish company.[62] However, past times Dec 1728 inward contravention to the before oath, they decided to bring together the other Ga towns inward the state of war against Akwamu.
Amo in addition to the Ga were able to secure back upwards from Akuapem, Adanme in addition to Krepe. When the representatives of the allied forces met inward Accra to verbalize over their state of war plans in addition to to swear oath of loyalty, the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch promised to stuff assistance during the war. They also flattered the representatives past times saluting them with canon shots. However, when Caboceer Ayikuma led the representatives to the Danish fort in addition to demanded a similar hope of aid from the Danes, the Governor declared that he was neutral. He had come upwards to the coast to merchandise in addition to non to indulge inward state of war in addition to therefore, was prepared to merchandise in addition to create friend with anyone who brought him slaves, golden in addition to ivory. He farther declared that it was no concern of his if his ain towns chose to live involved inward the war. The only commitment that the Danish Governor would create was to give Caboceer[63] Tete of Osu an old silk flag on status that, when inward the hills, he should send downwards millet on the Danish Company’s account.
In June 1729 formal state of war finally broke out betwixt the allied forces in addition to the Akwamu. On 18th June de la Planque reported: “affairs betwixt the Aquamboe in addition to the people of Accra have got at in conclusion broken into formal war; the onetime having hostilely fallen upon the hamlet of Tashi almost ii miles below Accra – a few days ago, massacred some people in addition to plundered goods – but to this Crom (town) they have got non yet dared to come upwards for fearfulness of the Akims whom the Accras with their allies have got got to resolve too much upwards against Aquamboe (Akwamu). Makelaar Amoe in addition to his people, too the people of Labbodee (Labadi) in addition to Tema in addition to other beach people, have got already risen on the 15th instant, in addition to the repose of the Accras will, for the most part, follow inward iv days’ fourth dimension inward order, together with the colina people, to onset Aquamboe; piece they are assured that Akim is also inward readiness to extend a helping manus to them.[64] The Akwamu regular army adcanced farther westwards to Labadi, which on 20th June was set on can in addition to plundered of goods.[65]
The outbreak of state of war caused pandemonium inward Accra in addition to led many people to seek protection inward the forts. It appears that the Ga did non confine themselves solely to the Accra forts. In July the Dutch factor inward Bereku apologized for the delay of his monthly returns for May in addition to June, declaring that he was “so occupied past times the Akra people that he does non fifty-fifty know where to shelter his trunk in addition to has hardly a spot to slumber in, through the numerous women in addition to children whom the Accra people have got sent him to live sheltered till the state of war with Aquamboe is over.[66]
Although the Ga regular army had marched upwards into the hills inward June, battle was repeatedly postponed until September, when the Akwamu finally attacked component of the allied regular army in addition to compelled it to retire. Most of the Ga fled dorsum to the coast; but the remainder, along with Amo in addition to the other allies, retired into Akyem. (Akyem had previously given hostage as guarantee that they would bring together the state of war against Akwamu.[67] With this battle ended the firstly stage of the war. According to de la Planque, it was only due to the faint-heartedness of the Ga that Akwamu were non totally defeated. He did however, discovery that Akwamu had gained a trivial wages inward the onset since, inward contrast to the allied forces; it had lost a substantial number of caboceers.[68]
The initial victory of the Akwamu provoked various reactions. The Dutch Director-General Norre shifted the blame on to the Ga for starting the war: “having seen the faint-hearted retreat of the Accra men, nosotros are all the to a greater extent than confirmed inward our opinion, namely, that nosotros have got ever had trivial confidence inward the outcome of this perilous understanding, but as nosotros are non inward whatever way involved inward this war, nor were nosotros consulted almost it, nosotros testament await its goal tranquilly, especially as nosotros have got been able to discovery that the Company stood to create whatever turn a profit past times it fifty-fifty though it had succeeded according to wishing (sic). The Accra people tin hence view how they tin acquire out of it in addition to must select take heed that they don’t problem us almost whatever of the consequences.”[69]
De la Planque, however, disagreed with Norre over the issue. He declared: “although it is truthful that the Accras are waging this state of war on their ain account, in addition to without the special permission of your Highness, still, I consider it my duty to inform your Highness of everything I hear almost it. That your Highness considers that fifty-fifty if that succeeds according to the wishing of the Accras this would non select whatever turn a profit to the Honourable Company is, however, with all respect, contrary to my opinion, seeing that the Aquamboe are the sole stimulate that the Akims cannot come upwards hither to the beach to trade, but are obliged to leave of absence everything inward Aquamboe which so 1 time again trades goes so badly here. Wherefore I imagine that, if the Aquamboe powerfulness 1 time live defeated in addition to driven out of their country, the golden in addition to ivory merchandise would flourish 1 time again as inward onetime times.”[70]
Indeed, de la Planque had so much confidence inward the favourable outcome of the state of war that he invested his ain money inward it. He was fifty-fifty said to have got offered 24 bendas to whoever would select him the caput of Ansa Kwao, King of Akwamu. He was also defendant past times the Danes of having boasted publicly that he would hoist Ansa Kwao’s caput on his flag staff in addition to had farther sworn that, if he did non acquire take hold of that ‘black dog” Ansa Kwao inward the war, he would do so when he became Director-General, fifty-fifty if it should cost him 1 hundred marks. As farther evidence of de la Planque’s keen involvement inward the war, he kept ii of his servants inward the regular army to deed as spies, so that he could have upwards to engagement information almost the progress of the battle. All these factors earned him the nickname “akwamu wura”, which meant Akwamu’s master.[71]
The Ga who had fled to their homes compensated for their defeat past times taking reprisals inward Accra. On twelfth September 1729 the Ga caboceer Ayikuma in addition to his followers panyarred some Akwamu in addition to Brekuso who had visited the Danish fort.[72] The Ga also directed their hostility against the Danish society itself. On 21st September 1729 de la planque reported that the Danish Governor had incited the hatred of the Ga because “he is taking the side of the Aquamboes rattling strongly.” As a outcome of this aggression, all the Governor’s dependent people, including the canoemen along with their canoes, had fled from nether the protection of the fort. Moreover, because of his “violent zeal” for the Akwamu, the Ga were employing every way possible to forestall the Danish Goernor from receiving provisions. It was de la planque’s believed that if the Akwamu did non win the war, the Ga would eventually starve out the Danish fort.[73] It was farther alleged that the Danish Governor had been told past times the Ga to select his fort on his dorsum in addition to go with it to Akwamu if he wanted provision.
The feeling of animosity which the Ga held toward the Danes was aggravated past times the fact that the Danish Governor had received jawbones from Akwamu messagers as a token of their victory inward the firstly war. The Governor also sent servants bearing presents to the Akwamu king. On 31st Dec 1729 1 of his servants, amo, was sent together with a mulatto, Christian Peterson de Widt, on a mission to akwamu. Whilst en route he threw downwards the anker of spirits that he was carrying as a nowadays to Ansa kwao in addition to sought refuge with the other Ga nether the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication forts.[74] It is non known what information this deserter gave to the Ga, but on eighth Jan 1730 they decided to select activeness against the Danish Company.
Okain, a Ga coboceer, together with some of his followers went to Osu in addition to encited the Danish slaves into leaving the service of the company. Those who were of Ga rootage left willingly, those who were non strength to society them. The slave comprised 14 men, 2 women in addition to 1boy. Okain in addition to his followers also seized 20 goats in addition to 1 sheep together with the man child who tended them. The Danish governor straight off sent a messeger, Noi, to inform de la plaque almost the robbery in addition to to inquire for redress, but his messenger did non return. That same night, the Ga tried to sabotage the Danish caoes, inward an endeavour to forestall from securing whatever back upwards from their ship,k the haabet Galley, Which was so anchored off Osu. The saboteurs were, however, repelled with manus grenades. For the side past times side 15 days in addition to nighttime the Ga attacked the Danish fort but were unable to halt reinforcement arriving from their ship. The Ga were alleged to have got bragged at the kickoff of their onset that they would seize the Danish fort within half dozen days, massacre all the occupants so that non a”single Christian soul” remained in addition to so get upwards the Dutch flag. However, the only apparent success achieved past times the Ga was the wounding of 3 spldiers, 1 of whom later died of his wounds.[75]
During the siege of the fort, the Danish Governor sent a sure Mr. Hougaard to the the Akwamu Caboceer, Amega, who was so inward Great Ningo, to inform him of the Danish predicament. Amega straight off sent a messege to King Ansa Kwao, who responded to the asking past times sending v Cboceer along with their followers to salvage the Danes.[76] The arrival of the armed men inward Accra on 23rd Jan 1730 marked the kickoff of the 2nd stage of the war.
The Akwamu troops had been inward Osu for less than a quarter of an 60 minutes when they were attacked past times the Ga. They fought until noon in addition to so retired because of the excessive oestrus of the sun. After the Akwamu’s poor lineament ammunition had been replaced with meliorate ammunition past times the Danish Company, they renewed their fighting with vigour. They continued inward this vein until 25th January, when they were joined past times ii farther Caboceer in addition to their followers from Akwamu. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia later the Akwamu forces were farther strengthened past times the arrival of the groovy caboceer kwesi Bibri, the king’s brother-in-law. By this stage the Akwamu forces numbered over ii G men, yet inward spite of these reinforcements, they were unable to defeat the Ga.[77]
On Feb 6th, de la Planque reported that the Akwamu had attacked the Ga twice but, having been repelled past times the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication canons had so non been able to penetrate into Aprag in addition to Soko.[78] The Akwamu later claimed that they had lost seventy-five men inward these battles.[79] There was a temporary cessation of fighting on sides until the 13th February. Onm this engagement Kesi Sibri, inward accordance with an agreed plan, enticed the Ga attackers onto the beach nether the Danish fort, where they were fired upon past times the Danish canons. In the human face of this setback, the Ga retreated, carrying with them their dead in addition to wounded.[80]
On Feb 14th, the King of Akwamu arrived inward Accra with reinforcements. The Akwamu forces drove the Ga into in addition to Dutch forts in addition to inward doing so gained command of the towns, despite the fact that both the European companies were firing upon them. After the Akwamu forces had entered the towns, they set can to them in addition to besieged the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication forts.[81]
When Director-General Norre was informed of the attack, he expressed his “vexation” in addition to defendant de la Planque of non giving him the total information almost the events which led to the siege. He declared that if the Ga had consulted him almost their intention to wage state of war against Akwamu, he would non have got failed to dot out to them that “to onset Aquamboe could have got no other outcome for them than that of a hare aousing in addition to aggravating a sleeping lion.[82] He also advised de la Planque to spotter Amo closely since he believed the latter was employing “his talent” to deceive both the Ga in addition to the Dutch. In spite of his anger, Norre, offered to send a ship- to Accra to collect all the women in addition to children, but the Ga politely declined the offer, preferring to send the women in addition to children away past times their ain canoes. For the duration of the siege, the Ga were forced to fetch H2O from Bereku on 5th March, Guicherit the factor at that spot reported that almost twe3nty little canoes went daily to9 Accra with water, as a outcome of the groovy scarcity of H2O inward the Accra forts.[83]
After the Akwamu had besieged the forts for a considerable length of time, the Rex sent a messenger to the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication in addition to asked them if they were disposed to create a palaver with him. In response, both de la Planque in addition to the English linguistic communication Agent General Braithwaite, who was so on a see to Accra, replied that they would only take heed to the king’s proposals if he withdrew his forces in addition to sent someone on his behalf to view them.[84] However, Braithwaite afterwards changed his psyche in addition to made peace with Akwamu despite the fact that the acting Dutch factor Gawron made every elbow grease to persuade him to delay inward this course of study of activeness for at to the lowest degree 3 or iv days. Gawron was intent on this delay because he had received ii boys as pawns from the Akyem as security for their prospective advance agaist the akwamu, in addition to so the Akyem were concerned that the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication should non acquire inward into friendship with Akwamu.[85] However on the nighttime of 22nd March, the Akwamu unexpectedly in addition to quietly withdrew their forces from Accra.[86]
The abrupt withdrawal of Akwamu forces from Accra suggests that at that spot was an urgent province of affairs to live dealt with inward Akwam. Gawron was convinced that the hurried divergence of the Akwamu forces meant that the Akyem had already fallen upon the Akwamu country, especially, since the Akwamu did non hold back to have payment for tow slaves that they had sold to the English linguistic communication the nighttime before they left.[87] Although Gawron’s declaration is perhaps exaggerated, at that spot is no dubiety that the presence of the Akwamu Rex in addition to his forces inward Accra left his ground exposed to attack. Indeed, on 5th March, Guicherit reported that next the siege of the Ga past times the Akwamu, a political party of seventy-one Fante volumteers had descended upon Akwamu for the purpose of a marauding expedition, but had obtained null except a adult man in addition to a woman. They had however, promised to homecoming inward the hope of at5taining to a greater extent than booty. It was fifty-fifty rumoured that the FDante would unite with the Akeym in addition to together they would scrap Akwamu.[88]
The catamenia betwixt the withdrawal of Akwamu forces from Accra in addition to the terminal stage of the state of war was exploited past times both theAkwamu in addition to their enemies as an chance to seem novel for allies, or else, to ensure that the powerful neighbours would at to the lowest degree remain neutral.
On Apr 20th, Ansa Kwao sent a retainer to Gawron, the acting Dutch factor,with gift of yams in addition to 2 ankers of palm wine, 1 for Gawron in addition to the other for Ayikuma. Ansa Kwao “begged” Gawron in addition to Ayikuma to send a representative to Akwamu “to settle the palavers” He wanted to renew the onetime friendship with the Dutch society in addition to assured Gawron that he had no farther ground to ascension upwards against them but that he was previously “instigated thereto past times other who had turned his head. “When the Dutch council at Elmina was informed to the the king’s message, they decided to settle the disputes for the welfare of trade. Even though they believed the Rex of Akwamu was inward the wrong, they were willing to comply because the Akwamu”appeared so submissive in addition to were fifty-fifty the firstly to seek for peace.” The council, therefore, authorized a commission, comprising the principal factor de la planque in addition to Blittersdorp, to go to Accra in addition to settle the disputes with the Rex of Akwamu. The commissioners were, however, instructed non to create whatever payment or expenditure to the accuse of the company.[89]
When de la planque in addition to Bliteersdorp arrived inward Acrra, the Rex of Akwamu sent a retainer to Crevecoeur. De la planque advised the retainer to inquire the Rex to send downwards some caboceers with total powers to settle the disputes in addition to to arrive at an understanding “otherwise they would have got rattling serious consequences.”[90] De la planque stayed inward Accra until May 19th, only deciding to homecoming to Elmina when he realized that the Rex had non as jet sent his delegation. At the goal of May, the Rex sent a messenges to apologise for this delay in addition to as security for his genuine intention to settle the dispute the messenger wasaccompanied past times ii man child pawns. He did declare, however, that before settling the disputes, he had to scrap with “the colina people to view who testament live master.”[91]
In June a battle was fought betwixt the Akwamu in addition to the allied forces backed past times a number of Akyem troops. Although the Akyem Caboceer, Oforidua[92], was said to have got so gallantly that he got “quite 50 heads of the Aquamboes”, the battle ended inward defeat for the allied forces. This defeat tin mainly live attributed to the treachery of the Akuapem Caboceer, who evidently deserted during the battle to bring together the Akwamu. Although the caboceer was caught whilst deserting in addition to was promptly beheaded, many of his people did succeed inward joining the Akwamu.
According to Ivor Wilks, the predominant ground for this defection lay inward the fact that most of the Akuapem had joined the state of war non because they wanted to view a consummate overthrow of Akwamu power, but because they wanted to rebel purely against the tyrannical personal regulation of Ansa Kwao.[93] When the Akuapem realized that they had go mere adjuncts to the Akyem objective of total devastation of the Akwamu, a large number of them decided to revert to Ansa Kwao. They had no intension of helping to select almost the Akyem rule. Among the people who joined Ansa Kwao were many of the followers of Osei Agyeman, who at nowadays render the Nafihene of modern Akwamu.[94]
The intelligence of this Akwamu victory is reported to have got caused groovy consternations amongst the Ga. They must have got realized the enormity of the penalization which would live meted out of them if the Akwamu finally won the state of war in addition to so they judiciously decided to renew their involvement inward the fighting. Accordingly, Ayikuma expressed his want to panyar some Akwamu messengers who had brought jaw bones to the Europeans inward Accra as proof of their vicotory. Blittersdorp, however, objected because he saw this deed as a violation of the law of the nation, which granted that, “all ambassadors had the liberty to arrive at to in addition to fro unmolested.”[95] More importantly, Blittersdorp thought that such a violation would non live to the wages of the Company, mainly because, as a outcome of the disturbances, Crevecoeur had been without merchandise for a long time. Although the Ga did finally allow the messengers to homecoming to Akwamu unmolested, some other grouping was non so fortunate. Twenty farther Akwamu messengers, 1 of whom was a retainer with the King’s stick, were attacked close the Dutch fort inward July.[96] Although Akwamu denied whatever knowledge of the attack, the assailants were said to have got spoken Ga. The responsibleness for the onset was eventually attributed to Tete Kpeshi, a Caboceer of Soko.[97]
Immediately after the Akwamu victory, Ayikuma sent ii delegates, Grande Tete in addition to Okaidza, to send a messenger to Akyem in addition to Agona to assay to persuade them to bring together the advance against Akwamu. He also asked Blittersdorp to send a messenger to Akyem to secure their support, but he declined to do so, suggesting that he had been sent to Accra to merchandise in addition to non to “thrust” himself into whatever novel quarrel.[98] The Akyem were, however, busy taking precautions before committing their forces to the war. In July, the Akyem regular army sent ii people to the Dutch factor, Gawron, at Apam as security that they would select possession of the Akwamu ground in addition to renew the merchandise in addition to alliances with the Dutch Company. They alleged that the Fante had been the stimulate of their delay because they had made a novel demand for 100 bendas, which had already been sent. They were taking these precautions to safeguard their alliance ewith the Fante so that “their minds tin live at rest” over their wives in addition to children whom they intended to leave of absence inward Agona.[99]
Gawron’s credence of the Akyem pledge reveals a lack of co-ordination amongst the various Dutch forts. It seems that whilst Blittersdorp was trying to create peace with the Akwamu, the other factors were supporting their enemies. On 11th July, Blittersdorp received some servants who had been sent past times King of Akwamu. They had brought with them a boy, to prove that Akwamu had won the state of war against her enemies. On twelfth July, Gawron was given ii jaw bones past times an Akyem caboceer, as a token that they had fought Akwamu. These jawbones were given to Gawron past times Tete in addition to Okaidza, the Ga delegates to Fante in addition to Agona.[100] Gawron was later reprimanded for this activeness past times Director-General Pranger, who believed that Ansa Kwao would live offended when he discovered that the Akwamu jawbones, had been presented past times the Dutch to his enemies the Ga, especially at a fourth dimension when Akwamu was trying to settle her differences with the Dutch.[101]
Pranger’s reprimand should non live taken too seriously, for he himself on July 22nd had authorized the factor at Accra to give protection to some Akuapem women inward response to entreaties past times Ayikuma.[102] Indeed, pranger’s determination to offering protection to the enemies of Akwamu was, for practical purposes, worse than that of the donation of Akawamu jawbones to Tete in addition to Okaidza. His empty threats[103] towards the Ga. Whilst the Dutch may have got wished, either secretly or openly, for the defeat of the Akwamu, they also felt compelled to convey the pretence of friendship, inward illustration Akwamu eventually did win the war. In a missive of the alphabet to the Directors, dated ninth July 1730, Pranger wrote: “it would live desirable that the Aquamboes were defeated, or their wings clipped, since it is they solitary who inward every way forestall in addition to hinder the Akyem the passage to the beach; in addition to if they were somewhat prevented from doing this, in addition to the Akyem could acquire passage through Akwamu, it is evident that the merchandise at that spot would alter for meliorate for the Company.”[104]
In contrast to these Dutch machinations, the English linguistic communication in addition to Danish companies were to a greater extent than consistent inward their dealing with the war. The English linguistic communication had originally supported the rebel forces; but when they made peace with the Akwamu inward the aftermath of the siege of Accra, they remained constent inward their spot as friends of Akwamu. On September seventh 1730, Cruickshank, 1 of the English linguistic communication agents at Cape Coast, visited Accra. Upon his arrival he straight off had Tete Kpeshi, the Soko caboceer defendant of having panyarred the Akwamu messengers, pose inward irons. The Dutch factor Blittersdorp commented that Cruickshank “strongly takes side of the Aquamboes.”[105] Cruickshank believed that if the Akwamu were defeated, it would live prejudicial to trade. The Fante would doubtless select kpossession of their country, proceed their merchandise with the interlopers at Anomabo in addition to , crucially, forestall the Akyem from coming to merchandise at the fort.in short, Cruickshank’s declaration implies that the English linguistic communication pro-Akwamu policy emanated from the fearfulness of what a Fante victory would hateful for the English linguistic communication Company’s merchandise prospects.
The Danes remained friends of Akwamu throughout the state of war regardless of their previously avowed neutrality. In spite of this, the Ga hostility towards them lessened after the siege of Accra: the Ga began to sell the bulk of their slaves, most of whom were stolen in addition to of the best quality, to the Danes.[106]
Despite evidence which suggested that the Ga were stepping upwards their anti-Akwamu activities, the Akwamu continued to pursue both their friendship in addition to that of the Dutch, fifty-fifty after the June victory. The messengers who had brought the jawbones in addition to intelligence of the Akwamu victory to Accra also informed Blittersdorp that Ansa Kwao would send messengers to settle the disputes as before long as everything was inward monastic enjoin again. They farther advised Blittersdorp that at that spot were almost 3 hundred slaves or captives inward Akwamu, some of whom they would select along when they eventually came to settle the disputes.[107] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 2nd grouping of messengers arrived ii weeks later, accompanied past times a man child whom they had taken captive inward the war. These messengers informed Blittersdorp that the caboceer who had been chosen to settle the disputes was afflicted with guinea worm.[108] Upon receiving this latest evidence of what he saw as Akwamu procrastination, Pranger instructed Blittersdorp to send a retainer to the King to inquire him categorically whether he entended to settle the disputes or not. He was to assure the King that his ambassadors would non live injured or molested. Blittersdorp was also instructed to inquire the Ga to recall their delegates who had been sent to Fante in addition to Agona, as they previously assured Pranger the Fante would never ascension upwards against Akwamu. The Ga were warned “on hurting of severe opunishment” non to molest the Akwamu.[109]
Such threats turned out to live ineffectual, for when the 3rd grouping of messengers, sent past times Ansa Kwao were panyarred past times the Ga, Pranger did non punish them. He said that he was unable to forestall the Ga or punish for panyarring the Akwamu whilst the disputes remained unsettled. He was, however, convinced that “if the Aquamboes saw an chance to acquire take hold of whatever Accras, they would non allow it arrive at to panyar them all.[110]
After this latest onset on his Akwamu messengers, the Rex sent Boakye (son of the onetime king, Akonnor) to Accra. Boakye protested against the panyaring in addition to insisted that this in addition to other small-scale grievances should live redressed before whatever of the major disputes were settled. He farther demanded that Blittersdorp should hold back until he had returned to Akwamu in addition to made his study on the molestation, before sending the Dutch retainer to Akwamu.[111] Boakye returned to Accra at the appointed fourth dimension in addition to swore inward the presence of Blittersdorp in addition to the Ga caboceers that no impairment would befall the retainer who was to accompany him to Akwamu.
Boakye had to postpone his homecoming to Akwamu, he learnt that a large grouping of men, mostly Kusi Adu’s people, were waiting to molest him in addition to his political party en route.[112] He hence requested in addition to was duely provided with escorts to Pb some of his men dorsum to Akwamu. Boakye’s people returned to Accra some days later, bringing with them men armed with muskets to safeguard Boakye. Upon the arrival of these armed men at the outskirts of Accra, Boakye left the town on the pretext of taking some drinks to his people. Nothing farther was heard of him in addition to so Blittersdorp kept all his goods in addition to the political party of v boys whom he was to have got taken dorsum to Akwamu.[113] With Boakye’s divergence from Accra inward the middle of August went all possibility of the Akwamu ever making peace with the Ga in addition to the Dutch before the goal of the war.
Blittersdorp began to dubiety the Akwamu sincerity inward ever desiring a peaceful solution: “as regards the Aquamboes I tin shape no view almost them in addition to I believe they proposed everything with deceit in addition to rascality, in addition to they came hither to spy out what was going on.” It was this same Blittersdorp who had commented before that “so far as regards the protestations in addition to outward appearance of the Aquamboe Caboceer, I should presume that the Aquamboes are inward earnest almost settling the disputes which have got arisen.”[114]
Boakye’s abscondance from Accra may have got resulted inward the fact that he similarly did non believe that the Ga in addition to the Dutch would live honest inward their settling of the disputes. Blittersdorp himself said that he presumed that the Ga were non “altogether inclining to create the palaver.”[115] During the negotiations, too repeatedly panyarring Akwamu messengers, the Ga gave active back upwards to the enemies of the Akwamu.
On 18th July, Akwamu asked Blittersdorp to grant protection to the wives of the “hill people”, because the Ga had taken an oath inward the presence of de la Planque to assist them inward this way.[116] On ninth July, Blittersdorp reported that a large trunk of the colina people, amongst whom were the caboceers Anpon in addition to Etoe, had retired to Accra. These caboceers sought refuge with the Ga, because their people, many of whom had rejoined the Akwamu forces, wanted to manus them over to the enemy inward monastic enjoin to create peace. Ayikuma asked permission of Blittersddorp to fortify the Dutch common salt hut on the beach inward monastic enjoin to shelter the refugees, as the fort was too little to accommodate them all inward the trial of an Akwamu attack. By the fourth dimension Ayikuma received permission from Director-General Pranger, the fortification had already been started.[117] Unluckily, the construction these fortifications coincided with Boakye’s presence inward Accra. In add-on to protecting the enemies of the Akwamu, the Ga also deliberately did non pay take heed to Pranger’s instructions to recall their delegates from Fante in addition to Agona. In August when Frimpong Manso (leader of the Akyem Kotoku responsible for the main offensive against Akwamu) wanted 50-60 bendas worth of pulverization on credit from the Dutch factor Gawron, it was the Ga in addition to Agona king, Kusi Adu, who guaranteed what he received.[118]
The Akwamu negotiations for peace with the Ga in addition to the Dutch were conducted whilst the state of war was still beingness fought. After Akwamu’s June victory, they appear to have got suffered a temporary reversal. On the twelfth July, Gawron reported that an Akwamu strength had been surrounded past times enemy men in addition to moreover that the King of Akwamu could non go to their assistance because 3 Akyem captains had previously truthful cat his communication line past times seizing a large town of Akwamu. It seems that the Akyem were biding their fourth dimension in addition to waiting for the Fante before attacking Akwamu with their total force.[119] However, Akwamu was able to revenge this setback, for on 31st July, Blittersdorp reported that the Akwamu had 1 time again fought the colina people in addition to he believed they had won, because some colina people had already fled to Accra in addition to almost v hundred to a greater extent than were expected.[120]
In September, Akyem stepped upwards her offensive against Akwamu. On 5th September, Gawron reported that Akyem had already captured the Akwamu bush villages in addition to cutting off the Akwamu nutrient supplies. Furthermore, the Akyem had promised that they would capture the whole ground of Akwamu, whether Fnate marched upwards or not.[121] Indeed, on 17th September, they sent a messenger to inform Gawron that they “as goodness as had the Aquamboe ground inward their possession, as they had fought against them in addition to taken possession of all the Aquamboe croms, except the King’s crom, with which they were waiting to view what Fantyn would undertake for their assistance to whom the had advanced golden to aid them. But if Fantyn does non also ascension upwards against Aquamboe, they have got allow them know that they testament grab in addition to cutting off the heads of all their thieves who are at nowadays plundering inward Aquamboe in addition to would select farther measures against Fantyn itself as before long as they had settled their palaver with Akwamu.”[122]
Gawron farther stated that the Akyem had “so unopen in” the Akwamu they could flee neither forwards nor backwards; many Akwamu were surrendering to “mercy or displeasure” of the Akyem, others scattering inward the bush in addition to the King had to “flee everywhere” from the Akyem, “so that Akim is already master copy of this whole ground from which goodness merchandise may live expected from Honourable Company.”[123]
The Danes likewise give a description of this terminal battle. Waeroe reported that the Akwamu, inward monastic enjoin to scrap the Akyem, crossed a river which was depression plenty at the fourth dimension to enable them to easily wade through. Akyem, however, did non bring together the battle straight off in addition to inward the meantime it rained heavily andd the river naturally filled up. The Akyem so proceeded to onset the Akwamu who, when forced to retreat, were forced to cross the swollen river. They lost to a greater extent than than iv times as many men doing this so those who had already been killed inward the battle. The Akyem so followed them, attacked them inward their ain land, in addition to within 3 days had destroyed in addition to conquered the whole Akwamu.[124] Ansa Kwao was captured, pose inward irons in addition to finally beheaded.[125] In October, Amo returned from the state of war to Accra bringing with him the caput in addition to manus of Ansa Kwao, King of Akwamu.
The terminal defeat of the Akwamu led to a full general province of disorder. The major culprits inward this latest upheaval were the Fante, almost 15 to 20 G men, had joined Akyem, in addition to although they had non taken component inward the battle, they wanted them to manus over component of the booty they had taken, “all of which causes considerable troubles inward the interior.”[126] Guicherit at Bereku also reported that the roads were unsafe in addition to no adult woman in addition to children inward the croms which they (the Fante) marched through are safe, in addition to that would in conclusion for almost 8 days, yet when the Fante in addition to Akyem caboceers, so is said , testament so live inward Agona in addition to testament select everything inward tranquility there.”[127]
Many of the Akeamu who were captured were sold as slaves. Romer commended: “one could imagine what was done with the Akwamu so long as a pot of brandy could live obtained from each of them.[128] Some of the Akwamu who were fortunate plenty to escape from the full general plunder in addition to cassacre, fled beyond the Volta in addition to founded novel Akwamu (the modern Akwamu state). Here, at that spot resided nether the leadership of Akonnor Kuma, boy of the belatedly King Akonnor past times a slave woman.[129] According to Romer only almost v hundred families across the Volta, in addition to these included non to a greater extent than than 1 G fighting men.[130] This, however, could live an underestimate, intended to illustrate that only a little proportion of the Akwamu population founded the novel province of Akwamu. New Akwamu continued to maintain links with Accra.
The remnant Akwamu who did non bring together their brethren beyond the Volta were consigned past times the Akyem to live nether the leadership of Akwamu caboceer Kwasi Bibri. Pranger inward reference to this somewhat peculiar province of affairs, noted that: “it is an old custom amidst the natives ever to leave of absence a component of their vanquished foes inward their ain ground in addition to to entrust the ascendance over it to someone of the same, whom they so as tribute-paying vassals: those of the triumphant political party can, however, settle at that spot if they are so disposed without nevertheless having a portion inward the government.”[131]
It appears that Caboceer Amo in addition to other sections of the Ga were non wholly satisfied after the defeat of the Akwamu. In Dec at that spot rumours that Amo still felt disposed to onset those Akwamu who had fled to “an inland”, in addition to would do so as before long as he had gathered together the necessary men.[132] Amo manifestly succeeded inward gaining this support, for inward March 1731 Aprag was “entirely devoid of people”because of the motion inward the Volta area.[133] Amo was joined past times Ayikuma, Okpoti kof Labadi in addition to the people of Osu. Ayikuma, however, returned to Accra inward May 1731, leaving the others to proceed with the campaign.[134] The motion lasted for to a greater extent than than ii years, for it was non until 1733 that Okpoti returned to Labadi. Dako (who had taken over the leadership after his begetter Amo’s death) likewise returned to Aprag after defeating the Awuna inward 1733.[135]
The Ga who chose non to go on this motion in addition to instead remained nether the leadership of Ayikuma attempted to solve their differences with the Akwamu who were left inward their country. In May 1731, a political party of Akwamu who were going to Bereku were attacked, in addition to 1 of them was shot dead past times some Ga assailants.[136] The continuation of such hostilities was injurious to trade, in addition to so inward June 1731 an endeavour was made to negotiate a peace settlement. An oath was taken past times the Ga in addition to the Akwamu inward the presence of Blittersdorp inward Accra, declaring that:
1) Hostilities were at nowadays at the end.
2) The Ga in addition to Akwamu would live similar goodness friends
3) The Akwamu would come upwards in addition to ship on their merchandise inward Accra.
4) The roads could live used on either side unmolested in addition to without hindrance as before long as the Akwamu had established themselves inward their country.[137]
Blittersdorp did non have got much confidence inward this agreement, because he believed that “no reliance tin live placed on forced in addition to dominated people such as the Akwamu.”[138] He was convinced that upon the smallest peril of deliverance, the Akwamu would seize the chance in addition to create the Ga pay dearly for beingness the primary stimulate of their misfortune. However, after this understanding was signed the merchandise paths did apparently go safe, in addition to inward Nov 1731 it was reported past times Guicherit that the ways from Alwamu, Agona in addition to Akyem were opened upwards 1 time again for trade.[139]
Another grouping of people with whom the Ga had to create peace were the Akyem. In Oct 1730, the Ga caboceer in addition to Amo agreed to pay 350 bendas in addition to half dozen stings of conte de terre, as a state of war contribution to the Akyem.[140] The Ga were at firstly only able to pay 120 bendas in addition to v strings of conte de terre in addition to fourth dimension was fixed for the payment of the rest. In return, the Akyem envoys who received the payment swore according to local custom in addition to on the Bible to live inward friendship with the Ga.
Barely 1 calendar month after this promise, the Akyem sent envoys to Ayikuma to demand the balance of the payment (amounting to 240 bendas in addition to 1 string of conte de terre) fifty-fifty though non to a greater extent than than one-fifth of the fourth dimension fixed for the payment had expired. The Akyem claimed that they were compelled to demand the amount because they needed it to back upwards the fugitive Wassa King, Intiforo, to whom they had pledged their aid inward fighting the Asante.[142]
From the preceeding chapter, it would seem clear that it was largely the Ga rebellion of 1728 which participated the complex state of war that culminated inward the collapse of Akwamu powerfulness inward 1730. With the disintegration of Akwamu ascendance came the work of filling the powerfulness vaccum which at nowadays existed inward the Accra plains.
THE PERIOD OF TURBULANCE 1730-42
The catamenia 1730-1742 tin live seen as the most turbulent inward the history of the Ga. It witnessed attempts past times the Ga to piece of work out a modus Vivendi with the Akyem in addition to the Europeans, it beheld a civil warm, in addition to finally, it saw the Ga confronted past times the powerful Asante after their defeat of the Akyem.
The Ga used this catamenia after the defeat of the Akwamu non only to reassert themselves, but also to affirm their rights to the ownership of Ga lands which they believed to include the Adanme coast.[1] They hence challenged the European propensity to build on their lands without firstly seeking permission. Such protests to the Europeans implied an unwillingmess to select the Akyem inward the role of suzerain, as landlords who had but taken over where the Akwamu had left off. Ga efforts to reassert themselves were farther manifested through their attempts to intermission the powerfulness in addition to influence of Akwamu elements inward Accra, some of whom had go permanent settlers, in addition to who fifty-fifty today are known as the Otublohuns.
In March 1732 the Danes reported that, since the defeat of the Akwamu the Devil’s “Accras” (frandens Accraer) had arrogated far too much powerfulness to themselves.[2] This comment past times the Danes is non surprising when 1 considers that they were the firstly victims of the newly assertive Ga.
In Jan 1732, whilst the Danes were edifice a lodge at Great Ningo, the Ga seized the Danish representative Sparre. He was taken to Aprag (usshertown) in addition to was non released until he had promised to pay 100 bendas to Ayikuma.[3] The primary objection which the Ga held towards the erection of the Danish lodge was the fact that the Danes had non asked for their permission before project the enterprise. Secondly, the Ga were still suspicious of the Ga back upwards for Akwamu, especially because the Danish determination to build at Ningo coincided with the catamenia when Akwamu had fled in addition to settled inward the Volta area. The Ga therefore, saw the Danish enterprise as a way of giving assistance to the Akwamu, who were still perceived to live ‘mortal enemies’ of the Ga.[4]
The Ga were actively encouraged inward their onset upon the Danish lodge past times the Dutch factor Elet,[5] who saw the presence of the Danish lodge inward Ningo as a threat to the Dutch trading involvement on the leeward coast. Significantly, the Dutch Director-General Pranger was far from pleased at the demolition of the Danish lodge. He viewed the incident as a sign of Ga defiance, which could easily live extended to all the Europeans if it was non forstalled. In his protestation to Elet, the Director-General expressed his surprise that he had non “emphantically checked the excessed of our subjects (Ga), in addition to if they had been wronged anywhere past times the Danes, to have got him inquire for justice or satisfaction, instead of allowing them to select the law into their ain hands… We also consider the expressions of your natives (Ga) regarding their hatred of the Danes pre-eminently insolent, in addition to impertinent, the to a greater extent than so as nosotros could conform to them in addition to nosotros say inward reply that nosotros are past times no way disposed to allow the law live set downwards for us past times anyone on the coast, especially, non past times the Accras who are the biggest rascals inward the world… you lot tin hence monastic enjoin them inward our call to refrain henceforth from all hostilities as regards the Danes of whatever other nation… in addition to with regards to their threat that if nosotros did non discovery the Danes inward the wrong, they would abandon your crown in addition to retire elsewhere, you lot tin tell them that nosotros are rattling thoroughly convinced past times their ‘lachiteyt’ (cowardice)? And that they hence have got non the courage to proceed beyond the arrive at of our fort as the Fante would straight off swallow them upwards shell in addition to all.”[6]
Pranger gave farther empjhasis to his disapproval of the Ga molestation of the Danes, past times travellin to Accra himself inward Apr 1732, to settle the matter. The Ga were made to pay 153 oz. golden as compensation. At a coming together betwixt the Dutch, Danish in addition to Ga representatives, Pranger advised Ayikuma to live friendly with the Danes. The Danish Governor thereupon gave Ayikuma substantial presents, in addition to the latter promised to the Danes’ friend inward all matters.[7]
Another protestation against the European determination to build on ground without Ga permission was issued inward 1740, when the English linguistic communication started edifice a lodge at Prampram. The Ga sent a messenger to the English linguistic communication to inquire them “what ground they had to build on their (Ga) land.” The Ga caboceers, who were so inward friendly terms with the Dutch, claimed that the lartter could have got possession of all the ground frm Bereku to the eastern towns since the Ga had won them inward the Akwamu state of war of 1728-30 only with the assistance of the Dutch. The caboceers must have got realized that their declaration would live challenged past times the English linguistic communication in addition to so they hence claimed that although the English linguistic communication had also helped them inward the war, their assistance had been paid for.[8]
The European companies were prepared to select the Ga claim to ownership of lands on the Ga-Adanme coast. For example, inward 1732 fifty-fifty after the Ga had thwarted the Danish endeavour to build inward Ningo, the Danes, instead, obtained permission to build a fort from the Akyem caboceer Owusu, variously described as nephew or blood brother of Bakwante.[9] They had to pay a amount of 20 bendas before the fort was built in addition to continued to pay I oz. a calendar month to Owusu.[10] In 1738 Owusu farther demonstrated his ascendance over Ningo past times imposing a fine of 7 slaves on Ningo Caboceer for flying the Dutch flag without his concent.[11]
In 1740, the English linguistic communication ignored the Ga claims to Prampram in addition to continued to build their lodge. While the Ga were making these claims, the Danish Governor (who manifestly acknowledged the Akyem as owners of the land) sent a message to the Caboceer Owusu. He suggested that if the Akyem permitted the English linguistic communication to build at Prampram, the Danes would pass upwards to create the monthly payments for Ningo, because to give permission for an English linguistic communication lodge would a violation of the understanding signed betwixt the Dnaish Company in addition to Owusu when Ningo was firstly built. Owusu cunningly sent the Danes the reassuring message that what the English linguistic communication could build inward half dozen months, he could destroy it inward 1 day.[12] His message was manifestly a way of allaying Danish fears until the English linguistic communication lodge was completed, since the English linguistic communication were, most likely, edifice with his consent.
The mental attitude of the Ga, the Europeans in addition to the Akyem towards the ownership of ground along the Ga-Adanme coast reveals fundamental difference of interpretation as to the implications of 1728-30 war. The Ga had seen the state of war of 1728-30 primarily as a struggle for their ain independence. The state of war had started as a Ga rebellion against Akwamu power; the Akyem had been invited to bring together as allies of the Ga in addition to had been compensated for their services. The Ga, therefore, found it hard to select the thought of the Akyem as novel overlords, which had simply taken over the role vacated past times the Akwamu. Moreover, dissimilar the Akwamu, the Akyem had non defeated them inward war.
The Akyem, on the other hand, chose to interpret the state of war as a culmination of powerfulness stuggle betwixt themselves in addition to the Akwamu. It was they who had been responsible for the main offensive which had brought almost the collapse of Akwamu powerfulness in addition to so the Akyem saw no ground why they should non acquire ownership of onetime Akwamu territories.
It has already been shown that Akyem’s right to dispense with Ga-Adanme lands was acknowledged by; the Europeans. The Akyem also collected the rents from the forts on the Ga-Adanme littoral.[13] An interesting characteristic of the contestation over the ownership of the Ga-Adanme lands is the fact that the Ga did non straight challenge the Akyem right to command over their lands; instead they contended themselves with protesting to the Europeans when the latter did non seek permission before edifice their merchandise posts.
The records from this catamenia did non provide a clear film as to the type of human relationship that existed betwixt the Ga in addition to the Akyem. It appears that the Akyem were satisfied with their rents from the forts in addition to the right to dispense with Ga lands, in addition to so they left the Ga to themselves except at the fourth dimension when they needed help.
There are only 3 recorded instances of the Akyem asking the Ga for support. In 1734, Owusu sent messengers demanding the Ga march with him against the remnant Akwamu. However, the Ga were reluctant to scrap in addition to so started devising way of satisfying him inward “a tranquillity unobtrusive manner.”[14] In 1740 Owusu 1 time again asked the Ga to accompany him on a motion to the eastern coast. This fourth dimension the Ga complied with the request,[15] although the Dutch objected to it on the grounds that their society could non live responsible for the remnant Ga women in addition to children, left behind past times the men embarking on the campaign. The men’s absence would leave of absence their dependents inward a vulnerable position, especially since the Fante were reported to null but “steal in addition to rob.”[16] In 1742, Akyem 1 time to a greater extent than asked the Ga to aid them inward their state of war against the Asante, but this fourth dimension they emphatically refused.[17]
It would appear that the Akyem did non endeavour to found theatre command over the Ga. For example, at that spot is no evidence to suggest that Akyem had governors to supervise the Ga towns. In fact, the Akyem leaders did non fifty-fifty see the Ga coast. There is only 1 recorded instance of Akyem leader having visited Accra, in addition to this was Owusu’s see inward 1738. In response to the repeated entreaties of the Ga Caboceer Okaidza,[18] Owusu finally arrived, accompanied past times over half dozen G men. However, fifty-fifty nether these circumstances, Owusu’s see did non outcome inward an assertion of Akyem supremacy over the Ga.
In contract to the Akwamu, the Akyem did non constantly plague the Ga with threats in addition to extortions. There was only 1 occasion on which the Akyem threatened the Ga in addition to this was during the civil disturbances of 1737-38. Even then, sectionalisation amongst the Akyem leaders rendered their threats ineffective, for owusu supported Dako in addition to the Dutch faction.[19] It would seem clear; therefore, that Akyem command over the Ga was never especially strong.
The Akyem’s lack of coherent leadership meant that the Ga began to struggle for powerfulness amongst themselves. This conflict escalated into civil state of war inward 1737. On 1 side were the Ga caboceer Okaidza in addition to his followers inward Usshertown, supported also past times Osu, La, Teshi, the Danes in addition to the Akyem leader Owusu. Fighting against them were Dako in addition to the Otublohuns, supported past times the Aseres, the Dutch, a number of Fante in addition to finally, the Akyem leaders Bakwante in addition to Frempong.[20]
Three major factors caused this civil state of war of 1737-38, resentment against the influence in addition to powerfulness of the Otublohuns, commercial jealousy betwixt the Danes in addition to the Dutch in addition to the fearfulness of Akyem hostility.
Resentment against the Otublohuns had existed since the fourth dimension of Akwamu suzerainty. This resentment stemmed from the powerfulness in addition to influence enjoyed past times the Otublohuns leaders, Pieter Passop in addition to Amo, as a outcome of their dual roles as Dutch brokers in addition to representatives of the Akwamu regime inward Accra[21]. In 1730, the Dutch factor Blittersdorp stated that at that spot was ‘faction in addition to enmity” betwixt Amo’s people in addition to Ayikuma’s people which was caused past times the fact that when Amo was inward Accra, he was ever sent past times the Dutch to give orders to the Ga Rex Ayikuma. Hence, inward June 1730 Ayikuma seized the chance provided past times Amo’s absence from Accra to slander in addition to molest the Otublohuns. Ayikuma reported to the Dutch factor blittersdorp that the Otublohuns were responsible for the panyarring of Akwamu messengers sent to Accra. Consequently, at that spot was a confrontation betwixt Ayikuma’s followers in addition to the Otublohuns which nearly resulted inward armed fight.[22] Futher disputes betwixt the ii factions were only averted when blittersdorp, acting on instructions from the Director-General, warned both parties that if either of them committed hospitalities, they would live sent inward irons to Elmina.[23] This cessation of hostilities was farther aided past times the absence of Amo in addition to his boy Dako from Accra, on a motion inward the Volta area. In Jan 1733, it was Okaidza, a fellow member of Ayikuma’s theatre unit of measurement who was judiciously sent past times the Dutch on an diplomatic mission to Akyem,[24] thereby performing the functions previously enacted past times Pieter Passop, Amo in addition to later Dako.
The appointment of Dako as Dutch broker inward March 1737 past times the Dutch Director-General de Bordes[25], precipitated the resurgence of the latent resentment against the Otublohuns. Okaidza, who acted as the champion of this resentment, was aware that the strength of the Otublohuns during the catamenia of Akwamu suzerainty had lain firstly inward the strong ties betwixt their leaders in addition to the Akwamu majestic theatre in addition to secondly inward their spot as Dutch brokers. This, inward effect, meant that the Otublohuns were backed past times the ii strongest powers inward Accra. Okaidza was non prepared to view a similar province of affairs develop during the catamenia of Akyem regulation over the Ga. Because he could non hope to intermission the bond betwixt the Otublohuns in addition to the Dutch, He tried instead to alienate both parties from the Akyem.
Okaidza gained the back upwards of the Akyem Caboceer, Owusu, past times sending him presents[26]. He was able to win the back upwards of the eastern Ga towns osu, La in addition to Teshi, because they saw the disputes as an chance to react against the domination of Akwamu elements inward Ga Society. In a petition to the danes for help, the representatives of these towns stated that okaidza was the only accra caboceer left in addition to if they did non aid him , the repose of Ga would live thrown at the mercy intrigues of Dako, who was only “a slave’s boy elevated past times the help of the whites.”[27] However, the petition from these towns was non the sole ground behind the Danish determination to back upwards okaidza. More importantly, the Danes were prepared to offering their assistance because of the commercial rivalry betwixt themselves in addition to the Dutch.
Danish-Dutch relations had non been especially harmonious since September 1735[28], in addition to the province of affairs worsened during the next year. In Apr 1736 the Danish Governor reported that the African inhabitants had so much love for him that they hardly passed past times his fort to merchandise with the other Europeans so long as he had the goods they required. He also stated that for every 20 slaves he had purchased, he was sure the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication had non obtained two. There was a merchandise boom inward Osu which had enticed all the inhabitants who had previously deserted to return. Furthermore, many other people, including 1 of the small-scale caboceer of Usshertown in addition to his followers had decided to settle inward Osu. All these people were goodness traders, in addition to the resultant commercial wages annoyed the Dutch factor so much that he was prepared to send Dako on a mission to set can to Osu. However, the Danish Governor, manifestly aware of the intrigue, straight off distributed muskets in addition to pulverization to his people to maintain a goodness spotter in addition to defend themselves.[29] In Jan 1737, the Dutch Director-General de bordes in addition to the council at Elmina reported that they had foiled the Danish attempts to build forts at Teshi in addition to the Fante country, the Danes had managed to build at Ningo, thereby causing groovy inconvenience to merchandise at Crevecoeur.[30] The Dutch heightened their intrigues against the Danes inward Teshi past times edifice a lodge themselves. Under such circumstances, it was non surprising that the Danes supported Okaidza against Dako in addition to the Dutch.
Dako’s back upwards inward the state of war comprised the Dutch, the Aseres, the Fante in addition to the Akyem leaders Bakwante in addition to Frempong. The Dutch were obliged to back upwards Dako because they were already implicated inward Okaidza’s scheming[31]. If Okaidza ever succeeded inward alienating them from the Akyem, the commercial losses for the Dutch society would live substancial, due to the fact that the Akyem provided the mass of the merchandise on the leeward coast.
Aseres’s back upwards for Dako is interesting since it was the stimulate of 1 of the principal divisions amongst the Ga. According to oral tradition, Okaidza originally belonged to the Asere sectionalisation but he left the sectionalisation to found his ain Akutso (quarter) of Gbese[32]. Asere’s back upwards for Dako in all probability stemmed from a feeling of resentment they held towards okaidza for trying to arrogate too much powerfulness to himself as leader of the Ga. Similarly, Asere’s stand upwards could also live due to a sense of loyalty to the Dutch company.
The Fante decided to back upwards Dako because they were invited to do so past times the Dutch. Likewise, the Akyem leaders, bakwante in addition to Frempong, supported the Dutch in addition to Dako because they were offered presents to ensure their loyalty. However, at that spot is no concrete evidence to suggest that Bakwante in addition to Frempong’s men were ever involved inward the actual fighting.
It has already been stated that Okaidza attempted to alienate Dako in addition to the Dutch from the Akyem in addition to indeed, it tin live seen that it was this elbow grease to arouse hostility which provided the prelude to civil war. In 1737 rumours began to circulate that the Dutch, past times way of bribes in addition to promises, were trying to persuade the Asante to onset akyem.[33] The Akyem readily believed this rumour, because they had long been suspicious of the Dutch friendship with Asante. For example, inward Oct 1734, the Dutch factor Augier inward Accra reported to Elmina that the Akyem reproached him daily because he was a friend of “king pockoe of Assiantyn” (opoku Ware I) in addition to had hence refused to sell arms to akyem trades. Akyem’s reproach Stemmed from the fact that her traders could non obtain the quantity of arms they needed from the Dutch at Crevecoeur during this period.[34]
When, inward May 1737, the rumours of the Dutch-Asante conspiracy against Akyem finally reached Elmina, the Director-General de Bordes, together with Messrs. Raams in addition to Worst were dispatched to Accra to settle the matter.[35] On their arrival, de Bordes sent a messenger to the Akyem leaders Frempong, Bakwante in addition to Owusu demanding to know the reasons behind their state of war preparations.
The Akyem leaders claimed that they were only preparing for state of war because rumours abounded that the Dutch had hired the Asante to intrigue against them. The Akyem delegates, who had been sent to Accra, declared that Okaidza was the stimulate of the disturbances. He had sent Patram(a adult man who had previously been dismissed past times the Dutch factor in addition to had sought protection inward Osu) to Owusu to study on the Dutch-Asante conspiracy. He had also offered a considerable amount of money to Owusu with the asking that the latter should come upwards to Accra to exterminate Darko in addition to his followers.[36]
After receiving this information, de Bordes had Okaidza pose inward irons, in addition to the next twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia a coming together of the Dutch representatives, Accra caboceers in addition to Akim delegates was held inward the Dutch fort to deal with Okaidza’s case. In the course of study of the proceedings, it became clear that Okaidza had also advised the Danish Governor to onset the Dutch fort Crevecoeur, because at that spot was enmity betwixt the factor in addition to the Director-General, making it unlikely that the factor would have whatever aid from Elmina. Okaidza had also told the Danish Governor that he would proceed staying inward Usshertown inward monastic enjoin to protect Danish interests there. However, inward the trial of an onset past times the Dutch, he would retire to Osu to ensure that he would live nether Danish protection.
After Okaidza’s machinations had been revealed, the Accra people declared unanimously that he was “a disturber of the world peace in addition to a traitorous rascal.”[37] Their mental attitude changed however, when de Bordes condemned Okaidza to death. They begged de Bordes to spare Okaidza’s life in addition to instead to create him pay a fine; otherwise it was feared that he would straight off leave of absence with his followers to seek protection nether the Danes inward Osu. The Caboceers promised to maintain a unopen spotter on Okaidza’s hereafter conduct. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 delegation of Okaidza’s followers, accompanied past times the Accra caboceers, offered the Director-General 70 bendas for Okaidza’s release. This was duly accepted past times de Bordes, in addition to Okaidza was afterwards released. However, since the 70 bendas offered were non straight off available, some of his people were taken as pawns in addition to kept inward Elmina.[38]
The imposition of this penalty on Okaidza did non avert civil disturbances. It but delayed actions for a few months in addition to allowed Okaidza the chance to proceed his intrigue inward Akyem. In Nov 1737, Darko sent a messenger to the Dutch factor at Bereku entreating him to send some people to collect his women in addition to goods from Accra, because he was beingness threatened with state of war past times the Akyem caboceer Owusu.[39] In Dec at that spot was farther confusion inward Accra, because Owusu in addition to his men were said to live camped “two hours journeying from the hill.” Owusu sent a messenger to Dako to demand satisfaction from him but Dako replied that he had been unaware of the existence of whatever quarrel betwixt them. The confusion inward Accra was such that some of the people took their goods to the Dutch fort whilst others took theirs to the Danish fort. The people so started preparing their defence strength against Akyem. The Dutch factor Starckenburg was convinced that fifty-fifty if Owusu failed to invade Accra, at that spot was bound to live a civil war, because the people were determine to punish those elements who were constantly causing trouble. Okaidza in addition to the Danish Governor were defendant of beingness responsible for Owusu’s threatened invasion of Accra.[40]
On 23rd Dec 1737 the people of Accra heard that Owusu had approached to within v or half dozen miles of the town with the avowed intension of supporting Okaidza in addition to exterminate all the other subjects. Acting upon this news, the people complained to the Dutch factor almost the “rascalities in addition to treachery” committed past times Okaidza in addition to as a outcome of their remonstrance were ordered past times the factor to arrest him.
It was this order, given past times the Dutch factor, which precipitated the outbreak of fighting. When Olaidza heard the intelligence of his impending arrest, he retired to Osu, where he was helped past times its people, in addition to to a greater extent than importantly past times the canons of fort Christiansborg, to scrap against the pursuers. On this same day, Okaidza returned to Usshertown with his supporters, determined to onset Dko in addition to his party. However, after an indecisive battle Okaidza retired to Osu.[41]
On 31st Dec Dako’s supporters went to Osu to attack. They believed that Okaidza’s men would live drunkard because they had been presented with New Year’s drinks past times the Danes. However, they were 1 time once again forced to retreat. On 15th Jan Okaidza’s men, aided past times some Akyem forces set out Usshertown but were met one-half way past times Dako’s men. The latter were afterwards driven dorsum to their town but they were helped past times canon shots from Crevecoeur which eventually forced Okaidza’s people in addition to their Akyem allies to retreat. The Dutch doubted wether Owusu had whatever genuine want to aid Okaidza, because he had previously given orders for his men to leave of absence Accra straight off after they finished this 1 skirmish. The Akyem forces stayed longer than they were ordered to only, because Okaidza sent a farther “good present” to Owusu as an incentive to send to a greater extent than men if he could non come upwards to Accra himself.[42]
On 21st Jan 1738 Owusu himself arrived inward Accra with betwixt half dozen in addition to 8 G men. He was met past times a deserted Usshertown, because Dako in addition to his supporters were beingness protected inward Crevecoeur. Realizing that he could non onset the Dutch fort, as his strength was non strong enough; Owusu stayed nether the Danish fort in addition to sent messengers backwards in addition to forwards to the Dutch. After a fruitless stay, he withdrew his forces in addition to returned to Akyem.[43]
Owusu’s retreat from Accra was followed past times disputes over Teshi. In March 1738, the Dutch representatives Jansen, Hoes in addition to Hecre were sent with goods in addition to orders to merchandise at Teshi. Upon their arrival, they were confronted past times ii or 3 hundred armed men who demanded that they leave of absence at once, since Okaidza would non tolerate whatever Dutch merchandise at Teshi. Later, a messenger who had been sent past times the Dutch representatives to the factor inward Accra was beaten en route in addition to forced to return.[44] In response to this, some Akyem messengers,[45] sent past times Bakwante in addition to Frimpong to the Dutch inward Accra, asked Okaidza why he persisted inward obstructing the Dutch trade. He replied that he would non only protect the ground from Osu as far due east as Keta, but would also non tolerate whatever Dutch merchandise beingness transacted inward that district.[46]
On 24th March Dalo’s supporters marched out to “open the ways to the leeward croms which they were hindered from going to past times Okaidza.” This resulted inward a scrap betwixt Okaidza’s in addition to Dako’s forces, during which Labadi was burnt downwards past times Dako’s men.[47]
In Apr the Dutch factor sent a retainer to the “King of Akyem” to inquire for his help. On eighth Apr the factor wrote to Elmina to say that the retainer who he had sent to Akyem had promised to homecoming the next twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia “bringing with him some armed men from the King of Akyem inward monastic enjoin with his help, 1 time again to found the lodge downwards below.”[48] However, at that spot is no evidence to suggest that the King of Akyem did send downwards these promised armed men.
In June 1738, the sword-bearer of the “King of Akyem” was sent to demand of Olaidza that he drops his “unfounded claim” to the towns on the leeward coast in addition to desist from molesting the servants of the Dutch company; otherwise he would “feel the displeasure” of the King of Akyem. Okaidza ignored the Akyem threat in addition to replied that “he would hold back for 3 years or so” whilst considering what he would do, but inward the hateful fourth dimension he “smash without mercy” the firstly Dutch adult man he found inward whatever of the leeward towns.
When the King of Akyem received Okaidza’s defiant message, he asked the Dutch for 25 bendas’s worth muskets in addition to pulverization for the purpose of “teaching Okaintie a lesson for his large talk” in addition to inward so doing would create the Dutch masters of the leeward towns. The Dutch thereupon resolved to give the required arms, to aid “render a world enemy incapable of crying out his evil intensions.”[49] There is, however, no evidence that the Akyem fulfilled the promise. After this ineffective Akyem threat the civil state of war reached a stalemate.
The Danes continued to harbour Okaidza because he conferred on them many advantages. His presence inward Osu made it the largest in addition to the most powerful of the Ga towns. This was manifestly appreciated past times the Danes, especially because they had been instructed past times their directors inward Copenhagen to “enlarge in addition to render their towns with goodness Negroes.”[50]
Okaidza’s presence inward Osu also gave the Danes a groovy commercial wages over the Dutch, because his supporters would non allow the Dutch to merchandise inward whatever of the other leeward towns. In June 1738 Starckenburg, the Dutch factor inward Accra, observed: “there is no hope to merchandise hither (Crevecoeur) before the leeward coast is 1 time again brought nether this Company, in addition to I believe that the ground why Okantye is strongly protected past times the Danes, as he is at nowadays having a goodness merchandise there.”[51]
Towards the goal of 1738 attempts were made at reconciliation betwixt the opposing factions. In Oct of the same year, Starckenburg reported that the Akyem leaders had sent for Dako in addition to the other subjects inward monastic enjoin “to settle everything in addition to select this ground into peace in addition to quiet.”[52] Unfortunately, null resulted from this Akyem endeavour to negotiate a peace settlement. However, the European allies of Dako in addition to Okaidza did go reconciled inward Oct 1738, due to the intervention of the English. They agreed to engage inward hostilities concerning Okaidza’s affairs.[53] However, Okaidza himself rejected a Dutch invitation to move to Usshertown to settle the disputes because he feared that “there was finesse nether their sweetness words.” Moreover, Okaidza had sworn past times his begetter that he would never live inward Usshertown so long as Dako resided at that spot in addition to de Bordes was Director-General. He hence chose to remain inward Labadi.[54]
This deadlock continued until 1739, when Okaidza finally began to modify his stand. In Nov 1739 Okaidza together with representatives from Osu, Labadi in addition to Teshi requested permission from the Danish Governor to homecoming with his blood brother Tyke Tette (Fat Tette) to Usshertown. The Danish Governor agreed to this, on status that Okaidza came to the town of his ain accord. He farther stated that Okaidza could leave of absence whenever he so desired, but he would have got to select that, when he left Danish protection, they could no long live responsible for his safety. After the Danish Governor had granted the required permission, Okaidza in addition to rthe other towns took an oath of loyalty towards each other to ensure that “whoever touched 1 of the political party had touched the rest.”[55]
It would seem that Okaidza’s homecoming to Usshertown inward 1739 was only a partial reconciliation, since he was accompanied past times only 1 of his wives in addition to almost 10 men. He left the repose of his theatre unit of measurement in addition to followers together with his goods inward Labadi in addition to Osu. Moreover, he neither rebuilt his theatre nor showed the to the lowest degree inclination to build it upon his return. The Danes were convinced that he had only agreed to homecoming to Usshertown because the Dutch factor had promised to negotiate the homecoming of his people who were beingness held as pawns past times de Bordes inward Elmina.[56]
It was until July 1741 that a consummate reconciliation occurred, in addition to this was due only to the intervention of the Akyem. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 coming together was held inward Accra betwixt the Akyem representatives in addition to the Ga to resolve the illustration betwixt Dako in addition to Okaidza. Okaidza was “found inward the right; whereupon the side which got the right has paid “esson” to the Akyem in addition to Accras as good as the English linguistic communication natives, according to the custom of the country.”[57]
The Ga had hardly settled their internal conflict, when they were confronted past times external work which did non straight concern them. This was the outbreak of the state of war betwixt the Akyem in addition to the Asante. During the preparations for the war, the Akwamu seized the chance to wreak vengeance on the Ga for their defeat inward 1730. In Dec 1741, it was reported that the Akwamu in addition to the Accras were both panyarring anything they came into contact with, in addition to as outcome the Ga felt compelled to select reprisals to protect their town. These Akwamu in addition to Acron insurgents declared to the Gat oestrus they “had got the Accra ground from King Pokoe as a present” in addition to moreover threatened also to invade Labadi, Teshi in addition to Tema.[58]
Before the Akyem joined the battle, they demanded that the Ga should aid them against the Asante onslaught. However, the Ga Caboceers unanimously refused to comply, suggesting that it was to a greater extent than of import for them to protect their ain country.[59] In the end, only Dako of Otublohun assisted the Akyem, but fifty-fifty here, it was alleged that he had gone to Akyem to settle his ain palavers before the state of war started in addition to he was hence forced past times the Akyem to participate.[60]
In March 1742 it was reported that the Asante had defeated Akyem.[61] During this state of war Dako had fallen into the hands of the Akwamu in addition to had been beheaded. In Apr 1742 it was reported that the Akwamu had his head.[62]
News of the Akyem defeat caused much confusion amongst the Ga. The Usshertown people started putting upwards fortifications to protect themselves. The residue of the Ga either sought protection inward the fort or fled from their towns in addition to went to places such as Bereku. Accra which in all probability could have got protected them all, was experiencing H2O shortages in addition to so was non a suitable spot to seek refuge. In short, at that spot was full general panic amongst the Ga.[63]
On ninth Apr 1742 information reached Accra that the firstly in addition to groovy retainer of the Asante King along with ii “ensigns in addition to v G muskets” had arrived inward Akwamu.[64] The Ga promptly sent an diplomatic mission to the Asante General,[65] in addition to this activeness in all probability saved them from the ravages of the Asante army. According to this same general, if the Ga had non have got the foresight to send a delegation, the Asante would have got released an regular army of “three to iv quarters” upon Accra. However, as a outcome of the embassy’s diplomacy, the Asante sent a messenger to Accra to declare that they had no quarrel with the Ga but, nevertheless, they expected the latter to pay 17 bendas to avert whatever possibility of war. With friendly negotiations the amount was reduced to 12 bendas for each Ga town.[66]
Each Ga town from Accra to Ningo, paid this state of war levy. At Ningo, the Danish factor Dorf, who was inward accuse of Fort Fredensborg, initially refused to pay. He called the Asante diplomatic mission “thieves in addition to vagabonds.” This predictably resulted inward an invasion of Ningo past times a 4,000-strong Asante army. During the siege they carried off all the Ningo subjects, plundered their houses in addition to blockaded the Danish fort, so that Dorf was finally obliged to sue for peace in addition to pay the Asante what they had originally demanded.[67] This wpisode at Ningo illustrates what the fate of the other Ga towns would have got been, had they non initiated friendly negotiations with Asante.
Despite the fact that other towns had all paid their state of war levies, the Ningo incident caused such terror amongst the Ga that they fled into the forts with their women, children in addition to worldly goods. The full general panic was aggravated past times the fact that after the invasion of Ningo, the Asante regular army visited Tema “with hot heads” in addition to plundered goods worth 30 marks (even though Tema had paid her state of war levy).[68] Fortunately, at the point, the King of Asante personally intervened. He vociferously objected to the behavior of his regular army in addition to offered to repay the cost of the plundered goods to the Dutch society in addition to to the people of Tema. He afterwards started making installments of payments in addition to asked for receipts inward monastic enjoin to know how much he still owed the Dutch company.[69]
However, despite such diplomatic gestures towards peace, the involvement of Dako inward the state of war was taken rattling seriously past times the Asante. On 18th Apr 1742 envoys from Asante, accompanied past times 50 fully armed men, came to Accra to demand, inward the call of their King, the surviving theatre unit of measurement of Dako.[70] On 20th Apr some other Asante ambassador, who had previously been sent to Elmina, arrived inward Accra in addition to demanded everything that Dako owned, downwards to the smallest, most insignificant article.[71] During the ensuing 3 weeks of negotiations, the Ga pointed out to the Asante that prior to the state of war betwixt Akyem in addition to Asante, Dako had gone to Akyem to settle some palavers. He had non only been detained against his testament as the Akyem prepared for battle but had also been compelled to scrap with them against the Asante. This excuse manifestly did non print the Asante, because they insisted inward taking non only Dako’s people, but also those of Amo in addition to Pieter Pasop. In short, they seemed determined to select accuse of all Otublohuns.
The Datch representatives inward Accra endeavoured to negotiate milder terms for the Otublohuns, because the “Holland state is accustomed to protect its subjects in addition to non to give them as a prey to their enemies.” When the negotiations reached deadlock, the Dutch had the guns at the forts “moved a bit,” to demonstrate them that they were non prepared to live bullied. This must have got had effect on the Asante, because they started “playing a softer tune”. They finally reached a settlement, whereby the Asante agreed to select all the conte de terre (beads) of Dako, which consisted of v large strings, the worked in addition to loose gold, ii kelders in addition to everything else that was inward Dako’s household amongst Dako’s women in addition to slaves. The Asante also accepted 58 bendas from Usshertown as a nowadays to their novel King, but upon negotiation the amount was reduced to 12 bendas. This peace settlement was rounded off with 7 gun salutes from the Dutch fort.[72]
The Ga confrontation with the Asante inward 1742 started some other stage inward their tumultuous history. Through their submission, the Ga had acknowledged the supremacy of the Asante without really facing them inward opened upwards battle. Henceforth Asante became the novel suzerain of the Ga.
The Asante, similar the Akwamu in addition to the Akyem who had preceded them, demonstrated their newfound ascendance past times straight off taking over the rents from Accra’s 3 forts. Romer stated that when the Asante envoys came to collect the rents, the Danes informed them that they were only paying for the sake of trade, in addition to hence, if no merchandise came to their fort they would non experience obliged to pay them at all. The Asante hence made a affair of policy to select downwards merchandise with them each fourth dimension they came to collect the rents.[73] It would appear that the Asante were unable to consolidate their spot as suzerain over the Ga during the years straight off next 1742. In fact, Asante traders could non fifty-fifty acquire undisturbed access to the Ga coast. They were hindered past times the Akyem, who attacked whatever Asante who attempted to arrive at the coast.[74] The Ga likewise suffered from the menacing activities of the Akyem. According to the Danes, the Akyem unremarkably descended on Accra inward bands of 1000 armed men, camping ground ii to 3 miles from the coast in addition to sending messengers to the forts to demand state of war levies. This usually caused such commotion amongst the Ga that they often sought protection inward the forts.[75] As a outcome of the obstruction caused past times the Akyem, Asante traders had to usage a circuitous route through the Volta gorge and, moreover, to move inward caravans of 2,000 men to ensure their protection en route.[76]
Under such circumstances, it was hard for Asante to get upwards in addition to consolidate its spot of ascendance over the Ga. However, it appears that past times the belatedly eighteenth century, Asante was finally able to found some sort of supervision over the Ga towns. According to Reindorf, “there was truthful honor in addition to friendship betwixt the Asantes in addition to the Akras.”[77] Yet the Ga did later bring together the alliance of southern states which finally defeated the Asante at the battle of Akatamansu inward 1826 in addition to inward doing so contributed towards the collapse of Asnate suzerainty.[78]
SOCIO-POLITICAL CHANGE AMONG THE GA
The main areas of the Ga society which have got been influenced past times events of the seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries are; the composition in addition to organisation of the Ga towns, the Ga family, faith in addition to language. An of import outcome of the wars in addition to invasions of 1680 to 1742 was the depletion of the Ga population inward the Accra plains. It has already been stated that the southern component of the Republique du Togo, became an asylum for the Ga whenever they were disturbed or threatened inward the Accra plains. Apart from the voluntary fight, the population of the Ga was also diminished due to repeated capture. The lamentations inward the kple vocal below demonstrate the feeling of the GA towards the dwindling of their population.
Ani Lomo live moment kwaraa?
Aha Lomobii fee
Nyeha Lomobii blublu
Oshi Adu Kome, lomo live moko kwraa
Aha Buadzabii fee;
Naa, Buadza live mo.
Ahu komebii fee:
Kome live moment kwaraa.
Nyeha Dodebii fee;
Naa Dode live mo;
Aha Dodebii fee;
Naa nye ha Nkranpong fee;
Nye ha folio eha Nkranpong fee;
Wo Atsimbii ameha Nkranpong fee
Eta
Ameha Nkranpong blublu;
Mua Nkranpong live mo.
Does adult man have got anyone at all?
They snatched all man’s children;
You snatched all man’s children;
You snatched all man’s children;
Skumo, adult man has no 1 at all.
They snatched all Olila’s children;
Lo, Olila has no one.
They snatched all Sakumo’s children
They snatched all Sakumo’s children;
Sakumo has no 1 at all.
You snatched all Dode’s children;
Lo, Dode has no one.
They snatched all Dode’s children;
Lo, you lot snatched all Great Accra.
You allow uncircumcised people snatch all
Great Accra;
Our Akims have got snatched all Great Accra;
It is finished.
They snatched all the people of Accra;
So Accra has no one.[1]
The seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries also witnessed the intermixture in addition to reshuffling of the population inward the Accra plains. Originally, members of the same lineage lived unopen together, causing lineage in addition to local grouping to live almost identical. The situation, however, began to alter as lineage members moved away to settle inward other Ga towns. In the course of study of time, the descendents of the emigrant lineage members began to spot themselves with the town inward which they had settled rather than with their ancestral home. This procedure is good encapsulated past times the Ga saying, “himee he hey fe fomo he”, “A happy spot is meliorate than nascency place.” The emigrant lineage members, however, continued to usage their ain theatre unit of measurement names in addition to to worship their particular theatre unit of measurement gods. An illustration of this tin live found inward the broad dispersal of the worshipers of the god Klan, who are to live found inward Ga Mashi, Labadi in addition to Teshi.
Occasionally, 1 tin witness a feeling of solidarity amongst branch members of the same lineage, fifty-fifty if the intermission occurred to a greater extent than than ii hundred years ago. This feeling of belonging together, often experienced past times branch members of the same lineage, is revealed inward the kple song:
“Tsatsa swekumei;
Womli egble yaa.
Si wole wohe
Tsatsa awekumei
Wole ii ni wowo,[2]
Shi mole wohe
The relatives are scattered;
We are scattered,
But nosotros know ourselves.
The relatives are scattered;
We know the tree that bore us.
(But) nosotros know ourselves.”
The migration of lineage members from 1 town to some other was precipitated past times several factors. The most of import of these was economic. In essence, ambitious in addition to adventurous members of the lineage often felt compelled to leave of absence their ain towns to merchandise or seek fortune inward different in addition to perhaps to a greater extent than lucrative environments.
"Women inward Christiansborg, with 3 different hair-styles, dressed inward European cotton fiber material." Date: 1900 -1904
The propensity of the European companies towards preventing the Ga from trading with interlopers or European nations other than the 1 nether whose fort they lived, led to the migration of many Ga traders from 1 expanse of Accra to another.[3] It was non uncommon for a Ga living nether the Dutch fort to seek refuge or settle nether the English linguistic communication or Danish fort in addition to vice versa. An illustration of such an incident tin live seen inward the flying of Caboceer Tyke Tete from Dutch Accra to Osu, upon his arrest past times the Dutch for trading with interlopers.[4]
The 2nd factor which could stimulate the migration of lineage members was dissension or civil war. An outstanding illustration was the motion of a department of La people nether the leadership of Nmasi to Teshi inward the seventeenth century.[5] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 similar migration powerfulness have got occurred with the Gbeae of Ga Mashi if Okaidza had non been reconciled with Dako in addition to the Dutch after the civil state of war of 1737.[6] In fact some of Okaidza’s followers who fled with him to the eastern Ga towns did non homecoming to Ga Mashi fifty-fifty after the reconciliation. This was in all probability because they had go contracted inward matrimony in addition to had meliorate hope for hereafter prosperity inward the towns where they had sought refuge. These remnants of Okaidza’s theatre unit of measurement in addition to followers came with their families to pay their in conclusion honor to Okaidza when he died inward 1770. There was a scrap betwixt the mourners from Teshi in addition to some Ga Mashi people at Okaidza’s funeral.[7]
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 3rd grouping of Ga who moved from their towns to settle inward other towns were criminals who wanted to escape punishment. These included adulterers, thieves, murderers in addition to sorcerers.
Frustrated or sick people also migrated from their towns of nascency to seek medical tending or consolation from some of the to a greater extent than reputable fetish priests in addition to priestesses inward the other towns. These people often stayed permanently inward the towns inward which they had been cured.
This migration of sure Ga people from the towns of their nascency was paralleled past times the influx of members from other ethnic groups into the towns which had been left depleted. The predominant grouping amongst these newcomers was the Akan. However, groups of Adanme, Ewe in addition to other people from the coast of present-day Nigeria also came to settle amidst the Ga. Some of these groups came to Accra as traders in addition to fortune seekers; others arrived as official representatives of their country. This was especially truthful of the Akwamu, Akyem in addition to Asante who ruled the Ga inward the seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries. The residue worked as brokers, labourers in addition to slaves for the European companies inward Accra.
These different ethnic groups added a novel dimension to the composition of the Ga towns. Each Ga town was (and still is) divided into Akutsei or quarters. The Akutsei came into existence as a outcome of the intermission from an original lineage group. For example, inward Labadi, Fante fishermen[8] who settled at that spot became known as Abese Fante department of Abese, an already established Akutso, whilst inward Osu, immigrants from Anahor established the Anahor Akutso. Of the 7 Akutsei inward Ga Mashi, 3 are alien origin: Otublohin is of Akwamu origin, Abola is predominantly Fante; it was referred to inward eighteenth century as the slave quarter of the Dutch company, because their labourers in addition to slaves resided there. These labourers in addition to slaves joined past times Fante fishermen.
In the eighteenth century, the Ga mantse together with a grouping of Ga estranged from the Asere Akutso also joined the Abola, so that it is at nowadays a mixture of Ga in addition to aliens.[9] The Alata Akutso is a combination of the people from the present-day Nigeria in addition to Fante. Alata was the residence of the slaves in addition to labourers of the English linguistic communication society inward Accra. According to their ain oral tradition, the firstly leader of the Alata Akutso was Wetse Kodzo from Lagos, who was amongst the labourers in addition to slaves who originally came with the English linguistic communication society to Accra to build James Fort.[10] The descendents of these labourers in addition to slaves continued to serve the British company.
The presence of these alien elements inevitably affected the governmental mechanism of the Ga towns. The aliens became incorporated into the governmental construction through theatre unit of measurement ties in addition to their personal ability.
Within Ga society, the theatre unit of measurement is a miniature political organisation with an elected head. The Ga are divided into patrilineal houses called Wei, in addition to each Ga belongs to his father’s We. Offices inward the towns are held past times a We in addition to non an individual, in addition to it is the members of the We who create upwards one's psyche on the suitable individual to live chosen for posts vested inward the theatre unit of measurement in addition to to administer belongings left past times a deceased fellow member of the family.
European writers of the seventeenth in addition to the eighteenth centuries described succession amongst the Ga as beingness pratilineal. In the seventeenth century Dapper commented: “in thr inheritance of the crown, the blood brother succeeds, or for want of brothers, the eldest of the family, without whatever consideration of the children, non fifty-fifty inward the inheritance of their father’s property; for this goes from the begetter to the blood brother or, for want of brothers, to the sisters children; only at Akara the children inherit as good the father’s as the mother’s goods, except that inward the affair of the crown the blood brother comes first.”[11] In the eighteenth century Bosman stated: “the children they have got past times their wives are indeed legitimate, but all along the coast never inherit their parents’ effects except at Accra only.”[12] Barbot also declared: “the right of inheritance all over the Gold Coast, except at Accra is rattling strangely settled, for the children born legitimate never inherit the parents’ effects. Accra is the only spot where the children are the sole lawful heirs to their father’s or mother’s effects.”[13] Rask likewise observed: “when a Caboceer or other gratis Ningo dies inward Accra, the eldest boy inherits his father’s slaves in addition to all that he left with the responsibleness of taking tending of his brothers in addition to sisters till their tin fend for themselves, but the Akwamu have got a different regulation of succession whereby 1 blood brother succeeds the other.”[14]
The law of succession practiced past times the Ga implied that children of Ga men past times women of different ethnic groups had a right to succeed or inherit their father’s property. Problems were however, bound to arise when Ga women had children past times men, who were foreigners to Accra. It testament appear that at the kickoff of the eighteenth century sexual involvement betwixt Ga women in addition to aliens to Accra was non common. This was primarily due to the fact that many of the foreigners were uncircumcised in addition to Ga women considered it an abomination to go sexually intimate with uncircumcised men.[15] The women, however, began to intermission these traditional taboos due to sure lucrative attributes of the newcomers. Many of the Akan in addition to European men, although uncircumcised, had access to powerfulness in addition to wealth. Hence, the Ga women became the concubines in addition to sometimes fifty-fifty the wives of the foreigners inward Accra. What so was the legal spot of the children of Ga women in addition to their alien partners, who were non permanently domiciled inward Accra?
The existence of sure practices inward the Ga theatre unit of measurement made it possible for such a kid to live incorporated into the mother’s patrilineal family. The Ga have got a scheme of adoption whereby a kid of unresolved paternity is adopted past times his maternal grandfather. Even when at that spot is no contestation almost the paternity of the child, the maternal granddaddy tin reject the biological begetter if he considers him to have got been an unsuitable correspond for his daughter. In such circumstances the kid is outdoored past times his maternal grandfather’s family. In this case, whether the kid has a known or unknown biological father, he belongs to his mother’s family. In other instances, a kid may live compelled to bring together his mother’s theatre unit of measurement because his begetter is a stranger who has died or neglected him in addition to returned to his ain country. In these circumstances the kid tin retain the name[16] given to him past times his father, but he becomes accepted as a fellow member of his mother’s family. This is made possible past times the fact that although the Ga are patrilineal, they also have got sure rights in addition to obligations towards their mother’s family. Field made a revealing comment on succession amongst the Ga: “there are no stiff laws of inheritance as a European understands codified law. There are only sure usual practices which the elders are at liberty to modify inward whatever way they deem fit. They do non administer law, they administer what seems to them justice in addition to wisdom.”[17] This way that a neglected boy of woman individual fellow member of a Ga theatre unit of measurement could succeed or inherit belongings held past times the theatre unit of measurement if he proved to a greater extent than intelligent, hardworking in addition to reliable than sons of manful individual members of the family.
The compromising stand upwards adopted past times the Ga towards inheritance has given ascension to the contestation in addition to confusion concerning the legal right of succession. Judgements given inward the Accra courts inward the closing decades of the nineteenth in addition to inward the nowadays century have got favoured matrilineal succession, especially, amidst the people of Ga Mashi. Sarbah stated: “it would live doubtless noted that the so-called customary law of succession past times children, said to live the regulation at Accra in addition to amidst the Ga tribe, is of doubtful authenticity.”[18] Quartey-Papafio, on the other hand, condemned the regulation of matrilineal succession beingness applied to the Ga: “among the Ga tribes proper, sons succeed inward preference to nephews, or inward other words, succession amidst the Ga tribes proper is through the manful individual line.”[19]
In spite of Quartey-Papafio’s contention, judgements inward the Accra courts continued to live inward favour of matrilineal succession, although at that spot were ever witnesses to the contrary.[20] The other Ga towns did non allow the law of matrilineal succession to live applied on them. This is because, as Ollenu stated, inward cases which came before the judges, at that spot was a “mass of evidence uncontradicted that they were patrilineal, in addition to the judges were compelled to select that custom, inward some cases with groovy reluctance.”[21] This has led to the view expressed past times Ollenu that “the custom of succession inward Accra is the same as that of the Akan tribes in addition to different from that obtaining inward all the other Ga-Adanme towns in addition to states.”[22] This, inward effect, implies that the Akan elements inward Ga Mashi have got dominated the Ga elements. The Ga elements who wished to retain their patrilineal law of succession have got been forced to select an alien law of succession through the law courts. What the judges were non aware of, was the fact that the Ga are ethnically mixed in addition to it was through compromise in addition to peculiar circumstances that sons of woman individual members of a Ga theatre unit of measurement could succeed. Even the Ga towns which are at nowadays supposed to live patrilineal compromised in addition to still compromise on succession. For example, Adzei Wulu, the nowadays theatre unit of measurement caput of Ahimako We, a department of the Koe Akutso inward Labadi, is a boy of Yoomo Akrong, a woman individual fellow member of the house.
The compromising mental attitude to succession amidst the Ga was extended to of import offices inward the town. This has given ascension to what are termed nephew stools. The nephew stool usually has its rootage inward a boy of a woman individual fellow member of the theatre unit of measurement volunteering to perform a hard chore which sons of manful individual members had refused to do. After the boy of the woman individual fellow member had performed the necessary task, he was compensated with the business office held past times the mother’s family. The business office was kept past times his descendents after his decease or his theatre became 1 of the groups which succeeded to the postal service past times rotation. An illustration of a nephew stool is Kwakwaranya We, 1 of the houses which render the mantse of Labadi.[23]
From the above, it is evident that men of alien paternity or maternity could go component of the ruling organ of the Ga towns. However, intermarriage was non the only way past times which newcomers were incorporated inward the governmental machinery. Sometimes the Ga gave a particular business office to the immigrants so that they could have got a feeling of belonging to the town in addition to thereby co-operate inward its smoothen running. For example, the Sanshi grouping inward Labadi who came from Aneho inward the Republique du Togo to settle inward Labadi inward the eighteenth century were given the business office of Mankralo.[24]
Titles in addition to offices were also conferred on aliens who proved to have got outstanding qualities such as bravery in addition to wealth. This arose from the fact the Ga have got a custom of honouring members of their society for groovy feats. Rask remarked at the kickoff of the eighteenth century that before a adult man could go a Caboceer, he must have got done at to the lowest degree 3 of the following: he should have got been to war, killed an elephant, a tiger in addition to buffalo. Rask commented that the rules were non adhered to as strictly as they were inward the olden days.[25] This implies that the pre-requisite weather condition for the achievement of Caboceer status must have got experienced a gradual alter according to the needs of Ga society inward the eighteenth century.
In add-on to bravery, the ruling course of study inward Ga society needed wealth. This was because the Ga needed people who could afford to render them with in addition to Pb them inward fourth dimension of war. These requirements made it easier for talented in addition to wealthy aliens to live accepted inward the Ga ruling course of study in addition to fifty-fifty supersede the trueborn Ga rulers. The presence of the European forts inward Accra also helped this process. The Alata Akutso inward Ga Mashi provide a goodness example. As labourers in addition to slaves of the English linguistic communication company, some of them had the chance of rising inward the service of the company. In the mid-eighteenth century, 1 Cudjo[26] was referred to, variously, as English linguistic communication society slave in addition to English linguistic communication society linguist. In Cudjo’s capacity as linguist in addition to messenger of the English, his influence became remarkable inward Accra, especially inward the English linguistic communication department known as Jamestown. It was in all probability the same Cudjo who was referred to as Caboceer Cudjo inward Accra inward 1469.[27] According to oral tradition, Kodjo, the firstly Alata Mantse, was provided with a chief’s stoolby Oto Blafo of Otublohun in addition to adopted the Akan Odwira custom.[28] Kodjo’s achievements did non goal with his spot as Mantse of Alata. He superseded the mantse of Sempe, the original rulers in addition to owners of the ground on which James Fort was built in addition to the mantse of Akanmudze. The descendents of Kodzo became acknowledged as mantse of the whole of Jamestown comprising Sempe Akamadze in addition to Alata, in addition to inward this capacity he claimed compensation from Jamestown ground acquired past times the Government.[29] In evidence given past times the Alata mantse Kodzo Ababio IV inward March 1912, the Alata mantse declared “my predecessors inward championship have got been recognized as mantse of Jamestown. The mantse of Alata was made mantse past times the Sempes in addition to Akamadzes as he had power, he had money in addition to inward going to state of war he ever went inward forepart of them.[30] The Sempe, the original rulers in addition to owners of the land, began to resent the powerfulness in addition to influence of the Alata mantse inward 1906, when the Alata mantse Kodjo Ababio had go so entrenched inward his spot as Jamestown mantse that he fifty-fifty denied that the Sempe, whom he had superseded, had a right to elect a mantse for their ain Akutso. Before a committee of enquiry held inward 1907 past times the District Commissioner Crowther, Ababio IV claimed that the caput of the Sempe was his Mankralo, in addition to this infuriated Moi, representative of the Sempe, that he asked “I am a Ga, did you lot come upwards from Lagos in addition to create me Mankralo here? Can you lot who say you lot are a stranger create me Mankralo?”[31] Kodjo Ababio withdrew his objections in addition to claims in addition to from so on, Sempe refused to acknowledge the mantse of Alata as mantse for the whole Jamestown.
The influence of Otublohun inward Accra during the Akwamu era has already been mentioned.[32] The fact that they continued to have got influence inward Accra after Akwamu had been defeated inward 1730 was due to the powerfulness of their leaders in addition to their spot as brokers of the Dutch company.[33] the martial qualities of the Otublohun leaders were acknowledged in addition to respected past times the Ga. In 1785, when a combined strength of the Ga, Ada in addition to Volta part settlements marched with the Danes to scrap Awuna inward the Volta area, it was Oto from Otublohun who was chosen as a leader of the allied forces.[34]
The nature of leadership amidst the Ga has also undergone some important changes. Reindorf in addition to Field were right inward stating that originally the Ga were ruled past times priests.[35] Reindorf is wrong, however, inward has dating of the separation of the priestly from secular authority.[36] According to him, the separation of powers took spot after the Ga had been defeated past times Akwamu inward 1780. It has already been stated that the separation of powers occurred inward the private Ga towns at different times. Whilst inward Ga Mashi it took palce at the goal of the sixteenth century, Labadi continued to have got her fusion of priestly in addition to secular ascendance inward the eighteenth century. Romer, who was on the coast inward the mid-eighteenth century, stated that King Okpoti of Labadi was at the same fourth dimension high priest of Labadi.[37]
In describing the procedure of separation of priestly from secular authority, Ffield stated that the principal priest inward the Ga towns were originally the heads of the ruling organ; the mantse, who is at nowadays acknowledged caput of the ruling organ of the Ga town, was originally just small-scale priest chosen to deed as liaison in addition to messenger betwixt his people in addition to the Europeans, since the principal priest could non move to in addition to from performing such menial tasks.[38] Field referred to the mantse as a “small boy” in addition to described him as a “vestigial survival without function, similar the vermiform appendix inward the human trunk in addition to is of embarrassment rather than usage to the organism.”[39]
Field’s generalization is misleading just as each Ga town evolved its secular ascendance at different times, so also was the conferment of secular in addition to priestly powerfulness done past times different processes. In some Ga towns the separation occurred when secular or armed forces leaders seized powerfulness from the small-scale priests; inward others, the separation of powers came almost the ruler delegating 1 of his slaves or a small-scale branch of his theatre unit of measurement to performhis priestly functions for him. In the latter case, the original ruler became the mantse whilst his priestly functions were performed past times someone else; Labaki is goodness example. According to Labadi tradition, the King who was so principal priest chose a subordinate to performthe rituals of the Lakpa, principal god of Labadi. Lakpa’s grove was hence removed from its original spot at the courtyard of the Rex in addition to placed inward the outskirts of the town inward the nowadays Leesi Akutso, where the Rex kept most of his slaves. Some of my informants claim that it was 1 of the king’s slaves who became the novel Lakpa priest; others claim that a adult man called Odoi from the king’s Akutso was made the novel priest. It does non really affair whether it was a slave[40] or a gratis born who was made the novel Lapka priest at the fourth dimension that the separation of powers occurred. The crucial dot is that when the alter occurred, the original ruler retained the mantseship in addition to chose a subordinate to go the principal priest. At a committee of enquiry held on stool disputes inward Labadi inward 1938 the witnesses asserted that the Lakpa priest’s ancestry is non royal.[41]
An interesting characteristic of the evolution of secular leadership amidst the Ga is that at that spot was no consummate severance of the mantse from the priesthood. The mantse was in addition to is still subjected to religious sanctions in addition to taboos. For example, Tilleman stated that King Okai Kwei could not, inward accordance with religious sanction leave of absence the Ga upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso to the coast, except 1 time a year.[42] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 vestige of the religious role in addition to functions of the mantsemei inward the Ga towns is revealed past times the fact that they still have on the white wristband, Afli, associated with the priestly order. In some of the Ga towns, they perform priestly rituals in addition to have got the business office of small-scale priest. For example, the Labadi mantse is priest of the god Nyonmo Tsaa in addition to also deed as priest of Lakpa when at that spot is no Lakpa priest.
The priests too continued to have got influence as long as the Ga continued to worship in addition to seek protection from the gods for which they were responsible. For example, the Sakumo priest or god was able to impact a major political upheaval, which brought almost the novel dynasty inward the paramount Ga stool. According to tradition, the Ga were so perplexed almost leadership that they consulted the Sakumo oracle to appoint someone to Pb them inward pending state of war inward the nineteenth century. It was in all probability this province of affairs which gave ascension to the kple song:
Abola pong,
Moye, mobe;
Obi nni Abola.
Great Abola
Someone is there, no 1 is there;
No 1 is inward Abola.[43]
When the Ga consulted the Sakumo oracle almost leadership, a mysterious phonation was heard inward the grove telling the Ga to select a adult man called taki, 1 of the slaves who had sought asylum in addition to was so living with the Sakumo priest. The Ga accepted the monastic enjoin from the mysterious phonation in addition to Taki led the Ga to war. Taki was so successful that the state of war ended, he became acknowledged as the Ga mantse, paramount principal of the Ga.[44]
Fetish priest in addition to priestesses Gold Coast." 1880
Another interesting characteristic of the evolution of secular regulation is the adoption of alien, especially Akan, paraphernalia in addition to characteristics past times the Ga mantsemei. The stool which is the symbol of business office of the mantse is said to have got been copied from the Akan. The text of the spoken language or appellations blown on the horn which heralds the approach of the Ga mantsemei are mostly inward unusual language, usually Akan. Fro example, the horn of the Akanmadze mantse sounds:
Onipa nii aye
Onipa nii aye
Onipa to nsu mu a ma onko
Aboa to nsu mua yino kodi.
Man is ungrateful
Man is ungrateful
If a adult man falls into a river, allow him go
If an fauna falls into a river, select it out to eat.
Some of the texts are a mixture of Akan in addition to Ga. For example, the horn of the Labadi mantse sounds:
Kwao ee! Kwao ee:
Kwao woye Foroanko
Hena before? Hena before?
Swuo loo?
Wuo loo?
Otamfo kata wani.
Kwao ee! Kwao ee:
Kwao you lot are impossible to climb.
Who testament climb?
Who testament climb?
Is it the bush cow?
Enemies cover your eyes!
The text of the Ga mantse’s horn is non Akan but Ewe.
It sounds:
Kpo Avuu
Kpo Avuu
Kpo Avuu dodome
Look at dogs
Look at dogs
Look at their dog-like faces.
Nketia also stated that the text of the spoken language mode of drumming associated with the Ga courts is “invariably Akan (Twi, Fante). There does non appear to live an established tradition of drum linguistic communication based on Ga.”[45]
The mantsemei inward the Ga towns are aided inward their regulation past times the Dzaasetse, Mankralo Shikiteele, Akwasontse in addition to Asafoatsemei. Apart from the Dzaasetse, who is caput of Dzaase, the trunk which elect the mantse in addition to the Asafoatse, a armed forces captain, the functions of the other officials differ from town to town in addition to are known nether differing names. This relative lack of uniformity inward titles in addition to functions is due to the fact that the offices were created according to the exigencies of the province of affairs inward the Ga town concerned at a given time.
The armed forces organisation of the Ga has been influenced past times the Akan. Each Ga town is organized into armed forces companies called Asafoi nether captains called Asafoatsemei. The Akan influence on the Asafo is borne out the fact that the Asafo songs are mainly In Twi. The songs of the Out religious cult associated with state of war are also the Fante. In the study of a committee of enquiry held inward Accra inward Oct 1907, the Commissioner inward accuse stated that the Ga stools “are arranged for armed forces purposes inward groups of wings in addition to from the fact that Twi words are used to depict such divisions, at that spot is a strong presumptive evidence that this formation has been imitated, if somewhat imperfectly, from that mutual to the Akan race. (Evidence on details of this application was conflicting in addition to somewhat meager but this may live attributable to the fact that it does non impact the judicial system.) the stools of Asere, Obese in addition to Otublohun from circular the stool of the Ga mantse, the centre; those of Alata, Sempe in addition to Akumadze the left wing; those of Osu, La Teshi-Nungua in addition to Tema on the right wing.”[46]
Religion is some other aspect of Ga life which has been influenced past times the influx of aliens. The Ga claim that of all the cults, Kple is the only 1 which is of pure Ga origin. Kple reveals a unity inward Ga religious belief in addition to is an embodiment to the Ga concept of the universe. Marion Kilson stated that “underlying Kple cult activities is a systematic conception of the ordering the universe. This cosmology non only validate cult activities inward so far as sure rituals are taught to live necessary to maintain in addition to restore ordered relations within the universe, but it is re-created through the performance which expresses aspects of the cosmic monastic enjoin in addition to the interrelations of its categories… such rites ate performed on behalf of the entire Ga community. The aims of these rites, therefore, unite all living Ga within the Kple community. The community of believers, however, incorporates non only living men but also ancestral shades… the Kple cult hence is all encompassing inward so far as it embraces a total world view in addition to total community.”[47]
Kilson farther stated that the Ga believed inward the existence of a supreme being, Ataa Naa Nyonmo, who created the world. Between this creator in addition to human beings are the gods or dzemawodzii, who deed as mediators. The Ga hence pray to the creator through these dzemawodzii, unremarkably symbolized past times the sea, rivers, lagoons in addition to trees.[48] If Marion Kilson’s business concern human relationship is accepted, so the proliferation in addition to multifariousness of gods amidst the various groups of Ga is non a sign of religious fragmentation, since Ga worship has 1 apex --
Ataa Naa Nyonmo. Unity inward Ga worship is also revealed past times the Ga concept of the dzemawodzii as a family. Thus the Sakumo inward Tema is Sakumo Nukpa, blood brother of Sakumofio inward Ga Mashi. The Sakumo inward Ga Mashi has ii wives, Naa Koole also inward Ga Mashi in addition to Ogbedee the Kpeshi Lagoon inward Labadi. These ties amidst the dzemawodzii were in all probability meant to epitomize interrelations amidst the Ga. Another sign of religious unity amidst the Ga tin live observed inward the text of the spoken language of the Ga Wulomei or priests when they pour a libation. They do non offering the imbibe to (or inquire for approbation from) the particular god for whom they officiate, but to in addition to from all the gods from Lanma close Nyanyanu inward the due west of Ada at the oral cavity of the Volta. An illustration is the text of the Lakpa priest’s prayer. After calling on all the gods known to the Labadi people, he states:
“Milee maa kulibii ayibE ni
Male ny yibE.
K dz la ma, k ya i Ada wilao
K dz suoy k ya I amli
Bibii ke ewudzi f abanu eko.”
“I cannot count the grains of millet
So I do non know your number
From Lanma to Ada inward the Volta.
From the due north to the south.
Come in addition to imbibe both Great in addition to Small.”[49]
Kple, however, is non the only cult which prevails amidst the Ga. The aliens who settled amidst the Ga brought with them their cults in addition to gods. For example, the Europeans brought Christianity. Field had classified Ga gods into iv categories. The Kple in addition to Kpa gods are Ga, the me gods are Adanme rootage in addition to the Out in addition to Akon gods are of Fante in addition to Akuapem origin.[50] When the mediums of these gods are possessed, they speak the linguistic communication of the original spot of their gods. Thus kple mediums speak Ga, me mediums speak Adanme, Out mediums speak Fante in addition to Akon mediums speak Twi when they are possessed.
Further evidence of Akan influence on Ga worship is revealed past times the fact that the text of some of the religious songs are inward Akan language. This is truthful fifty-fifty of kple, which is supposed to live a Ga cult. For example:
Kome, midzara Omanip;
Miti ade, mproobi
Kome, midzara Omani,
Mihu ade mproobi.
Sakumo, I correspond the nation,
When I hear something, I do non reject it.
Sakumo, I correspond the nation;
When I hear something, I do non reject it.[51]
In fact what tin live termed the religious anthem of the Ga has absorbed some Akan words:
Awo! Awo! Awo!
Agba ei!
Bleku tso.
Esu Esu
Enam Enam
Manyeo Manyeo
Adebani kpotoo.[52]
Exalted! Exalted! Exalted!
It is beingness prophesized.
Abundant rain,
Water, Water,
Fish, Fish,
Peace, Peace;
Abundant food.
The influence of unusual languages on the Ga tin live observed non only inward ceremonial speeches, state of war in addition to ritual songs but also inward recreational music in addition to dances. Adowa is an illustration of Ga adoption from the AAkan. Nketia described Ga recreational music as “a mutual coming together ground of Akan in addition to Ga forms.”[53] The spoken linguistic communication of the Ga has also incorporated a number of unusual words, phrases, idioms in addition to proverbs. This came almost past times the Ga beingness obliged to communicate with foreigners through merchandise in addition to politics. Foreign languages also acquired a prestige value for the Ga. In such cases the unusual words have got either completely ousted or dwarfed the Ga equivalent. In some cases the Ga were obliged to usage unusual words, because the articles which the words described were of unusual origin. Example of Akan words commonly used past times the Ga are: anihao – lazy, ohiafo – pauper, kunim – victory, ahuntoo – bother, pesenkuminya – selfish. The Akan proverbs “adebone se preko” – “evil befits the pig”[54] has completely ousted whatever Ga equivalent that may have got existed. In describing the difference betwixt the Adanme in addition to Ga languages, Zimmerman stated that “the Adanme dialect is to live considered as the woman parent dialect of Ga proper beingness to a greater extent than primitive in addition to less mixed with unusual elements than the latter, which is somewhat mixed with Otyi” (Twi).[55] The Ga linguistic communication also has borrowings from the European languages: Skist is a corruption of the Danish discussion Saks, Klakum – turkey- is from the Dutch in addition to Danish kalkoen/kalkun, in addition to kaklaka – cockroach- is the call as the Dutch in addition to Danish kakkerlak.
The existence of cultural, religious in addition to linguistic identity or similarities amidst the Ga has given ascension to the contestation as to whether the Ga-speaking people should live considered a single political unit of measurement nether the leadership of the Ga mantse who is at nowadays paramount principal of the Ga people. Field has stated that “Each of the half dozen coastal towns is an independent democracy with its ain territory in addition to its ain unique set of customs. There has never been whatever political association betwixt the towns in addition to they have got never had a paramount principal or indeed whatever chiefs at all inward the sense that the discussion usually conveys.”[56] Manoukian has also stated that “each Ga town is an independent unit. There has never been whatever confederation of the towns.”[57] Among the Ga themselves, view is divided. Some claim that the Ga are a cohesive political unit of measurement nether the Ga mantse, piece others claim that each Ga town is an independent unit.
The ground for this contestation is that changes have got occurred at different historical periods. Originally, the Ga lived inward independent towns, villages in addition to hamlets, in addition to they moved into the Accra plains inward independent groups. From the kickoff of the seventeenth century to 1680, they were a cohesive political unit of measurement nether the King of Accra, whose territories stretched from Breku inward the due west to the Volta inward the east. The defeat of the Ga past times Akwamu inward 1680 shattered the political cohesion of the kingdom of Accra. This was caused past times the fact that the novel King of Accra did non have got the mechanism to grant protection in addition to enforce his testament inward the Ga towns. The subjects inward the private Ga towns turned to their ain leaders for protection. These leaders owed allegiance straight to the King of Akwamu in addition to non through the King of Accra, fifty-fifty if the Ga had wanted to proceed acknowledging the ascendance of the King of Accra, it is doubtful whether, apart from the Dutch, the other European companies would have got encouraged it. This was because the King of Accra lived nether the Dutch fort and, since he depended on the Dutch for protection, was likely to live influenced past times the Dutch company. the English linguistic communication in addition to Danes would hence discovery themselves in addition to their protégés, ruled past times a Ga Rex nether the command of their merchandise rivals, the Dutch.
The political fragmentation of the Ga was so effective that fifty-fifty the town of Accra was divided into ii distinct parts owing allegiance to the Dutch in addition to English. The separatism of the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch sections of Accra erupted occasionally into fights in addition to disputes during the eighteenth century.[58] This rivalry was carried on into the nineteenth century fifty-fifty after the Dutch had left their fort in addition to the English linguistic communication were the sole rulers of the Gold Coast. In 1884 at that spot was a civil state of war known as the Agbuntso War betwixt the English linguistic communication (James Town) in addition to the Dutch department (Ussher Town).[59] In the in conclusion decade of the nineteenth century, Nii Tackie, King of Acra living inward Ussher town, tried to solve the work of rivalry in addition to separatism of the ii sections. He informed the English linguistic communication Governor that “the people of James Town in addition to Ussher Town had mutually agreed that James Town should no longer live a separate town but that its King should live nether King Tackie … the whole of Accra is at nowadays nether him in addition to that the chiefs in addition to captains of James Town have got sworn fealty to him”.[60]
Tackie’s endeavour to reunite Ussher Town in addition to James Town brought resentment on the component of the newly installed chief, Amoako Atta, known nether the stool call of Kodjo Ababio IV of James Town. This resentment became obvious when King Tacki introduced the newly installed principal together with other newly installed chiefs, Okaidza of Obese in addition to Adotey of Sempe, to the English linguistic communication Governor inward Oct 1892. The next is a description of the introduction ceremony:
“Amoako Atta stood before the Governor with a fillet on his head. King Tackie removed it, an deed which caused Amoako Atta to scowl at him. The Governor having so expressed his pleasance at the annunciation that James Town in addition to Ussher Town agreed to amalgamate in addition to to go 1 town nether King Tackie, congratulated Amoako Atta upon beingness elected principal of 1 of the quarters of James Town. There upon Amoako Atta drawing himself upwards said “I am non 1 of King Tackie’s chiefs, I am King of James Town. James Town is English linguistic communication town in addition to English linguistic communication people can’t serve Dutch people.”[61] Ironically, Kodjo Ababio had, inward accordance with customary rites, taken the oath of allegiance to King Tackie almost 3 weeks before his introduction to the Governor.[62]
In the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries, the King of Accra or Ga mantse was non able to retain in addition to exercise consummate command over the inhabitants of the town of Accra, how could he live expected to create his powerfulness felt inward all the Ga towns stretching to Tema during that period? Isert made an apt description of the fragmentation of powerfulness amidst the Ga when he stated “the Akras were 1 time a mighty state who had their ain King until they defeated past times the Aquamboes inward the preceding century. Their Rex in addition to a groovy number of Blacks were forced to flee accorss Rio Volta to as far as Popo. .. .. .. Accra is at nowadays a democracy inward which the kabossies in addition to their grandees together exercise the supreme powerfulness inward the town.[63]
The political fragmentation amidst the Ga people existed simultaneously with their cultural in addition to kinship ties. This ambivalence sometimes infuriated the Europeans inward the eighteenth century, for the Ga were reluctant to ship their quarrels in addition to rivalries to extremes in addition to were usually prepared to live reconciled when their European protectors were not.[64]
It was in all probability the existence of these cultural ties which encouraged the British Government (largely for reasons of administrative convenience) inward the twentieth century to regard the Ga-speaking people as a single political unit of measurement in addition to to strengthen the powerfulness of the Ga mantse over the other Ga towns. Since Ghana’s political independence governments have got tended to follow the illustration of the British colonial regime inward this respect. The other Ga towns view the nowadays traditional political set-up as a degradation of their status, for, they have got been pose inward the same category as Akutso chiefs such as Asere, Gbese, Otublohun, Sempe, Akwanmadze, Alata in addition to Abola of Ga Mashi. In the nowadays era, when democratically elected governments with their appendages of police clitoris in addition to armed forces forces have got command over traditional authority, the shape of traditional set-up rests non with the Ga people themselves but with the Government, in addition to it is for this reasin that all the petitions of the ckiefs of the towns of Osu, Labadi, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema for recognition of their independence have got been directed to the Government.
The socio-political changes amidst the Ga are eloquent testimony to the importance of the catamenia 1600-1742 inward the history of the Ga. The changes which have got been discussed are sure as shooting non the only ones which have got taken place. In fact changes are still occurring, non to the lowest degree on business concern human relationship of Accra’s spot as the upper-case missive of the alphabet of Ghana.
Perhaps the most revealing remark on changes inward Ga society is the 1 given past times the Kple song:
Naa, live ko mba “Lo, a sure fourth dimension is coming.
Oshwila, live ko miiba; Oshwila, a sure fourth dimension is coming;
Beni abo ado, dzee neke abo ade. When the world was created, it was non
dzeng ko bamba;
niimei boa de dzee neke abo ade.
dzeng ko bamba;
Oshwila dzeng ko ba.[65]
“Lo, a sure fourth dimension is coming.
Oshwila, a sure fourth dimension is coming;
When the world was created, it was not
Like this that the world was created.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sure Civilization is coming,
Oshwila, a sure civilization is coming;
Grandfather’s world, it was non similar this
that the world was created.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sure civilization is coming
Oshwila, a sure civilization is coming.”
by
Ga traditional priest Numo Borketey Lawerh Tsuru pouring libation as a prayer to the ancestors at a social function 
Ga traditional priestesses
Ga people live along the shoreline of the Gulf of Guinea. This Ga settlement areas is bounded on the East past times the Tshemu (Chemu) lagoon close Tema, on the West past times the Sakumofio River, the North past times Akuapem Mountains in addition to the South past times the Gulf of Guinea. According to Reindorf (1895) the coastal towns established past times the Ga-Adangbe speaking emigrants who arrived from Aneho, Benin, Boni in addition to Boma to the Gold Coast inward the early on sixteenth century, stretches from Lanma (Mt. Cook Loaf) to Fla i.e. the Volta Basin along the shorelines of the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Among which are Ngleshi (James Town), Kinka (Ussher Town), Osu (Christiansburg), La (Labadi), Teshie, Nungua (Little Ningo), in addition to Tema.
Given that Africans have got roamed the continent for thousands of years in addition to that such migrations powerfulness have got been northward, southward, eastward or westward, the origin of whatever grouping of people inward Africa may live rattling uncertain. Any African powerfulness have relatively originated from anywhere inward Africa. The cited rootage powerfulness as good live what could live remembered almost the recent past times in addition to non the ultimate origin. For example, the Wolof call for a Rex is Fari which is rattling similar to the discussion Faro of ancient Arab Republic of Egypt and may dot to the Egyptian heritage of the Wolof inward West Africa. The Egyptian discussion for the highest god in addition to righteous begetter was Ra in addition to the Setwana discussion for begetter is also Ra.
It is hence non surprising that amidst the Ga people, those at Teshi claim to have migrated from a town called Boma on the shores of the Congo River, those at Labadi from Boney Island off the coast of Nigeria in addition to those from Gamashi from Republic of Benin City in Eastern Nigeria.
Ga Asafoatse
Ga Chief sprinkling traditional sacred nutrient (Kpekple) for the gods on the street of Accra. (The Sprinkling of KPOKPOI (Unleven Bread made from corn) is performed by royals such as the King, Queen, Chiefs, in addition to High Priests (wolomei) on the Festival day. This nutrient is gratis for all to swallow in addition to repose sprinkled on the ground for earthly creatures to partake inward the abundance of food. It is believed that the spirits of our ancesters are nowadays all the fourth dimension such as King Ayi Kushi, our firstly King in addition to Joshua (aka)Jesus etc.)
ORIGIN OF THE GA-SPEAKING PEOPLE
The rootage of the Ga-speaking ethnic groups from the early on Sixteenth Century inward the so Gold Coast has been a dependent of controversy, since various scholars have got given different versions of their migration stories. Most of these narrations are based on oral traditions, myths, legends, folklores, music, religious songs in addition to many other sources; including archaeological findings.
Reindorf (1895, p.18) inward tracing the rootage of the Ga indicates that F. Romer, a Dutch resident of the Christiansborg inward almost the middle of the Eighteenth Century states, “that the Gold Coast was 1 time component of the western sectionalisation of the territory of the Emperor of Benin.” To buttress this point, Romer farther argues that, “the insignia of the kings of the Akras were similar those used inward Benin, in addition to most of their religious ceremonies, e.g. killing the sacrificial animals with precipitous stones instead of knives, inward monastic enjoin non to avoid defiling them, were also used inward Akra.”
Corroborating Romer’s assertion, Henderson-Quartey (2001), citing from the piece of work of Bruce-Myers (1927, pp.70-72) quoted him as saying, “the Gas came all the way from the fundamental component of the Continent…and they are kinsmen to the Benins, who past times their ain choice, kept dorsum inward the course of study of the migration.” This gives credence to the supposition that the Ga ethnic groups were 1 time component of the people of Republic of Benin from the mid-western component of Nigeria. Existing traditional accounts of the rootage of the Ga according to Reindorf, indicates that the ancestors of the tribes of Akras, Late, Obutu in addition to Mowure are said to have got emigrated from the sea, arriving at the coast tribe after tribe.” These tribes he believe arrived together with the Adangbes either from Tetetutu or from Samè, located beyond the Volta inward the east, in addition to situated betwixt ii rivers.
Ga women of Accra carrying the effigies of their ancestral gods inward a shape of Sankofa bird
Field (1937, p.142) associating with Reindorf noted that the Ga speaking emigrants began to create it in addition to settle amidst the lagoon-worshipping Kpéshi aborigines in all probability at the goal of the sixteenth century. She argued that these were emigrant refugee families of the Ga Boni, Ga Wo, Ga Mashie in addition to the Obutu fleeing inward separate parties from Tetetutu in addition to other Republic of Benin parts, in all probability travelling along the beach, in addition to eventually settled along the coastlines of the Gulf of Guinea, inward the Greater Accra region. Henderson-Quartey on his component noted that the Ga Mashi, Ga Wo, in addition to the Ga Boni inward association with some Guan groups having formed component of the emigrants that re-grouped at Tetetutu, crossed over from the due east of the Volta into the Accra Plains.
On the contrary, Amartey (1991, pp.13-14) narrating from oral traditions or folkloric sources gave a different version of the migration story of the Ga inward Gamashie Ashikwei (Origin of the Ga). According to him, historically, the Ga of Republic of Ghana were believed to have got 1 time lived along the eastern component of the banks of the River Nile during the reign of Thothmes II, the so Pharaoh of Egypt, circa 1700 –1250 BCE. This was at the fourth dimension when the Israelites had settled on the ground of Goshen, from the eastern component of the River Nile to its estuary. He postulates that the Ga were component of the Nubians that left Arab Republic of Egypt after beingness freed from slavery past times the so Pharaoh Amenhotep II.
Unlike other scholars in addition to historians, Amartey tracing the itinerary of the Nubians indicted that this grouping separated into the Ethiopian in addition to Ga ethnic groups after they had left Egypt, with each grouping next different direction. The Ga-speaking ethnic groups which consists of the Wo Kpele, Wo Krowor, Wo Doku in addition to Wo Sagba were supposed to have got travelled the south-western route past times next the Ghazal in addition to Jebe creeks, in addition to the River Ubangi which eventually led them to Boma; a town inward Congo (presently D. R. Congo).
There they sojourn for some time, before moving on to the Boni Island inward the Niger Delta Basin. He farther posits that piece inward Nigeria, these groups 1 time once again separated, with 1 component moving due west to the ground of the ancient Benins, piece the repose moved north-west to Ife inward the Yoruba land. He so traced their movements from Nigeria through Dahomey (now Republic of Benin) in addition to to Togo where they settled at Aneho, before eventually moving on to their nowadays locations inward the so Gold Coast.
Even though these narratives of the rootage of the Ga-speaking people depended mainly on the generics of oral traditions, legends, etc: it is obvious that names of sure places such as Tetetutu, Benin, Boni, Boma, Samè or Seme, Aneho in addition to others have got featured prominently inward the migration stories of most scholars of Ga history. These assertions has been corroborated past times people of other ethnic groups such as the Adangbe, Ada, Krobo in addition to Ewe speakers who were beau emigrants of the Ga groups inward their journeys from Republic of Benin inward Nigeria through Aneho inward Togo, in addition to finally to their nowadays locations inward modern Ghana.
Commenting on the to a higher spot assertions, Field (1937, p.72) intimates that, “when the Ga-speaking emigrants arrived inward the Gold Coast, neither they nor the aborigines had whatever armed forces organisation in addition to since they were all farmers, the newcomers settled peaceably amidst them wherever at that spot was a vacant territory. However, because much of the ground was of thick bush inhabited past times wild in addition to unsafe animals, hunters who opened upwards tracts of these forests were recognized as owners of such places.”
Consequently, these extended theatre unit of measurement groups comprising of both emigrants in addition to aborigines either through intermarriages or through assimilation, formed settlements that lived past times farming in addition to to some extent hunting. In monastic enjoin to protect themselves from slave raiding that has go rife, these settlements which were threatened with extinction, had to combine forces to found towns for mutual protection; in addition to the setting upwards of armed forces organizations to scrap off these invaders.
Stride in addition to Ifeka (1971, p.203) piece corroborating these assertions of Field, farther noted that it was at the goal of the Fifteenth Century that the social organizations of the Ga towns began to change. This inward their view began with the establishment of a to a greater extent than centralized management system, in addition to armed forces companies (Asafoi) nether captains (Asafoiatsemei) that played prominent in addition to of import roles inward the maintenance of law in addition to order, as good as governance of these towns.
Ga is the derivation of Gaga (soldier ants) which according to Reindorf (1895, p.24) is the names of the large dark ants which bites severely in addition to are unsafe to the white ants. However, he noted that the natives called themselves Loeiabii (children of Loei). Of course, Loei is a Ga call for some other species of dark dark-brown ants, which meanders almost inward groovy swarms; invading houses, killing in addition to devouring everything inward their way. These marauding ants known to the Akans as 'nkrang", in addition to whose aggressive nature were attributed to the powerful wandering Ga emigrant tribes; easily subdued other tribes as good as the Guans who were the aborigines of the land. This was the call ascribed to the Ga-speaking tribes due to their prowess in addition to bravery inward warfare, in addition to the Portuguese due to their difficulty inward pronunciation later on corrupted it to Akra (Accra).
THE CULTURE OF GA LANGUAGE
Ga linguistic communication according to Henderson-Quartey (2001, p.38) conveys oral traditions through which the history of its speakers are revealed, in addition to the way past times which the members of the society portion their collective experience in addition to knowledge through mutual bond.
The Ga linguistic communication as compared with other spoken words inward etymology according to Greenberg (UNESCO, Vol.1, p.304), is classified amidst the Kwa grouping of languages found on the African Continent. These classifications consists of the Kru languages, Western Kwa, made upwards of Ewe-Fon, Akan-Guan sometimes called Volta-Camoe, Ga-Adangme, Yoruba-Igala, Nupe, Edo, Idoma, Ibio, in addition to Ijo groups. Commenting farther on the evolution of the Ga language, Henderson-Quartey postulates that though it is closest to the Adangme in addition to portion a groovy deal of similarities non only inward root-words but also inward linguistic communication structure; it has nether gone some shape of changes past times borrowing words from the Yoruba, Guans, Akans, Portuguese, in addition to English linguistic communication languages to get upwards the Ga vocabulary.
For examples, words such as Okyeame (linguist), Asafo (company or troop), Akwashon (corrupted shape of eku eson – council of seven), bitim, odono, atumpam (types of drums), pleko (iron nail), nklakla (light soup), ampeshi (boiled plantain), etc. Besides, inward Ga religious expressions, mpai (libation), otutu (a mound of shrine) etc, are also of Akan origin. While asapatre (Shoe), goa (Guava), dashi (Bribe), gudiimin (Good Evening), moonimooni (Good Morning), feesi (First) are corrupted forms of Portuguese in addition to English linguistic communication words respectively. Of course, the Guans also on the other hand, had contributed extensively to the lexicological evolution of the modern Ga linguistic communication through the formal principles of inflexion of Ga words; in addition to grammatical features such as the usage of verb forms for the nowadays progressive in addition to the hereafter tenses, which are non found inward the Adangme verb forms.
GA STATE AND SOCIETY
The Ga Mashie community of the Ashiedu Keteke (Odododiodio) District of the Greater Accra part is believed to have got been established past times the Wo Sagba grouping of the Ga-speaking emigrants that set out to arrived in addition to settled amidst the lagoon-worshipping Kpéshi aborigines inward the hinterlands in addition to along the coast, in all probability at the goal of the Seventeenth Century. Henderson-Quartey (2001) indicates that it has been widely accepted that the Guans preceded the Ga inward settling along the coast of Accra, the duration of which Ga historians have got non been able to determine. According to him, the Ga refers to the Guans as Shits? m?i (landowners) in addition to on this basis, acknowledged seniority to them for beingness firstly to settle inward the territory.
He farther noted that the Ga assimilation of the indigenous faith of the Shiatsemei (landowners), clearly showed at that spot was some shape of Guan civilization inward existence before the arrival of the Ga-speaking people. Field on her part, states that these grouping of Ga emigrants mainly fishermen, consist of 7 families led past times Nii Tete in addition to Nii Moi: Wulomei of the Nai in addition to Onyeni deities respectively. She farther posits that the Nai We people who were worshippers of the Nai deity established their settlement at Tu?mat?, the nowadays site of the Ussher Fort. While the Onyeni deity-worshipping grouping led past times Nii Moi, settled behind the cliffs of the James Fort, which was later on built past times an English linguistic communication trading society inward 1672.
Having corroborated the assertions of Field almost the earliest Ga-speaking emigrants of the Ga Mashie community along the coast of Accra, Henderson-Quartey farther indicated that apart from the Ga coastal community, the Ga Mashie inland community could live almost iv times that of its nowadays littoral expanse with most of the surrounding hills having large towns on them. These settlements, according to him were bound on the due west past times the Densu River in addition to stretched eastward from the hills of Weija in addition to Kplagon to the Laloi River inward the Shai Plains could boast of some stone buildings with extensive Fe works. While Ozanne (1962) also noted that archaeological findings from the middens or organized pass upwards dumps stretching from the Nsaki River in addition to across the hamlet of Amanfro inward the nowadays Ga-West district have got revealed large quantities of pottery in addition to Fe slag from foundries as evidence of the advancement of this community.
In view of this, Europeans have got described both the coastal in addition to inland towns of the Ga Mashie community as the Kingdom of Akkra. Meanwhile, Astley (1968, pp.615-616) inward describing the Ga towns said “It stands half dozen leagues inland, in addition to it is called Great Akkra to distinguish it from Little Akkra situated on the coast, one-half way betwixt Kormantin in addition to Rio Volta. Little Akkra is middlemost of the maritime villages inward this kingdom; the other ii are Soko (Tsoko/Chokor) to the West in addition to Orsoko (Osukoo, i.e. Osu Forest) to the East.”
Compound inward Osu, Accra
Women grinding corn inward the chemical compound of a traditional swish theatre inward Osu, Accra, circa 1870-'80. Photo in all probability taken past times Basel missionary inward Accra.
Though the early on Ga settlement were initially nether the leadership in addition to directions of Wolomei in addition to gbaloi (prophets), these settlements were patterned on Akan armed forces organisation as the territorial expansion needed strong defence against invading forces from the Fantes (efa te wu fo) on the West, in addition to the Akyem in addition to Akwamu to the North. As a result, regime became to a greater extent than centralized in addition to armed forces companies (asafoi) nether captains (Asafoiatsemei) played crucial roles inward the management of these towns. Nonetheless, the Nai Wulom) remained the senior Wulom) with supreme ascendance over the Ga Mashie community: though he could non associate himself with temporal affairs of the community, beingness a holy adult man charged with spiritual duties in addition to the welfare of his people.
THE GROWTH OF MODERN ACCRA
The Ga Mashie community as it is known today comprise of the 7 Akutséii (quarters) made upwards of Asere, Sempi, Abola, Gbese, Akumadzei, Otublohum (Otubronu i.e. Otu’s area) in addition to Ngleshi Alata (Jamestown). These are divisions of the community jointly established past times the Ga-speaking emigrants, Fante, Obutu, Akwamu in addition to Kpéshi aborigines.
Oral traditions had it that after the devastation of the Ayawaso Township past times the Akwamu, in addition to the decease of the so Ga Mantse Okaikoi inward 1660, remnants of the Ga decided to come upwards downwards from their hilly abode in addition to bring together their friends in addition to relations along the coast. Among the early on migrants from the Asere in addition to Abora groups to the coast were Saku Olenge, Akotia Owosika, Oshamra, Ayikwei Osiahene, Osu Kwatei (who established the Kpakpatse We dynasty), Anyama Seni, Amantiele Akele in addition to others.
Ga fishermen
The main ground for this novel migration according to Kilson (1974, pp.5-6) was the presence of the Portuguese in addition to 3 other European powers that had past times so established trading posts there, in addition to were extending protection to the coastal towns in addition to villages. In his discourse of the establishment of ii out of the 7 Ga Mashie Akutséii (quarters), Reindorf avers that Ayikai Osiahene with his people settled close James Fort in addition to founded Akangmadshe in addition to Mereku, i.e. Bereku quarters. Meanwhile, Adote Nii Ashare in addition to Tete Kpéshi who with their retinue made their abode beyond the Korle lagoon returned in addition to settled past times the same Fort; in addition to their descendants also established the Sempi quarters.
This scheme according to Henderson-Quartey brought these towns within the vicinity of the 3 forts, in addition to nether the protection of the Danes (Osu), Dutch (Kinka) in addition to the English linguistic communication (Ngleshi-Alata) from the Akwamu marauders. Besides, this led to the effective command of the local population in addition to the maintenance of law in addition to monastic enjoin within these trading enclaves to safeguard the traffic of goods betwixt the hinterlands in addition to the coast for the do goodness of their respective companies.
In this way, to quote Bruce-Myers (1927, p.168), “the humble fishing villages which the Portuguese saw from their ships inward the 1490s developed into the upper-case missive of the alphabet of the independent Republic of Ghana.” Thus, this community which until the kickoff of the twentieth century was limited to the confines of the Ga traditional settlements along the coast; betwixt the Christiansborg Castle, Ussher in addition to James Forts, in addition to the Korle lagoon, has grown inward leaps in addition to bounds despite its chequered history.
The Political Structure of the Ga People
The political construction of the Ga people comprises half dozen main independent sub-states known as the traditional areas of Gamashi, Osu, La, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema. Each traditional area has several villages inward the hinterland nether it in addition to the names of the traditional areas are the same as the names of the upper-case missive of the alphabet towns from which the names of the traditional areas derive. The Mantsemei or Kings of the upper-case missive of the alphabet towns are of equal status and independent. In each hamlet or town are clans “differentiated from 1 some other past times name,
by the names of the members in addition to past times their particular religious alliances in addition to rites” (OsabuKle,2000,p.88).
Osu Mantse
Each hamlet has its ain Mantse or principal who is nether the Mantse of the traditional expanse who is the same as the Mantse of the upper-case missive of the alphabet town. Each clan is assigned a role to play inward the life of the community. The differentiation of clans past times call and membership suggests that the towns in addition to villages were founded past times previously independent groups who considered it safer in addition to convenient to Pb civilized life. The clans which
represent relations of the same patrilineal or matrilineal rootage are subdivided into families in addition to the families are farther divided into ‘houses” - people of a mutual and nearest ancestral origin. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 individual may belong to ii traditional areas, ii clans, two families in addition to ii houses at the same time, 1 past times virtue of his begetter in addition to the other by virtue of his mother.
Ga people
Each theatre in addition to each theatre unit of measurement is headed past times a wise elderberry who is usually, but not necessarily the oldest able member. Female elders caput the woman individual members in addition to male elders caput the manful individual members, but the manful individual elders additionally select on the additional responsibility of heading the houses in addition to families as a whole. When an elderberry is feeble by age some other is appointed consensually to deed as caput through a exercise known as
shuonotamo (sitting on the lap of the elderly in addition to wise).
Unlike the heads of houses in addition to families which are historic catamenia related, the selection of the clan caput is based upon merit. When at that spot is demand for a clan head, the heads of the various houses in addition to families of that clan view to prepare a listing of eligible candidates selected past times merit according to how they have got been observed from childhood. The listing is presented to an electoral college comprising the heads of the various clans, the heads of
professional groups notably the caput of farming, Okwaafoiatse, in addition to the caput of fishing, Woleiatse, the Wulomo or principal priest in addition to clan captains, asafoiatsemei and asafoianyemei. It is this same electoral college or council who assist the Mantse in ruling the town or village. The electoral college selects the clan caput past times consensus from the listing inward secrecy to avoid competition in addition to petty jealousies. At a predetermined engagement the
selected clan caput is presented ceremonially to the people of the town or hamlet where he swears oath of allegiance to the ruling college in addition to to the Mantse. The selected candidate is obligated to select business office since refusal is considered a taboo in addition to a disgrace punishable with banishment from the hamlet or town.
The selection of a Mantse is rattling similar to the selection of the clan head. Several houses, unremarkably 3 to four, constitute the majestic clan. The houses of the majestic clan provide Mantsemei past times rotation. When the curtain of succession falls upon a particular royal house, it is the responsibleness of that theatre to provide a listing of candidates selected by merit to the clan caput who, inward turn, forwards the listing of names to the electoral college. The electoral college selects the Mantse from the listing past times consensus in addition to appoints a engagement for
ceremonial presentation of the Mantse to the people of the town or hamlet where he swears in addition to oath of allegiance to the electoral college in addition to the electoral college, inward turn, swears an oath of allegiance 1 past times 1 to him.
Just as clans came together to constitute towns, villages in addition to traditional areas to enable them Pb a to a greater extent than secure civilized life, the independent traditional areas also came together to constitute the Ga State as a whole. At some dot inward time, the Gamashi Mantse was selected to live the firstly amidst equals to preside over the meetings of the Ga State Council. The members of the Ga State Council are the Mantsemei of the capital towns of the traditional areas. The speaker of the Ga State Council is the Nai wulomo.
The Culture of the Ga People
Culture comprises the knowledge base, beliefs, values, in addition to attitudes in addition to orientations of people towards social objects. Through a procedure of cultural teaching from childhood culture contributes to define people in addition to to create people think in addition to bear inward the manner they do.
Ga Okomfo (traditionalist) performing Akom/spirit possession dance
The Ga people did non develop the technique of writing on newspaper to store knowledge. Instead they developed a technique for writing inward the wax of the psyche called yitsontao. The technique involved repetitive imparting of knowledge followed past times testing at each repetition to ensure that the knowledge is eventually inscribed permanently inward the yitsontao. Symbols inward the shape of images in addition to if necessary punishments are sometimes used to assistance the process.
The Ga people believe inward the existence of spirits some of which may live goodness and others bad. They believe inward the existence of a supreme spirit that created the world, but this supreme beingness has both masculine in addition to feminine properties. Accordingly, the name of this supreme beingness is Ataa-Naa Nyonmo (God who is both He, Ataa in addition to She, Naa) who is also referred to as Ofe - the 1 to a higher spot all - or Maawu. While nyonmo way god, Ataa-Naa Nyonmo, Ofe, in addition to Maawu are used exclusively only for the creator and sustainer of the world - the Most High God. Maawu has an adversary or enemy called abomsam who is the caput of the evil spirits. Because Maawu is far away, he works through a scheme of intermediary nyonmoi arranged inward a hierarchical monastic enjoin or levels. The first story in addition to closest to Maawu are DzemaWodzi (singular Dzemawong) in addition to the second level are Wodzi.
Ga women
DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi are assigned various names. Included amidst the names of DzemaWodzi are Osabu (the heaven god), Gbobu, Odame, Dantu, La-Kpa, in addition to the lagoon gods of Sakumo, Korle, Osu-Klotey, Kpeeshi (the state of war god of the Ga people), in addition to Sango. While individuals may ain in addition to worship their ain Wodzi, DzemaWodzi tin only be owned in addition to worshiped past times groups or societies. DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi may possess individuals turning them into mediums or Wulomoi (priests) in addition to Woyei (priestesses)
through whom they communicate with humans. While DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi tin be appeased with the blood of cattle, sheep, goats or fowls, Maawu tin live appeased with only praises in addition to libation. Because murder is a taboo, it is a taboo to offering human sacrifice or blood to the DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi of the Ga people. For the same reason, the Ga people do non have got whatever establishment of brafo, the organisation of executioners.
Apart from DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi, at that spot are also spirits called Bofoi who may be messengers of Maawu or Abomsam- the enemy (Satan) of Maawu. The messengers of Maawu are called Nyonmo-Bofoi in addition to the messengers of Abomsam are called mumoi fodzi - evil spirits.
All natural bodies in addition to living things such as the sky, stars, planets, moons, sea, rivers, lakes, lagoons, trees, forests, bushes, plants, animals, fishes, birds, insects and humans have got spiritual components. In particular, the spirits of the sky, stars, moons, sea, rivers, lakes, lagoons in addition to forests are DzemaWodzi (Field, 1961, pp.4-6). Death does not destroy the spirits of living things which are ever inward communication with the bodies they leave of absence behind. The human trunk is believed to comprise 3 entities, the Gbomotso (body), Susuma (the spirit of adult man associated with dreams), in addition to Kla (the sustainer of life). All people born on the same twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia have got the same Kla in addition to the same Kla call or twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia name.
Ga women inward their traditional shrine worship attire
When the Susuma wanders almost inward dreams, the Kla stays behind to maintain life (ibid, p.93). If both the Kla in addition to the Susuma leave of absence the trunk together, the decease occurs. If either the Kla or the Susuma leave of absence the trunk permanently, the individual dies. When humans die, their Susumai (plural of Susuma) live on to go ancestral spirits ever willing to help their descendants piece the Kla may acquire inward into reincarnation (ibid, p.94).
The spirits of animals in addition to plants tin live tapped in addition to used to create Wodzi or for healing purposes. The various stools of Mantsemei are also DzemaWodzi. Humans tin communicate with spirits through the pouring of libation. Moreover, the DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi of the various traditional areas are non the same although some may bear the same call and function. Typically, the shrines or places of worship are non the same fifty-fifty if the names of DzemaWodzi in addition to Wodzi coincide.
There is also a conception of trinity which is quite different from the Christain conception of trinity. The sky, Nwei, is considered a manful individual in addition to the earth, Shikpong is considered female. The matrimony betwixt Nwei in addition to Shikpong resulted inward the nascency of the sea, Nsho. This trinity of Nwei, Shikpong, in addition to Nsho sustain life, Wala. The sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of Shikpong is Th on which farming is prohibited. The sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of the Nsho is
Tuesday on which fishing is prohibited. Thus, the Ga people have got ii Sabbath days inward a week.
The Ga people also have got a value scheme of taboos that guide their behaviour. Thus, all acts of incest, homosexualism, rape, murder, disrespect for the elderly in addition to other immoral acts are considered punishable taboos - past times decease (in the illustration of murder), by banishment from society, or past times heavy fines.
The Practice, Meaning in addition to Significance of Homowo Festival of Ga People
Ga asafoiaste sprinkling kpekple on the streets of Accra
Homowo derives from ii Ga words 'homo" important hunger in addition to 'wo' important to hoot at. Homowo hence way hooting at hunger. According to legend, during the procedure of migration, the Ga state experienced famine in addition to severe hunger. However, they mustered up courage to till the land, planted corn in addition to called upon Ataa-Naa Nyonmo, the DzemaWodzi, Wodzi, in addition to Sisadzi, the ancestral spirits through libation to bless the farms to yield inward abundance. In response to their prayers deluge of rains, followed, the crops
grew in addition to yielded inward abundance. Being experts inward fishing they also caught fish in abundance which included giant reddish snappers called tsile in addition to giant tunas called odaa.
Ga adult man carrying a bowl of Kpekple
Their sheep in addition to goats also multiplied as they fed on abundance of greenish pasture. They celebrated this abundance of nutrient in addition to victory over hunger with a specially prepared diet from unfermented corn pulverization called kpokpoe which has at nowadays been corrupted to kpekple, in addition to palm nut soup of fish. They hooted at in addition to ridiculed hunger as they ate the kpokpoe with the palm nut soup prepared from fish only (notably tsile in addition to odaa), poured libation in addition to offered some of the diet symbolically to the DzemaWodzi in addition to ancestral
spirits, Sisadzi. Homowo which is celebrated annually betwixt August in addition to September is to commemorate that twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia when hunger was defeated, hooted at, in addition to ridiculed. Given the political construction of the Ga people, it is to live expected that this hooting at in addition to ridiculing of hunger powerfulness select different forms.
The principal priest of Teshie
The independence of the traditional areas in addition to the possibility of an individual belonging to to a greater extent than than 1 traditional demands that the celebrations live organized in succession such to enable interested parties to attend whatever of them. The dates for the celebrations inward the traditional areas are decided upon past times consensus a council of Wulomei representing the various traditional areas. The firstly to set out is Nungua because the
Nungua people are supposed to live the firstly of the Ga people to create it inward Republic of Ghana folowed by the people of Gamashi. Teshi is the in conclusion to celebrate beingness the youngest of the Ga towns which broke away from La in addition to was established inward 1710.
The grooming for the festival begins with the planting of crops before the rainy season that begins inward May. In June, a ritual called gbemlilaa (locking the way) bans drumming in addition to music to enable people attend to crops with seriousness. This is followed by nshobulemo or ritual to calm the sea. Another ritual called okomfemaa bans fishing in the lagoons until the Homowo festival is over. The Homowo is preceded past times yam festivals in the villages of the hinterland. This is the hamlet version of celebrating victory over hunger, but falls brusque of hooting in addition to ridiculing hunger which is reserved for the capital towns. When the engagement for the Homowo festival of a traditional expanse is near, the people of that traditional inward the villages are expected to homecoming to their homes inward the respective capital towns. The villagers set out to create it a calendar week before the celebration kickoff on Thursday, the sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of the globe when farm going is prohibited. The firstly arrivals on Thursday are called Soobii (Thursday people).
The villagers create it with pomp in addition to jubilating songs bringing their harvested crops especially maize in addition to palm nuts along. They arrivals parade the streets all twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia in addition to retire only during the night. Fri of the arrival calendar week is dedicated to remembrance of those who died during the year. In the early on morn hours of Tuesday, the sacred twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of the sea when sea going is prohibited, kpokpoe in addition to palm nut soup are prepared for the feasting.
The Mantse of the traditional area, clan heads, theatre unit of measurement heads in addition to caput of families pour libation to Maawu, Sisadzi, DzemaWodzi, in addition to Wodzi in addition to sprinkle white kpokpoe mixed with palm soup to the DzemaWodzi, Wodzi in addition to Sisadzi to give cheers them invite their blessings, in addition to to signify the kickoff of the feast. The side past times side day, Wednesday, is the day of ngoowala when immature see the elderly to wishing them log life in addition to the elderly, inward turn,
shower the immature with gifts of all sorts including money.
There are some variations inward the celebrations inward the upper-case missive of the alphabet towns after the kpokpoe feast. At Teshi, Tema in addition to Labadi, for example, the feast is followed past times the Kpashimo trip the low-cal fantastic in addition to parade. At Nungua, it is followed past times Obene trip the low-cal fantastic during the night and Kpele trip the low-cal fantastic during the day. The most pop celebration after the kpokpoe feast is the Kpashimo of Teshi which attracts foreigners.
It begins on Dominicus after the feast and ends on the side past times side calendar week Sabbatum with Sesebumo. Most people from the traditional areas of the Ga State, foreigners, in addition to other Ghanaians domiciled inward the Ga State converge at Teshi to spotter the in conclusion celebration of the Homowo season, Sesebumo.
The Kpashimo of Teshi begins on Dominicus with sesefaa (the carrying of a wooden dish containing H2O in addition to sacred leaves) in addition to ends on Sabbatum with Sesebumo (the overturning of the wooden dish in addition to its contents) to cleanse the people, create their wishes come true, in addition to bless them. During sesefaa, the kpa groups from the 7 quarters of Teshi are led firstly to the palace of the Mantse. The Mantse pours libation in addition to provides
some amount of money as a customary gift of appreciation. The kpa groups proceed to the palaces of the divisional chiefs, heads of clans, heads of families, asafoiatsemei, asafoianyemei in addition to Wulomei of the town past times plough who also pour libation in addition to provide gifts of appreciation. This opens the way for kpashimo.
Homowo festival - Teshie/Accra
Kpashimo is of ii types. The to a greater extent than gentle type is inward the shape of traditional songs and dancing in addition to it is called Amlakui-Akpa important the Kpa trip the low-cal fantastic of the nobility. The sese carrying grouping engages ever inward this type. The other type is rattling democratic and aims at exposing the wrongs committed past times the nobility in addition to commoners alike during the past yr with the view of making them alter their behaviour for the better. The kpa groups from the 7 quarters of the town engage inward this type. After sesefaa, the kpa groups intermission into their separate groups promotion set out to expose the wrongdoings of the nobility kickoff with those of the Mantse. The wrongdoings of the caput of State of Ghana in addition to his Ministers may also live exposed. They so proceed to expose the wrongdoings of individuals. Any individual whose wrongdoings are exposed is expected by tradition to provide some gift usually money to limited his or her appreciation. This goes on from Dominicus to Fri piece the sese carrying grouping continues to engage inward AmlakuiAkpa in addition to people desiring special approbation shower the sese with gifts of money. Paper notes are handed over to the sese grouping leader piece coins are pose into the sese. The sese group parades through the principal streets of the town 1 time a day.
Saturday is the twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of Sesebumo to select an goal to Kpashimo in addition to the Homowo festival as a whole where all attending is focused on the sese group. In the morning, the sese grouping goes to the Mantse, in addition to elders as it did on Dominicus to greet them. The pour libation to invoke blessings from Ataa-Naa Nyonmo (the same as Ofe or Maawu), DzemaWodzi, Wodzi in addition to ancestral spirits. They repeatedly sing the song:
Sese yaabu dza neke afi.
Mee loo abaaye ?
(Sese shall non overturn 1 time again till side past times side year.
What fish shall nosotros feed on? )
After greeting the nobility, the sese grouping rests till the afternoon. In the afternoon,the sese grouping leads the kpa groups of the 7 divisions of the town who are also followed past times the towns people in addition to visiting spectators through the principal streets of the town all singing “Sese yaabu dza neke afi. Mee loo abaaye?”. The procession ends at Sangonaa close the Sango lagoon. At Sangonaa, the vocal in addition to kpashimo acquire louder, more vigorous in addition to intense till finally the carrier of the sese overturns it in addition to its contents. This overturning of the sese marks the goal of the Homowo of the Ga people in addition to the lifting of the ban on drumming.
One of many liturgies of the Ga-Dangmes "Oshe-Boo" is as follows:
Aaa-wooooooo, Aaa-wooooooo, Aaa-wooooooo !
Aa-gba-ei, Bleku-stoo, Nsu-nsu, Enam-enam, Manye-aa-manye-a, Adeban-kpotooo, Aaawo, Aaa-wooooooo,!
Aaa-wooooooo, Aaa-wooooooo, Aaa-wooooooo!
Sitting; The "Divinity Dzakla", standing from left; The "Divinity Okwei-Nyomotsaa", middle the "Divinity Tigali" in addition to right, the "Divinity Blofo-Woyoo"
Funerals in addition to "Fantasy" Coffins
Carpenter with his reddish fish coffin
The Ga people are known for their funeral celebrations in addition to processions. The Ga believe that when someone dies, they displace to some other life. Therefore, special coffins are often crafted past times highly skilled carpenters since this tradition spread inward the 50's. Pioneers were master copy craftsmen similar Paa Joe, Paa Willy in addition to Seth Kane Kwei from Teshie.
The coffins tin live anything wanted past times relatives of the deceased from a pencil to whatever fauna such as an elephant. Coffins are usually crafted to reverberate an essence of the deceased, inward forms such as a grapheme trait, an occupation, or a symbol of one's standing inward the community. For example, a taxicab driver is most likely to live buried inward a coffin shaped as a car. Many families pass excessive amounts on coffins because they often experience that they have got to pay their in conclusion respects to the deceased in addition to beingness buried inward a coffin of cultural, symbolic as good expensive gustation is seen as fitting.
Camera coffin
Prices of coffins tin vary depending on what is beingness ordered. It is non unusual for a single coffin to cost $600. This is expensive for local families considering that it is non unusual to view people with an income of only $50 a month. This way that funerals are often paid for past times wealthier members of the family, if such a fellow member exists, with smaller contributions coming from other working members of the family. This is needed as the coffin is only a portion of the total funeral cost that testament live incurred. Some people unusual to Republic of Ghana are known to have got been buried inward Ga-styled coffins.
Beer Bottle coffin
The usage of these fantasy coffins is explained past times the religious beliefs of the Ga people regarding their afterlife. They believe that decease is non the goal in addition to that life continues inward the side past times side world inward the same way it did on earth. Ancestors are also thought to live much to a greater extent than powerful than the living in addition to able to influence their relatives who are still living (lucky as they are). This is why families do everything they tin to ensure that a dead individual is sympathetic towards them as early on as possible.
mobile telephone Coffin
Ferrari coffin
The social status of the deceased depends primarily on the size in addition to the success of the burial service in addition to of course of study the usage of an exclusive coffin. Design coffins are only seen on the twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of the burials when they are buried with the deceased. They often symbolise the dead people’s professions, the purpose beingness to aid them proceed with their earthly profession inward the afterlife. Certain shapes, such as a sword or chair coffin, correspond majestic or priestly insignia with a magical in addition to religious function.
Aircraft shaped coffin
Only people with the appropriate status are allowed to live buried inward these types of coffins. Various creatures, such as lions, cockerels in addition to crabs correspond clan totems. Similarly, only the heads of the families concerned are permitted to live buried inward coffins such as these. Many coffin shapes also evoke proverbs, which are interpreted inward different ways past times the Ga. Design coffins have got been used since around the 1950s, especially inward rural Ga groups with traditional beliefs, in addition to have got at nowadays go an integral component of Ga burial culture.
Nike footwear coffin
Today, figural coffins are made inward several workshops inward Togo in addition to Greater Accra. Successful coffinmakers
are for illustration Cedi in addition to Eric Adjetey Anang of Kane Kwei Carpentry Workshop, Paa Joe in addition to Kudjoe Affutu. Most of the figural coffins are used for funerals, only a few are exported for international fine art exhibitions.
For the Ga tribe inward coastal Ghana, funerals are a fourth dimension of mourning, but also of celebration. The Ga people believe that when their loved ones die, they displace on into some other life. They accolade their dead with brightly colored coffins that celebrate the way they lived. The coffins are designed to correspond an aspect of the dead person's life -- such as a motorcar if they were a driver, a fish if their livelihood was the sea -- or a sewing machine for a seamstress. They powerfulness also symbolize a vice -- such as a bottle of beer or a cigarette.Photograph past times Peter E. Randall
Ga Music
Traditional Ga vocal music tin live with or without instrumental accompaniment. Best known are the songs from the kple religion. The songs are sung past times women in addition to regularly accompanied past times a double bell for the fourth dimension line or for the basic beat. The dependent of those songs is the history of the Ga. The texts of the songs are most of the fourth dimension inward proverbs, which makes them hard to sympathise for outsiders. Children larn to sing those songs by imitating their mothers. Usually women get together together inward the eventide to sing the songs.
According to Nketia, amidst the vocal music of the Ga, at that spot are ii main groups of musical types:
(a) Those based on some form of pentatonic foundation, which include the cult music of
kple in addition to kpa (performed inward Labadi) in addition to the ceremonial music of ofi (bleble),
performed during the homowo festival for the principal in addition to elders
(b) Musical types based on a heptatonic foundation. They include the music of the court,
recreational music, the music of traditional pop bands, warrior associations, in addition to so
on (Nketia 1965: 276).
The songs of the Ga are often sung past times a group, alternately past times a cantor or a number of cantors in addition to chorus (Nketia 1958: 82). The linguistic communication of Ga songs may live Ga, Akan (Twi/Fante) or a mixture of the two. The usage of Twi words, phrases in addition to sentences inward the course of songs, which are mainly inward Ga, is also stylish inward modern pop music (Nketia 1958: 82).
Besides this vocal music, much traditional instrumental music tin live found amidst the Ga. The emphasis inward Ga instrumental music is on drums in addition to idiophones. Sometimes a horn is used inward the music for the principal (probably originally an Akan tradition), but at that spot does not appear to live whatever traditional stringed or current of air instruments (Nketia 1958: 76). Of the idiophones used inward Ga society, gongs (nono) are the most common. These are used both as ‘time keepers’ and accompanying instruments. In the firstly illustration each gong plays an unchanging rhythm pattern, maintaining a steady tempo throughout the entire performance. If the gong player
falters, he throws everybody off. The bell as a fourth dimension keeper is seen inward traditional drum ensembles similar gome in addition to oge. The 2nd method of using gongs emphasises their business office as accompanying instruments. One or both of the gongs may play a number of beat patterns in much the same way as drums may live used, piece maintaining a steady tempo. This treatment of gongs is commonly found inward the music of Kple (Nketia 1958: 76).
The main musical instruments of Ghanaians in addition to other West Africans are drums. In Ga society, hourglass drums in addition to closed cylindrical drums are used inward traditional musical types performed for chiefs. Apart from these, all the drums of the Ga are single headed opened upwards drums. They include heavy drums (obonu), in addition to talking drums (atumpan) found at the courts of chiefs as good as medium (e.g. kpanlogo) in addition to little drums used inward cult music in addition to music for entertainment (Nketia 1958: 78).
According to Nketia (Nketia 1958: 80), 3 forms of drumming tin live distinguished in Ga music:
1. signal mode
2. spoken language mode
3. trip the low-cal fantastic mode
In signal mode of drumming, a brusque beat pattern or a restricted number of such patterns are played past times a single drummer. These rhythms are non intended for dancing. The rhythms are played over in addition to over 1 time again for almost a minute, after which the drummer has to wait until some considerable fourth dimension has elapsed. The drums used inward this style are called tsoisin in addition to are found only at the courts of Ga chiefs.
In the 2nd mode of drumming, attempts are made to copy spoken language past times reproducing the rhythm an intonation of verbal texts. To live able to interpret the rhythms, 1 has to larn it as a ‘restricted’ language. Many people are able to only interpret a few beat patterns, usually those used inward the dancing arena as a joke or for congratulating people. Any drum capable of pitch variation such as oblente in addition to the master copy drum of asafo tin live used. The drums most commonly employed for this mode, are the atumpan drums. The linguistic communication that is used for these rhythms is Akan, at that spot is no established tradition of drum linguistic communication based on Ga.
The 3rd mode of drumming is the trip the low-cal fantastic mode of drumming. This is past times far the most frequently used. In this mode of drumming, single drums in addition to idiophones may live used for playing the required trip the low-cal fantastic rhythms, as for illustration inward adowa, bawa in addition to dzigboo music and dancing, or the music performed at story telling sessions at wake keeping. The usual ensemble for performing trip the low-cal fantastic music consists of 3 drums that vary inward pitch, the tuning of the drums is non absolute. Supporting rhythms are played on the drums with depression pitch, the
master drummer plays on the high pitched drum. The drummers are accompanied past times a bell, or a rattle in addition to a bell.
The instrumental music of the Ga is a composite of Ga in addition to Akan derived forms each of which is associated with a particular establishment or a social organisation. The Akan forms are commonly linked with the traditional political organisation, in addition to later cults, piece the indigenous forms are associated with worship, festivals in addition to other aspects of Ga social life. There is, however, a mutual coming together ground of Akan in addition to Ga forms inward the music of recreation (Nketia 1958: 79-81).(http://musicology.nl/WM/scripties/rentink.pdf)
Kpanlogo
Kpanlongo is the most recent of all Ga recreational musical types, an offshoot of Gome, Oge, Kolomashie, in addition to Konkoma. Referred to as "the trip the low-cal fantastic of the youth,” Kpanlongo started during the wake of Ghana’s Independence as a musical type for amusement inward Accra. Kpanlongo is presently performed at life-cycle events, festivals, in addition to political rallies.
The Kpanlogo trip the low-cal fantastic was invented past times Otoo Lincoln. He was told an Ansee folk story past times his Grandfather. Kpanlogo, Mma Mma in addition to Algodzan were the names of 3 triplets girls. Their begetter was the cheif in addition to said, how ever could guess their names could get married them. So a adult man went to their spot pretending to live a mad adult man asking for water, he met the girls in addition to learnt their names as they called to each other. To call back them he kept singing to himself ‘Kp. Mma. Al.’ And of course of study he married the girls. Otoo heard the story inward 1956 when he was 15. He used to tell it dancing in addition to singing to his brothers in addition to sisters, a friend used to drum along as they liked the music in addition to trip the low-cal fantastic in addition to nosotros created our ain version of highlife around 1962. The feeling of the music originated from music played past times his begetter from Oge , Liberian music a sort of boring kpanlogo. I mixed this Oge with high life in addition to stone in addition to ringlet to make the feeling inward Kpanlogo. In 1962 the Arts Council, banned its playing as 1 of the beats made the trunk displace inward an indecent way. They called Otoo inward for a meeting. Otoo said that it ..................... By 1965 Kpanlogo had go so pop that 50+ groups performed it to the caput of province Nkrumah. Kpanlogo was seen as a trip the low-cal fantastic from the youth, arising from the streets of Accra before long after Ghana’s independence, in addition to symbolised the youth in addition to independence of a immature state in addition to so was taken on in addition to played at funerals, province occasions in addition to became an anthem for the ruling political party at the time. Up to at nowadays its popularity remains hi. There are countless Kpanlogo performing groups, playing for pleasance in addition to at all social in addition to province occasion.
Otoo Lincoln Kpanlogo drumming, was created by Otoo Lincoln, who composed well-known tunes like'Kpanlogo Alogodzan', 'ABC Kpanlogo' &'Ayinle Momobiye '. Otoo was born inward the Korle Wokon district of Accra inward 1941 in addition to learned Ga drumming from his family. He obtained the name'kpanlogo' when he used the novel crunch he was creating to perform an old Ga folktale his granddaddy told him about, which involved 3 Ga princesses called Kpanlogo, Alogodzan & Mma-Mma. Otoo Lincoln and a grouping of boys from the Bukom expanse of Accra (Frank Lane, Okule Foes and other members of the Black Eagles trip the low-cal fantastic club) created the youthful Ga kpanlogo drum-dance during the early on 1960s past times combining older Ga fishermen-styles of music, such as the kolomashie. gome, in addition to oge with highlife or fifty-fifty stone 'n' ringlet trip the low-cal fantastic movements. Because of kpanlogo's supposedly 'indecent' movements, it was banned for a piece before it was 1 time again inward trend inward 1965. Except for a little copyright payment to Otoo in the 1990s, Otoo has never received the financial rewards for having created what has go Ghana's most internationally-acclaimeddrumming style.
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Source:http://www2.carleton.ca/africanstudies/ccms/wp-content/ccms-files/Ga-People-and-Homowo-Festival.pdf
http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/blogs/blog.article.php?blog=4259&ID=1000010772
http://www.bristoldrumming.com/ghanagoods/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=63&Itemid=105
THE GA PEOPLE BY IRENE ODOTEI
Introduction
The Ga of today are the people whose territory is bordered to the due north past times the Akuapem hills, to the S past times the sea, to the due west past times the Awutu in addition to past times the due east past times the Adanme. They telephone call upwards themselves Gamei to distinguish them from other groups such as the Akan, the Ewe or the Dagomba, in addition to speak the linguistic communication called Ga. They have got a mutual annual festival called Homowo, which is a celebration of the kickoff of their novel year.
"Ex-King Mensah in addition to his mother." 1888
There half dozen Ga towns, viz. Ga Mashi (Central Accra), the capital, Osu (Chritiansborg), La (Labadi), Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema. Each of these towns is divided into Akutsei or quarters, in addition to each Akutso is sub-divided into Wei or patrilineal houses. Ga Mashi has 7 Akutsei, each with its ain Mantse or Chief, whereas the Akutsei of the other Ga towns do non have got separate Mantsemei. The Mantsemei of the 7 Akutsei of Ga Manshi together with the Mantsemei of the other towns (Osu, La, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema) are nether a paramount ruler, Ga Mantse, who comes from the Abola quarter (Akutso) of Ga Mashi. The Ga maintain some distinction amidst themselves past times using the names of their towns to depict 1 another, e.g., the Nungua people are known as Nunguamei as distinct from Lamei or Teshimei. There is a unopen link betwixt the Ga in addition to their eastern neighbours, the Adanme, comprising Kpone, Prampram, Ningo, Ada, Osudoku, Shai, Yilo in addition to Manya Krobo. The languages spoken past times these ii groups, Ga in addition to Adanme, are to a greater extent than closely related to each other than whatever other language. It appears that the ii languages originated from 1 stock. Reindorf acknowledged that Adangbe is “the woman parent dialect of the Ga”. By comparing lexical in addition to grammatical cognate forms (i.e. forms adjudged to live inherited from the mutual ancestor), M.E. Kropp has been able to found that, “modern Ga is the production of a large number of innovations inward the hypothetical proto Ga-Adangbe linguistic communication piece Adangbe as a whole has been relatively conservative, that is, modern Adangbe includes few modifications of the phonological in addition to grammatical systems of the proto language.”
King Taki II, the Rex of Accra, with some of his servants 1891."
Apart from the linguistic similarity, other cultural ties, such the importance of priests inward the socio-political structure, circumcision, in addition to the specific monastic enjoin of child-naming, characterize the Ga in addition to the Adangbe as beingness people from a mutual stock.
The rootage of the Ga-Adangbe people is shrouded inward myth in addition to many hypotheses have got been advanced inward an endeavour to explicate their roots. The most widespread of these hypotheses, firstly popularized past times Reindorf in addition to later accepted past times Ward in addition to Field, maintains that the Ga originated from Benin. In add-on to this premise, Reindorf records ii traditional accounts of origin. One claims that the Ga originated from the sea, in addition to the other, that they emigrated together with the Adangbe, from Tetetutu or Sameh inward the east. It is said that they came from betwixt ii large rivers, in addition to that after crossing the Volta, they dispersed over the country.
"Ga miss with broom for sweeping." 1883
N.A. Azu accepted the Sameh rootage of the Ga in addition to the Adanme. He described Sameh as “an isle situated on the south-west of River Ogum adjoining Ladah in addition to Dahomey.” He claimed that the Ga in addition to Adanme left Sameh because “they were too much oppressed past times the so mighty King Akpo of Dahomey”. Another author who tackled the work of Ga rootage was Quartey Papafio. He located they roots farther due north in addition to asserted that the Ga came to the Gold Coast through Benin, some past times ground but bulk past times canoe. He farther claimed that at that spot was “a tradition to demonstrate that, subsequently, the Phoenicians in addition to Carthaginians treated with or visited the Gold Coast previous to visits of the Portuguese in addition to also that when the Ga people arrived on the Gold Coast, at that spot red-skinned people amidst them. These were no dubiety Phoenicians in addition to Cutheans in addition to others who came to the due west coast with their idols in addition to fetish priests accompanied past times their attaches, who afterwards became the Takyis of the nowadays dynasty amidst the Akras of the Gold Coast.”[8] J.M. Bruce Myers also postulated that “in a serial of migrations the Gas came all the way from the fundamental component of the continent where they had been inward contact with ancient civilizations, the traces of which are to live found scattered through their literature.”[9]
E.A. Ammah asserts inward an unpublished history that “the Ga people are inward type of the Hamitic race in addition to inward civilization of the Semitic.” He farther stated that “the original spot of the Ga people is either inward Arab Republic of Egypt inward Africa or Mesopotamia inward Asia.”[10]
The author’s collection of oral tradition reveals that sure elements amongst the Ga, especially the educated, have got come upwards to select the various hypotheses advanced past times these writers in addition to moreover often narrate them as oral tradition. One such ‘tradition’ maintains that the Ga originated from ‘Mizraim’ (Egypt) in addition to arrived at their nowadays location inward ii groups. The firstly to create it were the Naiwebii who came past times sea (Nai is said to live a corruption of the Nile) piece the other half, Sakumowebii, arrived past times land.
It is important that other sections of the Ga-Adanme have got non accepted the hypotheses of the to a higher spot mentioned writers. For example, the nowadays Nai Wulomo does non back upwards the hypothesis postulating an Egyptian rootage for his ancestors. He claims that the firstly Nai Wulomo in addition to his followers together with the Nungowas originated from the sea.[11] The people of Labadi, together with component of the Teshi people, claim to have got originated from Bonny inward Nigeria.[12] The Osu people an rootage from Osudoku, a branch of the Adanme,[13] in addition to the Tema people claim to have got migrated from Ayigbe kpesi.[14] Among the Adanme, the Le of Kpone believe they originated from the sea.[15] The founder of Ningo, Dzanma, was said to hace originated from the Lagoon Dzangi, the principal deity of Ningo. Dzanma had the characteristics of a primitive man: he was covered with pilus in addition to fed on raw fish from the Lagoon Dzangi. It was whilst inward such a province that he was discovered past times a hunter Oklu Doso, who decided to remain with him, in addition to together they formed the nucleus around which later arrivals, such as the Kabiawe, grouped.[16] Among the inland Adanme, the Tetili of Kasunya close Asutsuare claim to have got descended from the heaven along a rope in addition to landed on baobab tree.
“Kpa n dze Hi nosotros "The rope which descended from the sky
Titi yobo lii akpa Teti Yobo people’s rope
Salo n 1 ema” Landed on a baobab tree.”
The Okpe of the Yylo Krobo also claims to have got descended from the sky, but the landed on a spot called Okpesi in addition to were led past times a dark monkey to Okpe Yo (Krobo Mountain). The other groups of the Adanme, however, say that they migrated from Sameh. Their remain inward Sameh is commemorated inward their Klama song:
“Onyue, moo huu ihe ne maya”. “Onyue protect me till I arrive at Sameh”.
The hypotheses as to the origins of the Ga pose forrard past times Reindorf, Quartey-Papafio, Bruce Myers in addition to E.A. Ammah are based on ii facors: their ain interpretation of oral tradition, in addition to cultural in addition to linguistic similarities. Reindorf interpreted the tradition that the Ga came from the sea to hateful that they came from Benin. This is based on the claim that inward his time, traders in addition to artisans who went to seek their fortunes at the Bight of Republic of Benin were said to have got gone into the sea, i.e. ‘etee nson’[20]. Investigations, however, revealed that the term ‘etee nson’ was non only limited to the people who went to the Bight of Binin, but also, to those who travelled along the eastern coast as far as the Congo. The equivalent of the term ‘etee nson’ tin live found inward a limited sense inward the English linguistic communication human face ‘gone abroad or gone to sea’. Reindorf’s hypothesis appears to have got also been influenced past times the view of F.L. Romer, a Danish author of the eighteenth century. He suggested that at that spot was 1 time an empire of Benin, vaster thatn the empire of China, which stretched from the River Niger to the River Gambia, in addition to was said to have got incorporated the Ga.[21]
Romer’s hypothesis as to the existence of this Republic of Benin empire is non tenable. In the firstly place, to back upwards his assertion he only mentioned a few cultural similarities such as circumcision in addition to the special way of killing sacrificial animals with a stone instead of a knife to avoid defiling then. Romer also claims that inward his fourth dimension at that spot sure families inward Accra who could describe their ancestry from Republic of Benin Viceroys. Romer ignores the fact that political in addition to cultural boundaries do non necessarily have got to coincide. It is almost as if evidence of Muslim practices along the coast of modern Republic of Ghana were taken to hateful that the expanse used to shape component of the ancient Caliphate of Arabia!
Romer’s claim to have got discovered the existence of Ga families who could describe their ancestry from Republic of Benin Viceroys could rattling likely live the outcome of merchandise contact betwixt Accra in addition to Benin. For example, using circumstantial evidence, Fage in addition to Wilks have got postulated that at that spot were merchandise contacts betwixt the coast of Republic of Ghana in addition to the coast of Republic of Benin prior to the arrival of the Portuguese inward 1471 in addition to that the participation of the Europeans inward the merchandise only diversified in addition to accelerated this process.[22]
Quartey-Papafio, who claimed a North African rootage for the Ga, stated that at that spot was ‘sufficient evidence’ to prove his hypothesis but so neglected to provide whatever such evidence. His claim that at that spot is a tradition to demonstrate that when that Ga firstly arrived on the Gold Coast, at that spot were red-skinned people amidst them is almost sure as shooting based on a misunderstanding. The author did non come upwards across this so-called tradition inward her fieldwork. (It in all probability reflected a preoccupation with pare calour during the early on colonial period.
Bruce Myers presumes at that spot to live sure cultural similarities betwixt the Ga in addition to the Jews: “the clothes of their principal priest inward a white loose cloth, his cap, the Nmatsu necklace, the wearing of Afili, pronouncement of the blessing, all these things recall the ancient people of God, the Jews of old, in addition to distinguish the Gas from other tribes inward this component the continent excepting their kinsmen, the Benins, who past times their ain alternative kept dorsum inward the cource of migration in addition to upwards to the nowadays are keeping inviolate these historic catamenia long observances of 1 unstained religion.”[23] He also stated that the Ga discussion ‘Gigine’ comes from a corrupted Hebrew word, without giving the Hebrew rendering of the word.
E.A. Ammah follows this method of searching for cultural in addition to linguistic similarities, he also remarks that the Ga claim of migration from an expanse betwixt ii rivers could live interpreted as migration from Mesopotamia because Mesopotamia way ‘between ii rivers’.[24] He furthermore attempts to describe Ga ancestry from Ham, 1 of the sons of Noah who peopled the globe after the flood.
The hypotheses of all these writers – Reindorf, Quartey-Papafio, Bruce-Myers, in addition to E.A. Ammah – appear to live based on a concern to link tha Ga with ancient well-known civiliasations, example, Benin, Pharaoic Egypt, the Carthaginians, Phoenicians in addition to the Jews. The protagonists of a North African or Semitic rootage of the Ga ignore the fact that the physical characteristics of the Ga are typically Negroid. Moreover, the Ga linguistic communication has no affinity with the Semitic linguistic communication family: it belongs to the Kwa grouping of languages (including Ewe, Fon, Akan, Yoruba, Edo,Nupe in addition to Ijo), which is 1 of the sub-groups of the Niger-Congo ‘family’.
"Catechist Th. Svanikier in addition to his wife, with 3 brother's children." 1861
The mere comparing of a few isolated Ga words with Hebrew words cannot live taken as conclusive evidence of linguistic affinity. Cultural similarities do non necessarily provide evidence of whatever previous connection. They could quite conceivably arise from independent cultural evolution inward separate areas.
It is inaccurate, therefore, to portray the Ga-Adanme as an illustration of the wholesale migration of a people from a unusual ground to their nowadays territory. The Ga of today are a complex mixture of people in addition to cultures which have got gradually fused into a society with distinct characteristics. Two cradles tin live suggested where such interaction took place. The firstly cradle is on the banks of the Lower Volta (Benin). Here, both the Ga in addition to Adanme lived together.the 2nd cradle is inward the Accra plains where the Ga, after leaving the Adanme inward the east, absorbed other peoples’ ideas. These include Guan in addition to Akan. The assimilation of these unusual elements business concern human relationship for the linguistic in addition to institutional differences betwixt the Adanme in addition to Ga today. It was also the Accra plains that the western grouping developed the name, Ga, to distinguish themselves from the Adanme.
According to oral tradition in addition to sure Klama songs recorded past times the author, the various groups of Ga-Adanme began to disperse inward the part of the Lower Volta Basin. Unfortunately, no dates are available for this catamenia of Ga-Adanme history. However, according to Ozanne’s study of an digging made inward Ladoku, (an abandoned settlement of the Las), distinctive pottery indicated the presence of a little hamlet or grouping of farmsteads dating dorsum to 1200-1400.[25] One tin hence conclude that at to the lowest degree some Ga-Adanme settlements were inward existence past times 1200.
It has been suggested that the Ga Mashie in addition to Nunguas left the Volta Basin together. Reindorf records: “when the Akras in addition to Nunguas were marching together inward 1 body, it happened 1 nighttime that the onetime hastily started in addition to left their dough behind them, from which they were given their surname ‘Masi’ i.e. sleepers”.
Rev. in addition to Mrs Reindorf, photographed on [his] 80th birthday, June 1914, retired inward Christiansborg."
Whether, this tradition is truthful or not, a special customary human relationship does be betwixt Ga Mashi in addition to Nungua inward modern times. Before Ga Mashi Wulomo (priest) or Mantse is installed, he has to undergo the custom Butrumwoo, which is a shape of purification ceremony. It is only a representative of the Amanfa department of Nungua who has the right to perform the ceremony.[27]
It would appear that the Ga Mashis, Nunguas in addition to Temas settled inward the Accra plains prior to the arrivals of the Las in addition to Osus. Furthermore, the Nunguas, Ga Mashis in addition to Temas founded a number of settlements before they reached their nowadays sites. Unfortunately, oral tradition is non explicit as to the sequence of these sites. The Kple vocal which deals with the early on settlements of the Ga Mashis does non aid inward solving the problem. It simply says:
1. W dz he dzek We came from afar
2. W dz wuoyi We came from the S (sea)
Ni kooyi dzi w n And the due north (forest) is ours.
3. W dz ma ko We came from a sure town
W yadam ma ko We became citizens of some other town.
Ga ay Living inward Ga.
4. Wdz Ga mli We came from within Ga.
W yanina Gam i We met Ga people
Ga ay Living inward Ga.
This vocal suggest that the Ga Mashi were a people who lived inward scattered communities stretching from the coast to farther inland, accommodating groups which moved from 1 community to the other. Reindorf mentions some of these settlements. They are: Akpadegong, Pletekwagong, Muko, Anonmole, Fanofa, Dokutse in addition to Kushibiete (Legon) founded past times the Ga Mashis. Similarly the Nunguas founded Wodoku, Kpatsakole, Lashibi, Koko-Nyaga, Wokple, Wodode, Woshagba, Wo-Akwamu, in addition to Wobobo; in addition to the Temas founded Otiribi, Tebilano, Podoku, Atsenbidoku, Alagba, Lakanmabi (Ashaman) in addition to Takimabi (Awudun).[29]
Unfortunately, at that spot is no archaeological information which exists on these old settlements. The only site to have got been dated is Ayawaso, remembered inward tradition as the in conclusion inland Ga Mashi settlement to live founded. Ozanne dates the founding of Ayawaso to the goal of the sixteenth century because the site shows early on seventeenth century imports lying rattling unopen to its base.[30]
By the kickoff of the seventeenth century, Ga Mashi, Nungua in addition to Tema had territories which stretched from inland to the coast. Ga Mashi shared a boundary with Awutu inward the due west in addition to Nungua inward the east. Nungua also shared the eastern boundary with Tema.[31]
The seventeenth century was also the catamenia when the in conclusion of the Ga towns, Labadi, Osu in addition to Teshi, were founded on the coast. Of these groups, the firstly to leave of absence the Adanme were the Las. Their town, which was situated on the hill, Ladoku, was an of import industrial in addition to trading centre.[32] La was famous for the weaving of a coarse cotton fiber textile considered inward those days to live first-class attire in addition to worn past times men of high rank. This is remembered inward the lines:
Ke iya La O: Ma wo tso bo ! If I would no longer go to La, I were meliorate clad inward the dorsum of a tree
Okoni gbe La no, Death has killed the La.
Ke iya La-O, Ma wo tso bo. Death has killed the La., I were meliorate clad inward the dorsum of a tree.
"Catechist Paul Staudt in addition to his wife." 1861Of their Adanme neighbours, the closest to the Las were the Shais. These ii neighbors apparently became aware of the demand to maintain moral dependent inward their society in addition to hence made a mutual understanding that whoever seduced some other man’s married adult woman should live beheaded. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 La adult man was reported to have got commited this offence in addition to was beheaded inward accordance with the law. When a Shai adult man committed the same offence, however, his people refused to manus him over for the prescribed punishment. This resulted inward a state of war betwixt the Las in addition to The Sais inward which the Las were eventually defeated.[34]
The dating of the La settlement at Ladoku needs clarification. Ozanne observed: “a little hamlet or grouping of farmsteads of almost 1200-1400 were replaced in all probability before 1500 past times a rattling large town over a mile wide. Pottery types from this stage do non seem to have got lasted till 1600. The site may have got been abandoned for 40 years or so in addition to the side past times side stage of settlement was 1640.”[35] Basing his declaration on Reindorf’s recording of traditional accounts, Ozanne dates the La business of Ladoku to the middle of the seventeenth century. This implies that it was the La who occupied Ladoku after the flourishing town had been abandoned at the goal of the sixteenth century.
In contrast to this hypothesis, the author’s collection of oral tradition in addition to historical songs reveal that it was the La’s business which turned the site into the flourishing town of the sixteenth century. By the middle of the seventeenth century, when Ladoku was 1 time again occupied, the Las were already established inward the Accra plains close the Ga Mashi in addition to at that spot is no evidence to suggest that they returned to the Adanme area. This way that the La must have got left Ladoku before 1600.
Joseph Sebastian." 1861
During the flying from Ladoku, after their defeat past times the Shais, the Las left some of their fetishes in addition to other paraphernalia behind. These were later turned into playtings past times monkeys which abound inward the area.
“La-lene-bi-n-m kue pen ye w! “Ye children of Labadi! Monkeys trip the low-cal fantastic to deride you”
The Las realized en route that they had left behind the gong-gong of La kpa, their principal deity. Fortunately for them, it was said that when they reached the river Nsaki, a monkey appeared who started dancing according to the crunch of the La kpa music. They hence followed the monkey in addition to copied the rhythmic movements until they were able to do the kpa trip the low-cal fantastic without the gong-gong.
Tee Nsaki naa I reached the banking company of Nsaki
Yana kua dzo I saw a monkey dancing
Na ko eko da I haven’t seen such a sight before.
The absence of the gong-gong inward the modern kpa trip the low-cal fantastic is observed inward the song:
Ogbe midzi et miifo y Laa Ogbe’s 3 drums are sounding (crying) inward La.
O o b mli A gong-gong is missing.
The La lived at Adzagote with the Ga Mashie in addition to Nunguas as their neighbours, but later decided to displace to the coast inward monastic enjoin to participate inward the lucrative merchandise enjoyed past times the people who resided there. The exercise amidst the Ga-Adanme inward those early on days of migration was that before they moved to whatever novel settlement, the hunters would go on a scounting expedition to create sure that the novel could provide them with an adequate H2O render in addition to goodness farming ground. The La’s main involvement was focused on the rich common salt producing lagoon, the Kpeshi, which was so controlled past times the Nunguas. This possession could only live won through conquest, since the Nunguas were unlikely to give away such a vital involvement without fighting for it. War finally broke out betwixt the Las in addition to the Nunguas, in addition to at that spot ii interpretations as to its predominant cause. One version ascribes the stimulate of the state of war to a La hunter, Sowa, who went on a scouting expedition inward search of H2O in addition to common salt for his people. After Sowa had drunkard H2O offered to him past times some Nungua common salt makers, he inconsiderately broke all the H2O containers. The other version portrays the La business of the coast as a peaceful settlement. They were offered ground past times the Nunguas, but their peaceful co-existence with their benefactors was disturbed past times the kidnapping in addition to sacrificing of the La Princess Odole to the Nungua fetish Ogmu. Whatever the truthful stimulate of the war, the main outcome was that it ended with the acquisition of the Kpeshi lagoon past times the Las.
The migration of the La from their inland settlement, Adzagote, to the coast must have got taken spot sometime betwixt 1600 in addition to 1629. De Marees, for example, does call Labadi as a coastal town inward 1600, but an anonymous Dutch map of 1629 places Labadi as a coastal settlement situated betwixt Ga Mashi in addition to Nungua.
Benjamin Tete, bookbinder inward Christiansborg. 1860`s
The side past times side Ga coastal town to live founded was Osu. The firstly settlers of Osu originated from Osudoku, a grouping of the Adanme. According to tradition, their migration westwards was a way past times which to avoid a dispute or to a greater extent than seriously a civil state of war over the loss of a single bead. This bead was component of some precious beads borrowed past times a woman, Namole, to decorate her daughter, who was undergoing the Otofo[41] rites. Namole’s theatre unit of measurement offered to supplant the bead or else pay for it with 7 human beings, inward accordance with the prevailing law. The owners refused this in addition to Namole along with her blood brother Noete Doku in addition to their followers left Adanme. The bead was eventually found inward the gizzard of a fowl on the rattling twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia that the followers left.[42] Upon reaching the coast, the Osu immigrants settled inward the expanse betwixt La in addition to Ga Mashi on ground granted to them sometime before 1629.
The people of Teshi, (the in conclusion Ga town to live founded) were originally component of La. The founding of the town was a outcome of a quarrel betwixt Mantse Odai Atsem in addition to Mankralo Numo Okang Nmashi. The breach was so serious that Odai Atsem sought the assistance of the King of Accra. This led to the latter advising Okang Nmashi to leave of absence La. On their journeying eastwards Okang Nmashi in addition to his followers found an old man, Trebi of Lashibi living with his theatre unit of measurement on the beach belonging to Nungua. Trebi had moved to the beach to aid cure the fish of some Fante fishermen who had come upwards on annual fishing expedition. Okang Nmashi decided to settle on the coast with Trebi in addition to his family; but before he could do that, he had to seek permission from the Nunguas. An acknowledgement of Nungua ownership of the ground was maintained past times the annual presentation of a sheep past times the Teshis to the Nunguas. Teshi continued to maintain some customary ties with La long after moving to their nowadays site. Indeed, until recently, Teshi used to send a moo-cow every yr to La for sacrifice to the Lakpa, principal deity of the Las.
The settlement of the Ga inward the Accra plains led to changes inward their socio-political organization. According to tradition, prior to the arrival of the Ga, at that spot were people who hadalready established scattered settlements on the Accra plains. The Ga founded their ain settlements amongst these pre-existing communities, of which the best remembered inward traditional accounts are the worshipers of Nai, whose Wulomo (priest) is acknowledged today as the most senior of all the Wulomei of the Ga towns. According to Reindorf: “The aboriginal race all along the sea coast in addition to inland at some points 15, 20, 30 in addition to 40 miles were nearly all of the Guan Kyerepong, Le in addition to Ahanta tribes speaking different dialects of the Ahanta, Obutu, Kyerepong, Late (LE) in addition to Kpesi languages.”[46]
Of these Guan speakers, the groups with whom the Ga had the most intimate contact were the Kpsi, the Le, in addition to the Obutu. The Ga were able to absorb the people of Kpesi in addition to of Le but were non so successful with the Obutus.
The main influence which the Guan communities exerted over the Ga was religious. This is observed inward the Kple cult, which tin live found inward all the Ga towns. According to Field, the Kple songs are inward “the forgotten Obutu dialects in addition to are often mere gibberish to both singers in addition to hearers.”[47] Field’s declaration is non completely true. Kple is non a mere adoption of a Guan cult past times the Ga. She, herself suggested that the “Kple gods could in all probability live sub-divided again, for they doubtlessly correspond intermingled cults, but at that spot is trivial to live gained past times attempting this almost impossible task.”[48]
By comparing Kple music with the Adanme Klama music, Nketsia finds that “they have got sufficient similarity inward style to suggest that Kple is non as unusual to Ga tradition as the evidence of the multilingual ground of its texts suggests at firstly sight.” He sees the possibility of Kple beingness a “Ga cult which at some catamenia absorbed Guan elements both inward honor of gods in addition to the usage of linguistic communication in addition to laterAkan as stylistic element.”
"Catechist P. Fleischer, his wife, in addition to a nephew." 1861
The author’s collection of Kple songs indicates that they are non ‘mere gibberish’. They were sung inward comprehensible Ga with only a few intermingled lines of archaic in addition to unusual words. The similarity betwixt Kple in addition to Klama suggests that the Ga had already developed the ground of the Kple cult before they left the Adanme inward the east. However, whilst inward the Accra plains, their cult was influenced past times that of the Guan. On the ground 1 could assume that although the various Ga groups moved into the Accra plains inward waves of independent migrations, at that spot was a unifying chemical element amongst them inward the sense of a cult Akin to modern Kple. Another unifying factor was of course of study the linguistic identity.
In spite of these similarities, the Ga organized themselves into independent groups which were comprised of major in addition to small-scale lineages. Within the groups, each lineage has its ain god, in addition to at that spot was furthermore a senior god for the whole group. The priests of the supreme gods were the leaders of the groups. For example, the Las were nether the leadership of the Lakpa Wulomo (priest).
Reindorf remarked that: “the Accra King was at the same fourth dimension the priest of the national high fetish, but gradually, to avoid the violation of the sacredness of the priest inward appearing often inward world in addition to especially when the spot of regime was removed from Ayawaso to the coast, the ii pawers were separated.”[50] Reindorf is wrong inward dating this separation of powers to the catamenia after 1680 when the spot of regime had been removed from Ayawaso. The adult man who was referred to as King of Accra inward the seventeenth century was non high priest of the Ga.
In reality, each Ga grouping evolved its internal scheme of secular ascendance at different times. Although inward the seventeenth century, the Ga acknowledged the King of Accra as their sovereign, they maintained the priestly leadership within the private groups. Furthermore, the King of Accra was inward fact from Ga Mashi, in addition to Ga Mashi had already instituted secular powerfulness at the goal of the sixteenth century. This alter was in all probability a response to European trading activities inward Accra during the 2nd one-half of the sixteenth century. Although the Portuguese started trading on the Gold Coast inward 1471, their interests were limited to the due west coast as far due east as Asebu. In 1505, Pacheco Pereira remarked that the Portuguese had so far non established whatever merchandise contact with the inhabitants of the Accra coast.[51]Portuguese involvement seems to have got been invigorated past times the English linguistic communication trading expedition to Accra inward the middle of the sixteenth century. Between 13th May in addition to 2nd June 1557,[52] the English linguistic communication trader Towrson (who already led ii trading expeditions to the Gold Coast) was able to obtain 50 1b. of golden from Accra in addition to Winneba. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 few years after these expeditions, the Portuguese established a trading fort inward Accra.[53] However, their remain inward Accra was short-lived, for, owing to ‘some mischief’ they did to the inhabitants, the Ga attacked the fort in addition to razed it to the ground inward 1576.[54] In response to this, the Portuguese sent a punitive expedition nether Martin Afonso, who “absolutely conquered the district.”[55] After this, the fort was non rebuilt, but the Ga still traded with all the Europeans who anchored inward their waters.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 combination of the Portuguese armed forces expedition in addition to the rising economical importance of Accra must have got instilled inward Ga Mashi the demand for a to a greater extent than effective shape of regime than that which their priests provided. Reindorf records a struggle for political supremacy amidst the Ga Mashi which coincides with this period. He does non give whatever date, but his listing of the early on Ga dynasty in addition to his connexion of the political struggle with the founding of Ayawaso suggests that the rift occurred towards the goal of the 16th century.
On this struggle for supremacy, Reindorf states: “Wyete the King of Accra, arrived although belatedly yet rattling grand, having plenty of golden ornaments on his person; hence it was proposed past times the Akras, that he should live Rex for all the immigrants. Upon refusal to select that offer, the Akras took take hold of 1 of his arms, his people holding the other arm which rattling unfortunately was plucked off; he hence retired inward the sea.”[56] Another group, whom Reindorf calls Aseres claimed the ruling powerfulness on business concern human relationship of their commercial strength, but this so infuriated Ayi Kushi (the leader of 1 of the groups known as Tunmawe) that he retired into the sea, leaving his boy Ayete who founded Ayawaso.[57]
The struggle for powerfulness In Ga Mashi tin live seen as struggle betwixt their factions; firstly the supports of wealth, backing Wyete on business concern human relationship of his gold; secondly, the believers inward armed forces in addition to commercial strength symbolized past times the Aseres, in addition to thirdly, those who wanted to maintain the status quo symbolized past times Ayi Kushi. It seems that Ayite (Ayi Kushi’s son, who founded Ayawaso)favoured inward both wealth in addition to armed forces strength. His upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso, was in all probability chosen because of its strategic advantage. Situated at the crossroads of an of import trading route to the gold-bearing regions of the interior, it was close plenty for effective merchandise with the Europeans yet far plenty away to foil whatever undue interference inward Ga affairs. Moreover, the defence potentialities of basing the upper-case missive of the alphabet on a colina were non overlooked. Ayete’s success inward the founding of Ayawaso inward commemorated inward the Kple song:
Tele o inpin k ba “I carried powerfulness with me
Tele Awoyo k ba I carried powerfulness with me
Ayite ma ko yabla Ayite, I settled inward a sure town.
Ayite was able to build a strong fundamental regime based on the sanction of armed forces power, in addition to inward doing so he realized that such powerfulness could live used as a prerequisite for large-scale political re-organisation. As a outcome of this newly developed strong government, the Ga Mashi were able to spread their political powerfulness inward all directions. This inevitably brought them into conflict with their neighbours. Brun remarked inward 1614 that the people of Accra lived inward “great enmity with their neighbours” in addition to he gave a detailed description of a state of war betwixt the Ga in addition to the Atty which culminated inward the massascre of the Ga army.[59] By 1634, the territories of the King of Accra comprised Ayawaso (Greater Accra), Small Bereku, Little Accra (the coast), Labadi in addition to Ningo.[60] The King of Accra’s ground expanded only gradually, but he did gain suzerainty over the Akwamu[61] in addition to also added Labadi[62] to his kingdom. Eventually, his kingdom stretched as far as Adanme. Romer remarked inward the eighteenth century that “both the Adanme in addition to the mount Negroes ancestors had been enslaved past times the accras, they had placed past times the sea shore to fish in addition to on the mount to cultivate the fertile land.[63]
Apart from the farmers in addition to the fishermen, the kingdom of Accra was also comprised of salt-makers who depended on the rich salt-producing lagoon on the coast, in addition to traders who transacted business concern betwixt the coast in addition to the interior. These traders carried European manufactured goods, common salt in addition to fish to the interior in addition to sold them inward commutation for golden in addition to slaves.[64] The kingdom of Accra hence comprised in addition to economically mixed population of farmers, fishermen, salt-makers, traders in addition to blacksmiths.
The dynastic history in addition to management of the kingdom of Accra during the Ayawaso catamenia is testimony to the secular nature of the political superstructure at this time. Ayi Ayite founded Ayawaso, was succeeded past times Niiko Nalai. He inward plough was succeeded past times Mampong Okai. Traditioinal accounts refer to him as Owura Mampong Okai because he was known to ride inward a carriage.[65] This is non surprising when 1 considers that it was during his reign that the Datch were permitted to build a trading lodge at Accra. In soliciting his permission, the Dutch would have got been compelled to shower many presents on him.
Mampong Okai married Dode Akaibi as his married adult woman was a political move, an endeavour to absorb the obutu, who were on the western frontiers of the Ga kingdom. An heir conceived with the Obutu princess would live a symbol of that fusion. There is no direct evidence to demonstrate how far Mampong Okai succeeded with this scheme, although, Reindorf[66] does province that the King of Obutu became 1 of the hammock carriers of the King of Accra. It is non clear whether this happened inward Mampong Okai’s reign. Mampong Okai was himself murdered on 17th January, 1642.[67]
According to traditional accounts, Dode Akaibi acted as regent for her boy Okai Kwei in addition to was remembered past times the Ga for beingness a tyrant. Many lives were lost inward an endeavour to ship out orders such as the capture of a live ‘tiger’ or lion. She also ordered the massacre of all the old men inward the country. Unable to tolerate this tyranny whatever longer, the Ga stoned her in addition to so buried her live inward a well, which she had previously ordered them to dig with their ain hands.[68] Unusually, contemporary written records do non call the regency of Dode Akaibi. The Dutch referred to a sure ‘Commander’ or ‘Governor’[69] who had command of Accra after the murder of King Mampong Okai. There ii possible explanations for this omission. Either, the ‘Commander’ acted as a liaison betwixt Dode Akaibi in addition to the Europeans, to such an extent that the latter were non aware of Dode Akaibi as the figure who wielded effective powerfulness inward the kingdom, or the, ‘commander’ took over powerfulness after Dode Akaibi had been buried alive.
The interregnum of Mampong Okai in addition to that of his boy Okai Kwei was non peaceful. Hendrick Caarloff reported inward 1646 that merchandise was inward confusion because ‘the kingdom of Accra is ruled past times a ‘Governor’ against whom have got placed themselves the 3 sons of the deceased king, who tried past times all way possible to spot the ground inward ruin, inward monastic enjoin thereby to deprive the ‘Governor’ of the tolls in addition to to select them nether themselves; over which they stimulate the inhabitants who take hold with the Governor groovy molestation in addition to also openly stimulate the traders to live plundered inward their golden or goods. Although the community against this have got set upwards a king, nevertheless, he cannot spot the kingdom nether his ascendance because the rivals have got too many adherents hence it is all the worse in addition to all the 3 parties stand upwards continually inward arms against the others”.[70] This appears to live the description of the struggle for a lucrative secular ascendance rather than that of priestly power. Surely, the resort to brute strength would non have got been the most effective way of determining who should live high priest of the land.
Despite the turbulence of the regency period, Okai Kwei was able to gain political command of the kingdom of Accra. Okai Kwei, nicknamed ‘Afadi’ [71] (the prosperous) past times the Ga, was apparently an shrewd statesman. This was fully displayed inward his human relationship with the Europeans in addition to his African neighbours. His terminal autumn from powerfulness inward 1680 in addition to the consequent collapse of the kingdom were non due to whatever administrative weakness, but instead to the inherent wickedness of the king, which the Ga found objectionable. Okai Kwei had all the trappings of a secular monarch, including many wives, courtiers in addition to musicians at his court.[72]
Although the Ga scheme of regime was monarchical, powerfulness was non concentrated absolutely inward the hands of 1 man. In an understanding signed past times King Mampong Okai with the Dutch West Bharat Company inward 1642, reference was made to a sure Teij, who was regarded as the King’s lieutenant.[73] The King also had ii viadors.[74] De Marees described a viador as the Ki9ng’s treasurer who “keepeth his golden in addition to other riches, receiveth in addition to payeth all in addition to doth all other business concern of the king. He is side past times side to the king, in addition to he commonly hath to a greater extent than golden rings almost his neck, arms in addition to feet than the Rex himself.”[75] Another regime official was described as the Puij Macardor, or Captain of the traders.[76] He resided inward Ayawaso in addition to had total powerfulness to set taxes in addition to prices for selling. He was also empowered to forestall quarrels, differences in addition to controversies which powerfulness arise inward merchandise transactions. The traders were said to have got feared him to a greater extent than than the Rex himself, because non only did he punish offenders according to his pleasure, but inward cases of dissension, was prepared to block all the merchandise paths until he had been suitably pacified.[77]
The viadors in addition to Puyj Marcador of the kingdom of Accra could conceivably live described as Ministers of Finance in addition to merchandise inward modern terminology.
Assisting the Rex inward oter matters of province was the council of elders, referred to inward contemporary European documents as Caboceers, Caboceros or Cappeceers. There was a council of elders inward each Ga town. Similarly, the immature men, referred to as Mansebos past times the Europeans, had organizations through which they made their influence felt inward their respective towns.[78] It was from this grouping of immature men that the Rex was able to recruit his army. Dapper commented that the King of Accra was able to create total 15 tio 16 G men iin times of war.[79] Romerr remarked that at the outbreak of state of war with the Akwamu inward 1677, the King of Accra had “many G archers, assagay or spear-men in addition to sword-men, in addition to each of his 80 generals carried a gun with 10 charges of gun pulverization in addition to bullets.”[80]
Supported past times this management in addition to army, the King of Accra was able to maintain law in addition to monastic enjoin inward his territories despite the fact that the accommodated an ethnically mixed population of Ga, Adanme, Guan in addition to Akan. On the king’s power, Dapper remarked: “the King of Accra hath, (and non without cause) the repute of a strong prince… He hath a to a greater extent than absolute sovereignty over his subjects that whatever of his neighbours so that he is an unlimited monarch.”[81]
Although Dapper’s remark as to the unlimited nature of the king’s powerfulness is perhaps exaggerated, at that spot is no dubiety that inward the firstly one-half of the seventeenth century, the King of Accra was able to found some of political ascendancy in addition to authoritative command inward the Accra plains. This was completely different scenario from the previous century, when the different Ga groups had existed as various in addition to independent units.
It was during this period, when a grade of political unity amongst the Ga had been achieved in addition to to a greater extent than importantly when the kingdom of Accra was inward the procedure of territorial expansion that the King of Accra permitted European companies to found trading forts inward his kingdom.
THE KINGDOM OF ACCRA AND THE EUROPEANS 1600-1680
The Dutch, the English, the Swedes in addition to the Danes were all permitted to build forts in addition to lodges inward the Kingdom of Accra during the 17th century. Of these, it was the Dutch who were the firstly to gain a foothold along the coast. In 1612, the Dutch West Bharat Company sent a robe, a rapier in addition to a chapeau to live presented to the King of Accra “for the honour in addition to service of the fatherland. In 1614, the Dutch gave armed forces assistance to the Ga inward their state of war against Atty.
On 14th Oct 1624, it was reported to the states General that the West Bharat Company of the Gold Coast had made an alliance in addition to understanding with the King of Accra which stated that he would merchandise with no 1 but those from the Company.
"George Lomotey in addition to his wife. Trader inward Osu." Date: 1861-1880
This was the firstly of iv agreements made betwixt the Dutch West Bharat Company in addition to the kingdom of Accra. From a reading of these agreements 1 tin glean that the predominant concern of the Dutch was to gain in addition to maintain monopoly of merchandise on the Accra littoral.
The 2nd understanding was signed with the Rex on Oct 1633. According to this agreement, the Rex in addition to his elders were, upon their demand, given ii marks golden inward cash, (64 pounds) a reddish curtain in addition to most importantly, a hope of 3 ounces 8 angels inward golden every month. However, these gifts would only live provided if the Rex kept his words non to allow anyone but the Dutch to merchandise inward Small Bereku, Accra, Labadi in addition to Ningo.
The Dutch were non satisfied with this agreement, in addition to hence the Director General to the Gold Coast, Van Yperen, advised the Company to found a fort with a garrison of men at Accra. Van Yperen demands of the Rex of Accra evidently did non view with the spontaneous success that the Dutch had envisaged, as the directors of the Company later complained to the newly appointed Director General Van Amersfoot that, “Op dato” Van Yperen had non been able to obtain permission to build a fort, fifty-fifty though a goodness offering of a nowadays of 1.5 marks golden had been made.
It was until 1642 that the 3rd understanding was signed, a fact that demonstrate that the Dutch had been unsuccessfully line-fishing for the favour of the King of Accra for at to the lowest degree 30 years! The understanding signed with Mampong Okai, King of Accra on 30th August 1642 was a remarkacable improvement on the firstly two. It gave Ruychaver, on behalf of the Dutch West Bharat Company, the right to build “a lodge or house, fifty-fifty a fort as it shall delight him, for the amount of 8 large bendas of gold.” In addition, the Company was also to pay a monthly ‘gifts’ of 2 ounces of gold.
The difficulties encountered past times the Dutch before they were finally able to convince the Rex in addition to sign the 3rd understanding shed low-cal on Accra commercial policy towards the Europeans during the firstly iv decades of the seventeenth century. Out of all the people inhabiting the Gold Coast, the Ga provided a singular illustration of hostility towards the erection of forts on their shores. On the western coast, e.g. Sabu, Fetu in addition to Agona, the chiefs were to a greater extent than than willing in addition to sometimes fifty-fifty invited the Europeans to come upwards in addition to build inward their territory. In 1611, Sabu went so far as to send ambassadors Carvalho in addition to Marinho to Kingdom of the Netherlands to asking the assistance of the Dutch against the Portuguese. This resulted inward the edifice of the firstly Dutch fort, at Sabu inward 1612. Why then, should the Ga live so overtly hostile to the West Bharat Company’s endeavour to erect a lodge?
"Christiansborg. - Counting cowries." 1861
It appears that from the outset of the King of Accra was suspicious of Dutch intentions. If merchandise could live transacted efficiently in addition to comfortably from the ships, so at that spot was no demand to build forts which would imply daily in addition to hence to a greater extent than intimate contact. This suspicion was farther compounded past times past experiences with the Portuguese. The before Portuguese punitive expedition[9] against the Ga would have got made them extremely reluctant to allow whatever European to build forts on their shores, especially because some of those who had witnessed the expedition in addition to had lost friends in addition to relatives In the attacks were in all probability still live inward 1630. The fact that King Mampong Okai stated inward the treaty that the Dutch should build the forts whether his people at the beach wanted it or not, implies that he expected opposition.[10] Such opposition did indeed manifest itself when, within iv months of signing the agreement, King Mampong Okai was murdered.[11]
After the demise of King Mampong Okai, the Dutch felt it necessary to consolidate their spot past times signing some other understanding with his successor Okai Kwei, inward 1649.[12] This inward effect became the quaternary understanding betwixt the West Bharat Company in addition to the kingdom of Accra. The understanding conferred enormous powerfulness upon the Company. The firstly clause was the confirmation of the 1642 agreement. The 2nd clause stated that when the Ga traders sailed to the western coast with ‘beads in addition to accory’[13] to trade, they should usage the proceeds from the golden to purchase European manufactured goods. They were not, however, to merchandise with other unusual nations but only with the factories of the Dutch Company e.g. Elmina, Mouree or Adja. This is a rattling of import clause so far as it reveals the extent of Dutch ambition. The Dutch were non content but to command merchandise on the Accra seaboard, but wanted to command the Ga traders’ activities exterior Accra as well.
The possibility of Ga traders flouting the terms of the understanding was provided for inward the quaternary article. This stated that if the Dutch factor or whoever else powerfulness have got ascendance at Accra, caught a Ga individual trading with anyother European Nation, he had the powerfulness to seize non only the purchased goods but also to confiscate on one-half of them for turn a profit of the Company in addition to the other one-half for the Rex in addition to his Caboceers. Obviously therefore, the success of the actual implementation of these causes, depended on the strength of the Dutch garrison inward Accra.
The 5th in addition to in conclusion article incorporated a hope past times the King to punish “with all rigour” wanton subjects who would hurt whatever of the Company’s servants. The clause made the implementation of the quaternary article easier for the Dutch. It meant that whatever Ga trader pose upwards a scrap whilst hey “illicit” goods were beingness seized past times the Dutch in addition to the latter received whatever injury inward the struggle, the Ga trader would live punished “with all rigour) past times his ain king.
These agreements appeared highly advantageous to the Dutch, but the existent examine of their effectiveness lay inward the powerfulness in addition to willingness of contracting parties to adhere to the terms. The renewal in addition to confirmation of the agreements demonstrate that the Dutch had difficulty inward ensuring that the King of Accra would proceed to grant them monopoly rights to merchandise inward the kingdom. Later agreements betwixt the King of Accra in addition to other European Companies demonstrate the Dutch fearfulness in addition to skepticism was non groundless.
The firstly threat to the Dutch monopoly came from the English. In 1646, it was reported past times the Dutch, that since the divergence of their ships, the people of Accra had requested that the English linguistic communication factor, Thymen Mulgrave employ a yacht to merchandise on their coast. Mulgrave accepted the invitation, but sine his only yacht had been dispatched to Benin, the affair was postponed. However, he told the Ga that firstly they must drive the Dutch away from Accra. This occurred during the regency established after King Mampong Okai’s death.
Th. Swanikier [sitting], Brother C.F. Aldinger [sitting], Th. Wulff [standing], Paul Fleischer [standing]." Date: 1861 -1865
When the caboceers were reminded of the 1642 understanding in addition to the Dutch threatened to take away the company’s goods, set can to the lodge in addition to evacuate the port, as they had done at Cormatyn, this “caused such a scrap amidst them that they promised non to select inward the English.”[14] As a outcome threats, donation of presents in addition to the influence of Hendrick Caarloff (the acting factor of Accra) the Dutch seemed to have got temporarily warded off the English linguistic communication danger. On July 3rd 1647, it was reported that the King had forbidden his subjects to merchandise with whatever Englishmen inward Accra.[15] Furthermore, inward a leter dated 26th September 1647, it was alleged that inward spite of the entreaties of Middleton (the English linguistic communication factor at Cormantyn) to build a lodge at Accra, the Rex declared that he testament never intermission the alliance with the Dutch West Bharat Company.
In 1650 however, this hope was broken. In the human face of direct Dutch opposition in addition to protest, a political party of English, estranged from their English linguistic communication Republic of Guinea Company, was permitted past times the King of Accra to build a lodge at Osu. Even though the English linguistic communication abandoned the lodge when the estranged political party was reconciled to the Company, this was believed to live only a temporary retreat in addition to non a consummate abandonment. Consequently, they saw no ground why they could not, inward 1657, resume their trading activities inward Accra.[16] The only factor which seemed to have got checked their enthusiasm was the Dutch threat to select retaliatory measures past times edifice a lodge at Winneba, the port of Agona, where the English linguistic communication also had a lodge.[17]
The English linguistic communication resumed negotiations for the establishment of the lodge at Accra inward 1659. This fourth dimension they sent “a sure black” to the courtroom of the Rex of Accra to negotiate for them.[18] This evolution caused such panic that Sol, the Dutch factor, did non hold back the monthly canoe to dispatch the intelligence to the Director General, Valckenburgh at Elmina.[19] Instead instructions were straight off sent to Sol to have got the expanse where the English linguistic communication intended to build continually occupied past times slaves in addition to soldier or ii in addition to non to abandon it for whatever reason, “except for extreme violence” inward which illustration he was to tender an enclosed written protestation to the English. Such was the grade of consternation that inward 1659 the Dutch sent their representative, Harman Jansen, to the King of Accra inward Ayawaso, to banking company check the veracity of the intelligence in addition to to protestation against it.[20]
The human relationship betwixt the kingdom of Accra in addition to the English linguistic communication trading society appears to have got been fragile. This was due to the lack of continuity of policy resulting from the constant reorganization of the company.[21] In 1661, the Republic of Guinea Company was succeeded past times the Company of Royal Adventurers into Africa. According to Davies: “the whole venture was to a greater extent than reminiscent of an aristocratic treasure hunt than an organized business.” Even after the reorganization inward 1663, the company’s finances were chaotic. The commercial rivalry betwixt the English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch farther weakened the English linguistic communication company, before opened upwards state of war broke betwixt the English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch inward 1665. De Ruyter had deprived the English linguistic communication of all their settlements on the Gold Coast.
English linguistic communication commercial activities on the Gold Coast received fresh impetus when a novel company, the Royal African Company succeeded the Royal Adventurers into Africa inward 1672. In this same year, the Royal African Company was permitted past times the King of Accra to build James Fort, close the hamlet of Soko. The novel fort would live situated due west of the Dutch fort Creveceour in addition to to a greater extent than importantly within its artillery range.
Other threats to the Dutch monopoly inward Accra came from the Swedish in addition to Danish African Companies. The shareholders of these ii companies were mostly Dutchmen who were dissatisfied with the Dutch West Bharat Company. Hendrick Caarloff, who had previously served as financial inward the Dutch Company, tin live seen as the principal histrion amongst these distinguished Dutchmen.[22] In 1652, Caarloff exploited the friendship which had existed himself in addition to the Ga whilst he was inward the service of the Dutch West Bharat Company, to obtain permission for the Swedish African Company to build a lodge inward Osu. When Caarloff left the service of the Swedish African Company, he seized the lodge at Osu for the Danish African Company. The Danes afterwards lost it to the Dutch inward 1659, only to finally regain possession of it inward 1661. According to the Danish version of the incident, they only achieved this victory when aided past times the King of Accra, who ordered the Dutch to evacuate the lodge.[23] Alternatively the Dutch maintained that Jost Cramer, the Danish representative, sent to the fort a sure Joan Jacob Ragot, who with the assistance of several hundred natives, drove away the employees of the Dutch West Bharat Company, in addition to stole their merchandise.[24] What is important is that inward both versions of the trial described, the Ga decided to aid the Danish Company, although the accounts conflict on whether this assistance came from the King or the mutual people. The Danes for their component evidently felt they had every right to the lodge since it was built past times the Swedes, who had afterwards lost it to them through legitimate conquest.
If this conquest theory is pressed to its logical conclusion, 1 wonders why on 18th August 1661 the Danes signed an agreement[25] with King Okai Kwei of Accra to obtain the same slice of ground which the claimed to have got already acquired past times conquest. From the terms of the understanding on tin deduce that the Danes were moved past times the fearfulness that they would live ousted from their newly acquired possession: conquest solitary was no guarantee of long term occupancy.
The Danish understanding with the King of Accra deferred but from the previous Dutch treaties in addition to was a to a greater extent than realistic in addition to workable document. More of import than the fact that the Danes paid a lump amount of 50 bendas of golden for the land, was the absence of whatever endeavour to found a monopoly on the coast. Instead, the Danes were given ground “to build a fort at the firstly opportunity”. The Rex understook to offering all assistance inward the edifice of this fort in addition to to aid defend the Danes against whatever attacks from either Europeans or Blacks. This was exactly what the Danash Company needed at a fourth dimension when it was just kickoff to found itself inward the competitive Gold Coast merchandise with comparatively inadequate way of protection: it allowed them to lean on the king’s powerfulness to consolidate their ain position. To demonstrate how seriously the Rex meant to select his pledged discussion in addition to moreover to seal the understanding made with the Danish Company, he drunkard the fetish named Aquandoe[26] inward the presence of Ahen (the boy of Henequa, deceased King of Fetu). Ahen has been specifically sent to Accra past times Jan Classen, a powerful merchant in addition to Dey[27] of Fetu to witness this oath.
In add-on to the presence of the English, Swedes, Dutch in addition to Danes who had trading forts on the Accra coast, the expanse also accommodated other European traders such as the Portuguese in addition to French.
The Portuguese, whose before economical command of the Gold Coast had been destroyed past times the Dutch seizure of their forts inward 1642, later renewed their commercial interests inward Accra. In 1679, they were able to gain command of the Danish fort Christianborg at Osu, when a Portuguese adult man named Julian de Campo Barrreto bought the Danish Fort from the Commandant Pieter Bolt for 30 half dozen pounds weight of gold.[28] The fort was renamed St Francis Xavier past times the Portuguese. However, inward response to protests from the Danish Company, the King of Portugal ordered the fort to live returned to the Danes. After the Portuguese had handed over the fort inward 1683, they continued to merchandise from their ships on the Accra littoral.
Evidence of French trading activities inward Accra is provided past times Barbot, agent of the Fench African Company. Barbot transacted business concern inward Accra in addition to fifty-fifty paid see to Ga upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso inward the society of Ofori, 1 of the Ga Princes who succeeded King Okai Kwei inward 1677.
All these European traders were attracted to the Ga coast for 1 paramount reason: its reputation as a lucrative golden trading centre. Seventeenth-century European records abound with comments extolling the pre-eminence of the golden merchandise inward Accra. De Marees observed at the kickoff of the seventeenth century that the Accra traders “come with groovy store of money bringing the golden as it is found inward the hills.”[29] Van der Broecke also observed that “to this spot of Accra comes downwards indeed the most in addition to best golden of this whole coast.[30]” Brun commented on parties of traders from Accra with “about 60 or 70 pound weight of the best gold.[31] In Feb 1634, the Dutch West Bharat Company reported that, “the same port of Accra has inward the in conclusion 7 months, yielded a considerably larger quantity of golden than previously which has caused to maintain that spot good assorted with every form of merchandise.”[32]
In 1646, Ruychaver stated: inward the lodge of Accra it has been rattling distinguished for the circumstances of the fourth dimension in addition to 238 marks, 101/2 angels traded there.[33] If the port could live properly supplied with merchandise it could undoubtedly select inward 60-70 marks monthly in addition to various novel Acanists from a sure hamlet Aquema have got sometimes appeared there, who have got spent inward a calendar month 20-30, yea, 40 marks of extremely fine gold. It was also found that some Acory, but non rattling fine, was to live obtained at a reasonable price, of which a trial would live made; so that out of the spot if goods are non lacking something goodness is to live expected.”[34]
In Dec 1646, the Dutch West Bharat Company reported that the Accra monthly canoe had arrived with in addition to extract of the sales, consisting of 99 marks 4 ounces 12 engels.[35] Unfortunately, the figures for the other European traders are non available in addition to so do non allow a total appreciation of the volume of merchandise inward Accra. However, Dapper claimed that “little Accra has been many years the chiefest spot of merchandise upon the Gold Coast, side past times side Mauree in addition to Kormantyn, where unusual merchants ship Fe in addition to linen, which they commutation inward barter for gold, with much greater gain than on the other places of the Gold Coast.”[36] He farther stated that Accra “produced a 3rd component of the golden that was to live had on all the Gold Coast.”[37]
The Royal African Company also remarked that “Accra is ever a goodness spot of goodness golden in addition to sometimes plenty of slaves. This is the easternmost spot of merchandise of goodness gold.”[38] Accra,s render of slaves during this catamenia was estimated past times Dapper to live a relatively little 3 hundred per year. Hence, although Accra sure as shooting supplied slaves inward the seventeenth century, golden was past times far the to a greater extent than of import in addition to profitable merchandise at this time. European records consistently cite golden as the main attraction which tempted traders to the Accra coast in addition to ensuring commercial rivalry betwixt the different companies.
From the Dutch perspective, the presence of upwards to v other European merchandise nations inward Accra meant that inward spite of their previous treaties, they were non able to maintain the monopoly of merchandise inward the kingdom. The Dutch saw the violation of these treaties as evidence of the treachery of the Ga. In 1650, when the Swedes had failed inward their firstly endeavour to found a lodge at Osu, Arent Cock, the Dutch Director-General, was convinced that upon the imminent arrival of a novel ship, the Swedes would inevitably succeed inward their side past times side endeavour because “the infidelity of the state is groovy plenty to invite them to do it.”[39]
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 closer exam of the Ga-European human relationship shows that at that spot to a greater extent than complex reasons for the violation of the treaties. There seem to have got been differences of interpretation as to the terms in addition to ultimate important of the agreements.
As far as the Dutch were concerned, they had bought “the whole of the Accra beach with ports in addition to habours thereof, together with the merchandise in addition to traffic falling there.”[40] Consequently, the King of Accra had no right whatsoever to allow whatever other European society to build or merchandise there. To the Dutch this was tantamount to a consummate transfer of ownership. Conversely, the behavior of the King of Accra suggests that according to his interpretation, he had conceded to the Dutch only what N.A. Ollenu calls ‘occupational right.’[41] This meant that absolute ownership still rested with him alone. He could hence quite legitimately invite other unusual nations to build on gratis ground inward his dominions. In 1659, he made it clear to the Dutch that although he had no intention of driving them away, if on the other manus they decided to leave of absence of their ain accord, others would sure as shooting live allowed to occupy the vacated land.[42]
K.Y. Daarku[43] views these conflicting interpretations of the treaties as the outcome of fundamentally different attitudes towards ground tenure that pertained inward Europe in addition to on the Gold Coast. In Europe ground was owned past times in addition to private or a society in addition to could live expeditiously alienated. Conversely, on the Gold Coast, in addition to indeed inward many parts of Africa, ground tenure was communistic. And private could non hence undertake a consummate alienation of ground to strangers: as Ollenu puts it, “land is owned past times a vast theatre unit of measurement of whom many are dead, a few are living in addition to a countless host are still unborn.[44] This ground for the different interpretations of the treaties tin only really live applied to the initial stages of Dutch contact with the Ga. The rattling fact that the Dutch had to pay a stipulated monthly amount of 2 ounces[45] of golden to the King of Accra must have got meant that they were aware that they were non the absolute owners of the land. Instead, they deliberately chose to telephone call upwards these payments gifts, implying that the donor had no right of refusal inward granting them.
The mental attitude of the Dutch documented inward other component of the Gold Coast illustrates that they were aware that the territories did non really transfer ground ownership to the Europeans. For example, inward 1639 the French protested against the Dutch activities inward Komenda on the pretext that they had already made an understanding with the King in addition to hence the Dutch were intruding on their rights. The Dutch, however, dismissed this protestation on the ground that the expanse belonged to the King of Komennda in addition to non the King of French Republic in addition to hence he had the right to give permission to whomsoever he pleased.[46] This principle, so expediently upheld past times the Dutch, did non forestall them from claiming on the strength of the 1642 understanding with the King of Accra that the latter had lost his sovereignty over the Accra beach. This time, it was the plough of later arrivals similar the Danes to dot out to the Dutch that Accra belonged to the King of Accra in addition to non to the Dutch West Bharat Company.
This illustration illustrates the extent to which Europeans upheld the local King’s sovereignty in addition to ownership of ground only if they were non the firstly to acquire a trading postal service inward a particular state.
The 2nd ground behind the violation of the treaties was the King of Accra’s anxiety to create as much turn a profit as possible from the European presence on the coast. De Marees remarked that the Ga are “a crafty in addition to subtle people in addition to the subtlest of all that coast for both traffique in addition to otherwise.”[47] This thought was fully displayed inward an interview inward 1659 which the King granted at his courtroom at Ayawaso to Haran Jansen, a representative of the Dutch West Bharat Company. the main ground motivating the Dutch to seek this audience with the Rex were:
1. To protestation against an alleged English linguistic communication endeavour to build a fort inward Accra.
2. To protestation against the presence of a lodge in addition to the prevalence of merchandise inward a department of Accra known as Osu, since this was a contravention of the 1642 in addition to 1649 agreements in addition to hence they wanted to persuade the Rex to have got the lodge demolished.
3. To persuade the King to allow the inland traders Akanists (Akans) to come upwards in addition to merchandise straight with the Dutch on the coast.
4. To persuade the King to give the Give the Dutch temporary recess from the monthly payments, as merchandise returns were rattling depression at the time.
The replies to the questions pose to him past times the Dutch representative suggest that the King was fully aware of the implications of the agreements, but that he was to a greater extent than concerned almost filling his treasury than almost pleasing the Dutch.
Jansen:- whether a asking had been made past times the English linguistic communication state or past times anyone on their behalf, or whether the King himself had made the asking to them, that state should found a lodge in addition to ship on merchandise here?
King:- the English linguistic communication had made no asking for that purpose nor likewise past times him.
Jansen:- Whether he understands that this tin or may live done.
King:- Will non give a reply to this question.
Jansen:- If nevertheless the English linguistic communication or others made attempts to do so would non the King forestall it?
King:- Says yes he testament forestall it.
Jansen:- Whether the King is still bearing inward psyche the understanding entered into?
King:- Replies yes.
Jansen:- Whether inward pursuance of the same he testament exactly discovery that understanding in addition to maintain it inward total vigour.
King:- Replies that at the same fourth dimension as the understanding was made it had been decided past times the contracting parties in addition to the councilors that the Honourable Director testament cook prices so as to merchandise as was traded at the other factories to windward.
Jansen:- Why does the Rex allow merchandise at Osu contrary to the agreement?
King:- Says that he ould non have got the fort or lodge at Osu removed.
Jansen:- Whether so he understands that the understanding allows the trade?
King:- Replies yes.
Jansen:- As past times that understanding it tin live considered otherwise, whether he, the king, would resolve to renounce the merchandise at Osu or not?
King;- Declare sure as shooting not, for that manufacturing flora if producing greater profits.
Jansen:- What other reasons displace him?
King:- Says he won’t do it.
Jansen:- Whether the King would non resolve to forbid his subjects inward monastic enjoin to comply with the understanding to the merchandise with whatever other state which they are doing daily, except with the Hollanders?
King:-Declares the he testament past times no way forbid them such.
Jansen:- Why does he maintain the path closed to the Accanits so that they are prevented from beingness able to merchandise with our state here?
King:- Says the ground is that no dashes are given, but if to a greater extent than presents are given him he testament view to it.
Jansen:- As at present, no merchandise whatever is done hither inward the lodge Crevecoeur in addition to it advisable to halt that merchandise for a time; whether the King understands, that their Honourable High Mightinesses in addition to their Chartered Directors retain their right of ownership to the purchased land, ports in addition to harbours.
King:- Says that on their divergence others testament indeed come upwards inward the spot , but he is non driving them away.
Jansen:- Whether the King understands that if the Honourable General decides for the service of the Honourable Company to renew the merchandise again, this may live done at whatever time.
King:- Declares, yea, provided the usual customs are paid.
Jansen:- Whether inward the absence of our nation, the Rex would allow whatever unusual nations to build in addition to ship on merchandise hither on the Honourable Company’s lands?
King:- But if it live advisable inward monastic enjoin to spotter for trade, to proceed to remain hither inward the Lodge Crevecoeur during the lack of merchandise (they beingness the stimulate of it) would he sympathise – (it is stated with all courtesy) – that the payment of the monthly customs would live suspended until such a fourth dimension as all the traders (as hitherto) were allowed access to the factory?
King:- Declares that he is non willing to forgo 1 cacra of his usual monthly customs.[48]
The King of Accra was shrewd plenty to realize that he could obtain meliorate prices. There is evidence to demonstrate that European goods inward Accra were to a greater extent than expensive than on the Western Coast. On 1st Feb 1643 Ruychaver, the Dutch Director-General, reported that he had fixed the cost of linen at Elmina at 120 in addition to at Accra at 110 per benda. He intended to pose it 1 at 112 in addition to 100 respectively if at that spot was a goodness demand for it.[49] In 1646, the Dutch Director-General admitted that for some yr at that spot had been a difference of 30 in addition to 40 benda on linen, 10-12 1b. copper per benda in addition to 1-2 engels on Fe rods. The Ga traders at firstly tried to avoid the high prices inward Accra past times travelling to sell their goods on the Western Coast inward monastic enjoin to secure a goodness bargain. Indeed, it was this disparity inward cost which, according to the Ga, prompted them to invite the English linguistic communication representative Thymen Mulgrave to send a yacht to Accra inward 1646.[50] The province of affairs seems to have got temporarily rectified, for, on 18th March 1647, Director-General Van del Wel reported on the remarkable improvement inward the receipt of golden “which greatly the stimulate that nosotros give things somewhat inexpensive at Accra.”[51]
It is clear that the prices were non stabilized. They fluctuated according to demand in addition to the competitive nature of the merchandise inward a particular area. It was this factor which the King of Accra naturally exploited past times permitting as many European traders as possible to transact business concern along his coast.
The policy for allowing to a greater extent than than 1 European state to merchandise inward Accra had other advantages apart from that of the command of prices. In add-on to the lump amount in addition to the gifts which were presented to the King upon the signing of the treaties, he collected monthly rent of 1 benda from each European society which had a lodge or fort on his land. The King of Accra also collected customs duties from each European ship that anchored inward Accra waters. The Danes for example, had to pay one-half a benda for each ship that anchored at Osu. They also had to pay a taxation on each item they unloaded, eg. One bar of iron, 1 anker on liquor in addition to 10 pieces says type of cloth.[52] The amount of money the King received would hence live straight proportional to the number of European trading inward his territories.
Commercial rivalry betwixt the European traders meant that the maintenance of the Dutch monopoly over the lucrative Accra merchandise became impossible, especially since, past times seeking a monopoly of trade, the Dutch were trying to contrary a province of affairs which had ever prevailed on the Accra littoral. According to Dapper, merchandise inward Accra “was gratis to all, till the Hollanders West Bharat Company had engrossed it to themselves.”[53] It would seem obvious that the other European traders would non live prepared to sit down in addition to spotter piece the Dutch enjoyed a monopoly of the profitable Accra merchandise on the strength of uncomplicated agreements in addition to presents alone.
The establishment of forts on the Accra coast enticed the Ga people from the inland in addition to from villages farther afield to come upwards in addition to settle nether the forts. These settler were still, however, nether the command of the King of Accra, in addition to he resented whatever endeavour past times the Europeans to exercise ascendance over them. For example, inward August 1646, a Ga dependent who apparently was a friend of some Caboceers was rebuked past times the Dutch sub-factor, Reynier Carstens, for bringing inward 3 quaternary (3/4) of an ounce of imitation golden for sale inward Crevecoeur. When the King heard of the reprimanding of his subject, he closed the merchandise path leading to the Dutch fort.[54] Consequently, the Dutch had to pay to a greater extent than than 1 grade of gold[55] before the paths were re-opened.
This powerfulness of the King to obstruct the current of merchandise to the forts was dreaded past times the Europeans. They tried hence non to incur his displeasure and, to ensure this, solicited his favour past times presenting him with gifts. These gifts con live divided into ii categories. The firstly were voluntary donations made past times the Europeans at their ain convenience. For example, inward 1680, the Danish African Company presented to the King of Accra a reddish velvet textile with golden embroidery, a chapeau with the Danish King’s coast of arms, an umbrella, a muskets, gun pulverization in addition to brandy.[56] The 2nd were customary presents, which though they were non stipulated inward the agreements had go good established through long practice. For illustration the Danes had to pay 4 bendas to the King as a welcoming gift on his annual visits to the coast. They also had to pay 1 barrel of gun powder, (about 10-12 lb) in addition to charge of almost 16-20 lb. when the King was engaged inward war. After the state of war they were expected to congratulate him in addition to aid him to mourn the soldiers he had lost inward the battle.[57]
The donation of these gifts was limited to the individual of the King alone. The King’s sons, wives in addition to councilors were likewise presented with gifts each fourth dimension they visited the forts.[58] The most influential men inward the kingdom also expected to have presents from the Europeans. In 1642, when the treaty was signed with the Dutch West Bharat Company, Teij, the King’s lieutenant, received 1 oz. 14 engels gold, the king’s children received 1oz 2 engels, the Caboceers of Grater Accra 3oz … engels worth of goods whilst those inward Little Accra received 5 oz. 8 engels. The Mansebos also r eceived 6.5ankers of liquors.[59] In 1680, the Caboceers of Grater Accra received from the Danish Company 1 anker French brandy in addition to half dozen bars of iron, whilst those inward Osu received one-half an anker French brandy in addition to half dozen bars of iron. Likewise, the Mansebos received 1 anker corn brandy in addition to iv in addition to iv bars of iron. The oldest of the king’s brothers also received one-half slice of says, 4 bars of iron, ½ a slice of says, ½ anker of French brandy in addition to little pieces of coloured Indian silk. The Paij-Marcador or Minister[60] of merchandise also received ½ a slice of says, ½ anker of French brandy in addition to 2 bars of iron.[61]
"Boys' boarding schoolhouse inward Christiansborg." 1861
Each grouping of Europeans had special friends amongst the Ga. Cornellison, the Danish factor at Osu from 1661-7, described Kwei Blanco, the oldest of the king’s brothers as his ‘special friend’[62]. Likewise the Dutch had the back upwards of St Jago, 1 of the principal men inward Accra. The Dutch claimed that he brought downwards 1 3rd of the golden that came from the coast in addition to that he had never been seen trading with other foreigners. St Jago went to see the Dutch Director-General at Elmina in addition to presented him with a fine sheep, for which he received 6 ‘pees’ inward return.[63] It was this same adult man who informed Sol, the Dutch factor, almost the English linguistic communication intention to build a fort inward Accra inward 1659. The English linguistic communication similarly used the services of a ‘certain black’ to negotiate with the King inward 1659, when they wanted to re-establish themselves inward Accra.[64]
The private grapheme in addition to mental attitude of the Europeans inward the service of the merchandise companies inward Accra helped to determine the nature of the Ga-European relationship. When Hendrick Caarloff was acting factor for the Dutch inward Accra, the human relationship betwixt the people in addition to the society was rattling cordial. Thus, when the Dutch needed lime, they found ready aid from the Ga, who negotiated for them to acquire oyster shells from Prampram, 5-6 miles from Accra.[65] It is non surprising to discovery later examples of Caarloff capitalizing on his friendship with the Ga after he had left the service of the Dutch West Bharat Company to obtain permission for firstly the Swedes in addition to later the Danes to build trading lodges at Osu.[66]
Another European retainer who was able to win the friendship in addition to confidence of the Ga was Christian Cornellisson, who worked for the Danish Company inward Accra from 1661-7. His 7 years’ experience inward the service of the Swedish Company proved rattling useful to the Danes. It was said that he was so loved past times the Ga that they protected him from poisoning in addition to other such dangers. Numerous babies were fifty-fifty named after him. When he finally left the Gold Coast, he was evidently missed past times the Ga, for, on his divergence from Accra, the Rex ordered all his wives in addition to his entire courtroom to escort him to the boat.[67] In 1680, 13 years after leaving the Gold Coast, nosotros still discovery Cornellisson sending presents to Okai Kwei, King of Accra in addition to his elders.[68]
"Christiansborg. Shoe-maker Bohner's workshop."
The love in addition to friendship exuded past times Caarloff in addition to Cornellisson contrast with the to a greater extent than usual sense of resentment, perhaps best personified past times the Dutch factor Col. He was reported to live ni constant dispute with the Ga, treating them improperly inward discussion in addition to deed in addition to driving them out of the lodge with bare weapons.[69] It was non surprising that merchandise returns for this catamenia were rattling depression – 15 marks, half dozen in addition to 3 quarter engels as compared with the average of 70-80 marks which the Dutch usually obtained when merchandise was running smoothly.
The overall film of the human relationship betwixt the kingdom of Accra in addition to the Europeans is that it was essentially commercial, each political party trying to create the maximum turn a profit from the province of affairs regardless of understanding or convention. For example, inward instructions given inward 1680 to the newly appointed governor-general of the Danish forts were directives stating that he should never pay anything to the Rex if the latter had no right to it; if he did have got a right to it, the governor-general should assay his best to cut back the amount involved past times one-half or less. He should, however, do this diplomatically, so as non to incur the wrath of the King.[70]
When 1 farther analyses the Ga-European human relationship as it existed during the 17th century, it becomes apparent that the Rex of Accra was the supreme player. Despite the complex connections of mutual responsibleness in addition to dependence which characterized the relationship, it was ultimately the King who controlled the current of merchandise in addition to goods which supplied the European forts. In essence, the prosperity in addition to survival of the private trading companies depended on the King’s goodwill.
It has been seen that the prosperity of the Accra kingdom depended on a audio economical policy inward relation to the Europeans. Ironically, it was the rattling pursuit of such policy which caused friction betwixt the Ga in addition to neighbouring states during the seventeenth century.
THE KINGDOM OF ACCRA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS 1600-1680
In the middle of the eighteenth century, Johannes Rask observed that Ga women were often to live seen attempting to sift golden from the river with wooden bowls. The maximum amount they collected was twelve shillings worth for a whole twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia work, but to a greater extent than often than non the obtained nothing.[1] This golden collected past times the Ga women was manifestly non the whole amount traded inward Accra during the seventeenth century: since Accra had no golden mines, the commercial quantities of golden traded inward the kingdom during the seventeenth century came from the golden producing hinterland. It was predominantly this which caused friction betwixt the Ga in addition to their neighbours. In essence, the role of the Ga was that of middleman, in addition to consequently the prosperity of the kingdom of Accra lay inward its powerfulness to channel the current of merchandise from the primary areas of production to the European trading forts on the Accra coast.
A.H. Engmann, Maria Engmann, instructor inward Christiansborg, both mulattos." Date: 1861 -1880
At the kickoff of the seventeenth century, the Ga acted as oarsmen in addition to interpreters for the inland golden producers who came to merchandise with the Europeans on the coast.Brun has left a detailed description of the human relationship that existed the Ga in addition to the inland traders. In 1614, he observed: “when the Ga go out to sea, they have got canoes, skillfully constructed from a hollowed tree, inward which 20 or to a greater extent than men are able to sit. They have on no wearable other than a little Quaquahy, with which they cover their loins in addition to genitals, the repose of the trunk beingness quite naked. But the Akan traders, who may select to this spot out of Acania say 60 or 70 lbs weight of the best gold, have got also an outer garment a textile worn over the shoulders, in addition to they create it inward a stately manner, wuth say 150 or to a greater extent than slaves. For the Akan have got no horses, but the goods for which they sell their golden are rattling heavy, iron, copper, brass basins, beads, mattocks in addition to other large knives. These things, the slaves have got to ship spot on their backs similar donkeys. They know no other linguistic communication than Akan in addition to so they usage an Accra as interpreter, who may thus cleverly deceive the visitors. They usage weight of ii kinds; when they are purchasing they usage the heavier weights; in addition to sell with the lesser. When, however, they come upwards on board ship, they to a greater extent than often than non go sick for they are non strong past times nature in addition to are non used to seas storms. For this reason, they have got to go dorsum to dry out ground quickly, in addition to the Accras are entrusted with the transaction which they ship out as required from them. When they select the merchandise goods to land, the Akan are non so content with them, so they go dorsum to the ship in addition to fetch a trivial spirits, which is gratefully in addition to copiously drunk, so that they autumn soundless in addition to repose content.”[2]
The policy of allowing the Akan access to the coast to merchandise straight with the Europeans was abandoned as a outcome of the ascension of the Accra kingdom. In 1647, the Dutch Director-General, Van der Wel, complained that the people of Greater Accra would non concord to their asking to allow the Accanists in addition to other inland traders to move through the beach to trade.[3] Dapper also remarked: “the King of Accra suffers none out of Aquemboe (Akwamu) in addition to Aquimmera to come upwards through his ground to merchandise with our people, but reserves that liberty to his ain subjects only, who ship the wares brought from our people to Abonce in addition to commutation them at that spot with groovy profit.[4]
The King of Accra realized that his people would gain greater turn a profit from the European presence if they had the monopoly of the merchandise on the coast in addition to inward its immediate hinterland. Through the monopolistic policy Accra exploited its spot as both a coastal in addition to an inland state. The kingdom of Accra stretched almost 20 miles inland with its upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso centrally situated 11 miles into the interior.
Accra’s external merchandise was so organized that traders from the neighbouring states were non fifty-fifty allowed to ship on commerce inward the upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 barrier of at to the lowest degree 20 miles was set betwixt the producers of the golden in addition to the ultimate purchasers on the coast. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 special marketplace was established northwest of Accra: a Dutch map of 1629 refers to it as the A.B.C. marketplace of Accra.[5] The marketplace was situated almost 21 miles from the coast in addition to was doubtless the same 1 referred to past times Dapper as Abonse, which he located as beingness ii hours journeying from Greater Accra.[6]
Abonse was the marketplace where the European goods such as cloth, basins, knives, gun in addition to rum were exchanged for golden in addition to slaves. In add-on to the imported commodities, make such as salt, fish in addition to cattle were sold past times the Ga inward commutation for crops from the fertile inland regions. Dapper made a special reference to the cattle merchandise which was the principal business of the people of Labadi. According to his account, the merchandise of the inhabitants “consists chiefly inward cows, whereof they breed some upwards themselves in addition to others they fetch overland from Ley, a spot 8 or 10 miles lower, which they sometimes sell 1 time again to the Akraman blacks in addition to those of the upper most places.”[7]
Abonse was a good organized marketplace with its ain government minister assigned to regulate prices in addition to levy taxes on transactions. It had specific marketplace days, which according to Dapper were held 3 times a week, “with groovy resort of people out of all the neighbouring territories.”[8]
Special marketplace days must have got been inward existence inward Accra fifty-fifty before the arrival of the Europeans on the coast. Towrson observed inward 1657 that at Accra they would have got no traffic with the Negroes, but 3 or iv days inward the calendar week in addition to all the repose of the calendar week they would non come upwards at us.”[9] Pieter De Marees, who visited the coast inward 1601, remarked that the Ga “come non often to purchase wares, but discovery sure days inward the calendar week to that purpose in addition to so they come upwards with groovy store of money, bringing the golden as it is found inward the hills.”[10] It is to a greater extent than than likely the Abonse marketplace of the seventeenth century existed inward the sixteenth century or at to the lowest degree was the successor to an before 1 which had existed on the northern frontiers of Accra.
Among the neighbouring states who traded at the Abonse marketplace were the Akyem on the north-western frontier, known past times the Europeans as the Great Akany. Dapper remarked that the Akyem “rarely come upwards to the coast to merchandise to merchandise with the whites but conduct their merchandise inward gold, textile in addition to other wares with their neighbours to the north. The mainly go the Abonse close Akora (Sic) because they commutation most of their golden for European goods.”[11]
On the northern frontier was Aboera, which tin live identified with modern Aburi. Dapper claimed that “very much golden is found hither which the inhabitants select to the marketplace at Abonse.”[12]
Further due north was Tafoe, whose territory was excessively rich inward golden in addition to most of this golden is brought to Abonse. Some is occasionally brought to the sea side hamlet of Moure.”[13] On the north-eastern frontier was Akaradi, which was said to possess “very much golden which the Akanier brought to the markets. The inhabitants select it to the marketplace at Abonse.”[14] Further north-east was Kwahu, where “gold is also dug in addition to taken to the marketplace of Greater Accra for sale.
Accra’s policy to forestall these inland traders from negotiating straight with the Europeans on the coast contrasts with the policy of the province on the Western component of the Gold Coast during the seventeenth century (Axim, Sbu, Fetu, Commenda in addition to Fante). There, the Akan traders from the interior were allowed past times the kings to come upwards in addition to merchandise with Europeans on the coast so long as they paid their tolls. These inland traders went so far as to found pockets of trading colonies inward the coastal states. In Cape Coast inward 1680, a adult man referred to as “Captain of the Akanists” was 1 of the most influential people inward the kingdom of Fetu.[15] Dapper also remarked that the Akanists “bring two-third of the golden which the whites purchase on the Gold Coast each year. Normally, they come upwards to trivial Kommando, Kormantin in addition to especially to Moure to trade. Many of them live with their wives in addition to children at Mouree in addition to aid novel traders who come upwards to the coast in addition to have got to pay customs duties on their goods. They are deceitful in addition to cunning inward trade. Their slaves ship the goods which they purchase to various markets inward the interior. They are able to move anywhere with groovy freedom, though, Ati, Sabu in addition to other surrounding territories, relish groovy liberty in addition to are welcomed past times everyone.”[16]
The success of Accra’s monopolistic policy depended on the effective protection of her frontiers. Whilst at that spot is no direct evidence to suggest that Accra had a special strength to protect its people from intrusion in addition to smuggling, at that spot is evidence indicating that Accra had toll collectors on the major merchandise routes.[17] One tin hence surmise that these toll collectors would have got been backed past times some sort coercive powerfulness so as to avoid the possibility of beingness overpowered past times larg groups of unusual traders.
The success of Accra’s trading policy also depended, to some extent, on the absence of alternative markets in addition to merchandise routes within the immediate vicinity of the kingdom. The eastern frontier created no problems, because the kingdom stretched right Adanme ground to the Vlta.[18] However, the western in addition to northern frontiers did nowadays difficulties in addition to brought Accra into conflict with Agona, Latebi in addition to Akwamu.
West of Accra was the kingdom of Agona, a stretch of coast which had likewise attracted European traders inward the 2nd one-half of the sixteenth century. For example, inward 1557, the English linguistic communication merchant Towrson traded for golden inward Bireku in addition to Winneba.[19] Agona’s merchandise with the Europeans suffered a lapse at the kickoff of the seventeenth century, for example, inward 1601, De Marees remarked that the Frenchmen ‘used to’ anchor at Bireku in addition to the Breku used to purchase groovy store of Fe but since the ships had stopped trading there, the inhabitants travelled to Accra to trade.[20] Although Agona may have got ceased to attract the Europeans traders, she sure as shooting carried on merchandise with her neighbours. De Marees observed that at Winneba the inhabitants usage groovy traffique along the coast past times selling their cattle; in addition to because that at that spot are many proper women; drivers of Negroes come upwards from other places of the county thither to purchase women in addition to to fetch slaves to serve their turnes
Withal.”[21] Dapper also remarked that the Agona had “but little merchandise for European wares in addition to is therefore, trivial frequented. The best dealing is for slaves of Breku with the akerache (Accra) merchants which come upwards thither, who commutation them for serges, viz a slice of serge for a slave or else ii ounces of gold.”[22]
To remedy to this paucity of European merchandise inward Agona, the Rex allowed the English linguistic communication to build a trading lodge at Winneba. In 1656, the Dutch also claimed they had been invited past times the King of Agona to build at Winneba.[23] It is clear that past times the mid-seventeeth century, Agona started to attract the European traders. Barbot observed inward the 2nd one-half of the seventeeth century that Accra in addition to Agona “are good seated for trade, when they are non at state of war with their neighbours, for when they are, at that spot is trivial golden in addition to few slaves to live had.” He farther commented: “the Accra blacks come upwards downwards to this coast to trade, when they hear the ships riding , that had a good sorted cargo, of such goods as they have got occasion for, viz.: says, old sheets, cosvelt linen, bugles, Fe in addition to brandy.”[24]
It appears that the kingdom of Accra became jealous of this revival of European merchandise inward Agona. Accra’s policy towards Agona was hostile but the latter seemed to tolerate this hostility, probably, for fearfulness of beingness completely subjugated. By 1634, Accra had already incorporated the Agona town of trivial Bereku, Which was famous for the industry of arms, into the kingdom of Accra.[25] In 1655 however, state of war finally broke betwixt the Ga in addition to the Agona as a outcome of Accra’s aggression. It was reported past times the Dutch upper factor Isaac Shutt that “through some crss (accras) there,great disturbances had arisen, who going almost Obu (Obutu?) came in addition to plundered the corn of the agunas, almost which beingness many times warned, they would not, however, cease so that the Agunas have got massacred twelve of them in addition to wounded three.”[26]
Ga raids on Agona had some other underlying factor, which was to a greater extent than straight off of import than commercial jealousy. Accra suffered from intermittent shortage of food. Dapper remarked that provision inward Accra was rattling “scarce, especially fruits in addition to bread-corn, so that whatever whites pose into this spot to merchandise must of necessity provide themselves good with all necessary provisions.”[27] In 1640, the Dutch Director-General, Arent Jacobsen Van Amersfort, noted: “there is a bad harvest 1 time again at Accra from which it is feared much would perish. The port of Accra had produced null for months. It appears that the traders are so impoverished through the famine in addition to non half dozen marks golden a calendar month has been received.”[28] Oral tradition likewise talks of a groovy famine which the Ga so severely that when it finally ended it became an occasion for a national celebration, Homowo, during which the ghosts of the ancestors were invited to portion inward the feast.”[29]
In contrast to the scarcity to nutrient inward Accra, Agona was endowed with abundant supplies. De Marees observed that “the ground people (Agona) thereabout are goodness hubby men, in addition to sow much millie, presse goodness store of palm vino in addition to select groovy number of immature cattle up.[30]” the Ga hence capitalized on this abundance past times raiding Agona corn whenever at that spot was nutrient shortage inward Accra.
In 1655, Agona used these on their corns as a justification for finally settling the Ga menace on its eastern frontiers. They were in all probability incited to opened upwards state of war past times a hope to aid the Ga’s traditional enemies, the Akwamu, in addition to indeed evidence records that the Akwamu did go allies of the Agona inward this war. In 1637, it was reported past times the Dutch Director-General, Valckenburgh, that merchandise had been especially bad at Accra “though the state of war of the Agunase (Agonas) who has set waste matter the whole ground of Accra in addition to set it inward ashes.”[31]
Valckenburgh’s study somewhat exaggerated the province of affairs that existed inward Accra inward 1657. It is to a greater extent than than likely that the Agona only succeeded inward burning some of the Ga towns, rather than laying waste matter to the whole of Accra. If the Agona’s defeat of Accra had been so decisive, the state of war would doubtless have got ended at this stage in addition to peace would have got been established. Valckenburgh mistakenly interpreted the long duration of the state of war as due to the fact that “the blacks have got a custom that they must win or lose twice inward succession ere they create peace.”[32] Evidently, Valckenburgh misunderstood the local custom, whereby it was only when the warring parties were every bit matched in addition to the battle was indecisive, that they needed to secure to consecutive victories to live acknowledged undisputed victors.
In essence, the long duration of the Ga-Agona state of war tin live attributed to the fact that other states were invited to bring together as allies. For example, inward response to the Agona-Akwamu alliance the Ga won the back upwards of the Akyem. In the course of study of the state of war valckenburgh reported: “The King of Agona inward alliance with Akwamu a district situated behind Accra, is waging state of war against Accra, against whom the Acrase who have got those of Akyem or Great Acanis to their assistance were stirring inward the interior inward the hindrance of the merchandise at the aforenamed place, which has indeed fallen badly to our (Dutch) portion that nosotros have got given them over to God to pacify the state of war of which at that spot is trivial probability. However, our diary tin evidence to the problem nosotros have got already for a long fourth dimension taken therein inward the hopes that the Rex of Agona beingness of Minse descent would allow himself live persuaded past times way of the aforesaid Minse. Accra shows itself disposed but it is idle in addition to beyond our powerfulness to spot obstacles inward the way of the war, for furtherance of peace….it is best that the contending partiesshow themselves to live tired in addition to they testament so accommodate themselves.”[33]
By Feb 1659, Agona had expressed her willingness for a peace settlement. On 4th Feb inward this same year, Valckenburgh recorded inward his diary that he called upwards the Caboceers of Elmina in addition to informed them that the King of Agona “would at nowadays live glad to select their mediation, rejected past times him to pacify him with Aquim in addition to Accra”[34] in addition to that the peace settlement should select spot before Valckenburgh’s divergence from the Gold Coast. The Caboceers inward plough informed Valckenburgh that a similar asking had been pose to them on behalf of the King of Agona, in addition to “as he was descended from amidst them they would hence also gladly concern themselves inward the affair but non without beingness paid for their problem because of that in addition to they would likewise send a message to the Agona Rex almost this.” The Caboceers, therefore, requested Valckenburgh, “to have got the Accra King sounded almost it” past times the Dutch factor inward Accra.[35] It appears that this peace betwixt Accra in addition to Agona was short-lived, for inward 1677 the latter 1 time to a greater extent than allied with Akwamu against Accra.
The work of Accra’s northern frontiers is farther highlighted inward her human relationship with both Latebi in addition to Akwamu. Latebi, which appears on 1629 map as situated northeast Accra, is at nowadays modern Late inward Akuapem. An oral tradition recorded past times Meyerowitz relates that the Late people were immigrants from Binin who founded the early on settlements of La Doku Labadi. As a outcome of a quarrel betwixt the La, the Nungua in addition to the Ga Mashi, a principal of the La known as Fianko Adeyite led a bulk of his people in addition to settled some 30 or twoscore miles inland.[36]Kwamena Poh also relates that the Late Kubease people claim to have got emigrated from Republic of Benin whilst the Late Ahenease people describe the migration of their ancestors from the coast betwixt Tema in addition to Labadi.[37]
The author’s collection of oral tradition from Labadi indicates that the Late people originally formed component of Labadi. Whilst inward Labadi, their leader Late was unusually fond of cuasing the decease of pregnant women. The Lakpa priest was so enraged at this obstruction to the population increment of the Las that he exiled Late together with his followers into the hills to bring together the Guan. This incident is commemorated inward the Kple song:
“Otwi live inward bo le.”
The exiled Late in addition to his followers were called Labadi past times the Ga, i.e. Late’s children. From these records of oral tradition it is likely that the Late are a mixture of Ga but with Guan as the predominant element.
The spot of Latebi or Late on the 1629 map coincides with the old settlement of the Late Ahenease. According to Late Ahenease tradition, (recorded past times Kwamena-Poh), they settled “at the eastern human foot of the Akuapem hills, a spot they called Mantim, inward a number of little settlements inward the expanse where Ayikuma in addition to other nearby Shai towns are today. These were 30 inward all.”
The strategic spot of Latebi on the eastern human foot of the Akuapem hills made it an ideal spot for marketplace centre. According to Dapper, Latebi had “a groovy fair or marketplace wither all sorts of wares are brought; much exceeded past times that of Abonse.”[39] In essence, Latebi provided the inland traders with an alternative marketplace to Abonse. More importantly, it also meant that prices inward Abonse marketplace could live modified past times prices inward Latebi.
The kingdom of Accra was determined to command or destroy the Latebi market, so as to ensure that their monopoly over the inland merchandise was absolute. On 27th Oct 1646, the Dutch Director-General Van de Wel received a study from the financial Hendrick Caarloff detailing how the of Small in addition to Greater Accra had marched together to create state of war on the people of Latebi. There had been a severe battle on the 22nd Oct which had resulted inward the defeat of Latebi. One G heads were brought inward past times the Ga, in addition to they promised that their victory would live rattling favourable for trade.[40] Although the Latebi were defeated inward this war, it seems that the Ga were non able to gain the consummate command over merchandise which they had desired. Moreover, the number of Latebi became a enquiry of some contention betwixt Accra in addition to her northern vecino Akwamu.[41]
The history of the Akwamu prior to their settlement inward the Ga hinterland has non documented. However, Ivor Wilks, basing his evidence on the Akwamu oral tradition, suggests: “the Akwamu majestic clan, Abrade, claims to have got originated from Twifo. Earliest documentary sources for Akwamu history, however, belong to the seventeenth century, when the Akwamu province was already constituted inward something similar its nowadays form, though at that time, it was alternatively known as Oquie, i.e. Okwi.[42]”
The Akwamu are remembered inward Ga oral tradition as strangers who were given land, Nyansoase, on which to settle.[43] Romer wrote inward the middle of the eighteenth century that the Akwamu “came to the King of Accra, asking for his friendship, which they got, in addition to were allowed to settle a trivial inland iv miles from the sea. Within one-half a century, they became a groovy people.”[44]
The story suggesting that the Akwamu were offered ground past times the Ga, differs from that which Rask recorded at the kickoff of the eighteenth century. According to him, it was the Akanists (Akyem) who “out of kindness” granted a component of their ground to the Akwamu for settlement.[45]
Regardless of whoever granted Akwamu the ground on which they settled, at that spot is no dubiety that a unopen human relationship existed betwixt the Akwamu at Nyansoase in addition to the Ga. The human relationship was at firstly that of vassal in addition to suzerain, in addition to indeed Tilleman remarked at the goal of the seventeenth century that the Akwamu had had to pay tribute to the King of Accra until at to the lowest degree 1677.[46] Likewise, Reindorf, basing his business concern human relationship on oral tradition remarked that, “in every yearly grand feast of the Accra king, the chiefs of Obutu in addition to Akwamu were his hammock carriers, or, at whatever rate, the chiefs over these carriers.”
Christians carrying stones to the edifice site inward Christiansborg." Date: 1905
Romer records the story of the Akwamu prince beingness sent to the King of Accra to ‘learn something’ but does non give whatever engagement for the presence of this Akwamu prince inward the King of Accra’a court.[48] He does, however, province that whilst the prince, later nicknamed Akotia, was inward the courtroom of the Accra King that the Portuguese arrived inward Accra.[49] Akwamu oral tradition credits Akotia with the founding of Nyansoase,[50] which way that Nyanaoase must have got been founded inward the 2nd one-half of the sixteenth century. This thought is supported past times archaeological evidence, for, according to Ozanne’s study on excavations inward Nyanaoase, the site was settled at the goal of the sixteenth century.[51]Ivor Wilks postulates that the Akwamus were encouraged past times the Ga to settle on their northern frontier inward monastic enjoin to commutation in addition to consolidate merchandise inward the Accra kingdom. He suggests: “to Akotia, aware of the vaue of the Accra golden trade, in addition to with a firsthand acquaintance with the pattern of the Akan-Portuguese commerce inward the Accra area, resettlement at Nyanaoase nether Accra patronage was obvious way of insinuating the Akwamu into the venture. To the Accras, permitting the Akwamu to settle at Nyanaoase as tribute paying clients, non only was at that spot an immediate gain inward revenue, but also the peril to utilize the newcomers inward strengthening the northern frontier.”[52]
If strengthening of her northern frontiers was Accra’s motive for encouraging the Akwamu immigrants to settle inward Nyanaoase, so the Ga must have got been disappointed. By 1646, the Akwamu no longer behaved as tribute paying vassals of Accra. Conversely, they had managed to found command over a substantial component of the northern frontier of Accra. Describing the Akwamu (Oquy) inward 1656, the Dutch financial Caarloff stated: “the kingdom lies 3 or iv miles due north of Greater Accra, is bounded inward the due west past times the Fantyn (Fante) district in addition to running farther to the East of Accra as far as Aquimena, in addition to includes Latebi which this Rex of Oquy claims to live his, in addition to extends northwards upwards to the district of Acany; in addition to although this Oquy Rex has received some golden from the Accras (Ga) inward monastic enjoin that the Latebes powerfulness freely arrive at to the Cras without his opposition…there is no groovy love betwixt the Oqys in addition to the Accras…”[53]
It is important that it was the Ga who had to pay golden to the King of Akwamu inward monastic enjoin that the Latebi should have got unhindered passage to Accra.this is surprising when 1 considers that it was Accra which had defeated Latebi.[54]
The payment of golden past times Accra to Akwamu does non necessarily mean, as suggested past times Ivor Wilks,[55] that past times 1646 Latebi had been drawn into the Akwamu powerfulness complex. Kwamena-Poh, basing his declaration on Romer, Reindorf, Biiorn in addition to farther archaeological evidence, has established that it was only after the Ga had been defeated inward 1681 that the Akwamu started ruling the Latebi.[56] Kwamena-Poh’s hypothesis way that either the Ga were able to re-establish command over Latebi after a temporary lapse inward 1646 or else the Akwamu threat from 1646 onwards was limited to a want to command the merchandise route from Latebi to Accra rather than a consummate ownership of Latebi. In fact Kwamena-Poh describes the Akwamu menace inward 1646 as “a mere economical blockade of Accra.”[57]
The Accra-Akwamu conflict shows that past times 1646, the Akwamu had begun to displace away from the spot of vassals towards that of beingness a major threat to Accra on her northern frontier. Further Akwamu-Ga hostility was displayed inward 1656-9, when the onetime allied with Agona inward state of war against the latter.[58] However, the hostility betwixt the kingdom of Accra in addition to Akwamu only erupted into opened upwards warfare inward 1677
Reindorf suggests an before engagement for this war. According to his sources, Okai Kwei committed suicide inward the state of war against Akwamu on 20th June 1660, when he realized the treachery of the generals inward the land of battle.[59] This date, however, is untenable. It was the same Okai Kwei who signed an understanding with the Danish African Company inward 1661,[60] in addition to he was sure as shooting still live the Danish representative Cornellisson left Acrra inward 1667. Moreover, 13 years after cornellisson’ divergence from Accra he sent a missive of the alphabet in addition to presents to Okai Kwei.[61] The catamenia is long plenty for Cornellisson to have got heard of Okai Kwei’s decease if he had died straight off after the Danish representative’s divergence from Accra inward 1667.
Conversely, Barbot, a French trader who inward Feb 1679 visited his friend “King Fouri” at Little Accra, dates the defeat of the kingdom of Accra to 1680-1681.[62] Finally, Eric Tilleman, a Danish trader who was inward Accra inward the 1690s in addition to was sent on a mission to the Akwamu upper-case missive of the alphabet inward 1698, dates the Ga-Akwamu state of war to the yr 1677.[63] From these sources 1 tin deduce that the Ga-Akwamu state of war must have got started inward 1677 in addition to ended inward 1680.
Accorsing to Reindorf, the Ga-Akwamu state of war was caused past times Okai Kwei’s error inward next the advice of his councilors in addition to circumcising the Akwamu prince Odei whilst he was staying at his courtroom inward Great Accra. The circumcision was performed so as to enable prince Odei to participate inward the ceremonies associated with the king’s courtroom in addition to with the worship of the Ga gods. The councilors who advised Okai Kwei on the circumcision manifestly wanted to incite problem betwixt Okai Kwei in addition to the Akwamu, because they would have got been aware that circumcised people were non allowed on the throne of Akwamu. As before long as Pince Odei had been circumcised, the Ga chiefs, led past times the warlord Nikoilai, informed the Akwamu of the circumcision in addition to pledged to aid them to acquire rid of the ‘perfidious’ Okai Kwei. Prince Odei was consequently recalled to Akwamu, where his people noticed the circumcision in addition to bypassed him inward the succession to the throne in addition to instead made Ansa Sasraku King of Akwamu. Both Odei in addition to Ansa Sasraku persisted inward demanding from Okai Kwei the restoration of his foreskin, which manifestly proved to live an impossible feat. As a outcome of his failure, Okai Kwei convened a coming together of his generals in addition to chiefs, who advised him to send a full general “to plunder the Akwamu.” Hence, state of war inevitably started the Ga in addition to Akwamu.[64]
Reindorf’s business concern human relationship was partly based upon Romer’s 18th century rendition of the same incident.[65] Romer states that due to the loss of his foreskin, the circumcised Prince was nicknamed Akotia (the midget, the short) past times his subjects. He also states that the Akwamu Prince was sent to the Accra King’s courtroom when the Akwamu were given the ground on which they settled. He farther to a greater extent than makes it quite clear that the Ga King who circumcised the Aakwamu Prince was non the 1 who later fought against the Akwamu.
It has already been stated that Nyanaoase was settled past times the Akwamu at the unopen of the sixteenth century.[66] Romer’s business concern human relationship therefore, makes the circumcision of the Akwamu Prince a belatedly sixteenth century or early on seventeenth century episode. Romer’s narration also implies that OkaiKwei, who succeeded to the Ga throne after his begetter had been murdered inward 1642, was non responsible of Akotia’s circumcision, as stated past times Reindorf.
The dating of this circumcision episode based upon Romer’s narration is marginally to a greater extent than acceptable than that of Reindorf’s. The plausibility of Romer’s business concern human relationship is based on the notion that sure weather condition must live necessary before whatever province testament send its heir apparent to some other province to larn their customs. Either the host province is suzerain over the kingdom of the heir-apparent in addition to hence tin perhaps demand him as security against rebellion inward the vassal state, or else at that spot must live cordiality in addition to trust betwixt the ii states.
However, it has already been stated that past times 1646 the Akwamu had moved from beingness vassal of Ga to beingness threat to the kingdom of Accra on its northern frontier. The Ga fifty-fifty had to pay golden to the Akwamu to allow the Late traders access to Accra.[67] In this same year, it was stated categorically past times Hendrick Caarloff that “there is no groovy love betwixt the Oqis (Akwamu) in addition to the Accras because some years ago, the Accras had killed this king’s father.[68] If this genuinely was the case, why would the Akwamu send their heir-apparent to the courtroom of such a Rex to study? One should also bear inward psyche the fact that the Akwamu allied with the Agona to scrap the Ga from 1655-59.[69] In short, Akwamu-Ga relations from the 1640s onwards were anything but cordial. Ti is rattling doubtfull whether the Ga would have got tolerated the presence of an Akwamu heir-apparent inward their courtroom inward the 2nd one-half of the seventeenth century, as it would have got been tantamount to the Ga exposing their weaknesses in addition to the intricacies of regime to their enemy. Moreover, it is possible that it was the rattling circumcision of Prince Odei that the Akwamu referred to as an deed murder inward 1646. It was stated that Akotia was never able to gain consummate command over his subjects due to the loss of his foreskin. He was fifty-fifty compelled to hope at an assembly that he would regain his foreskin from the King of Accra. He consequently sent messages to the King of Accra to select his foreskin together with a fetish priest to restore it to its original place.[70] This loss would have got tormented Akotia to his grave. Both the Ga in addition to Akan have got a belief that sorrow tin stimulate death.
Dele gbeE Me. Grief kills.
Awerehow kum sumsum. Grief kills the soul.
Although Akotia was unable to settle this work with the Ga before his death, his successors must have got continued to nurse his grievance. This antagonism towards the Ga would have got been compounded past times Accra’s rigorous economical policy, which forbade the Akwamu access to the coast. In short, the circumcision, if it did occur all, was a remote rather than an immediate stimulate of the Ga-Akwamu state of war of 1677-80.
The chronological confusion inward the presentation of Reindorf’s business concern human relationship is in all probability due to the fact that he collected his oral tradition to a greater extent than than a hundred years after Romer, in addition to so the information he received had undergone the modifications in addition to omissions typical of such evidence. In Reindorf’s time, Okai Kwei had in all probability go so unpopular that whatever inauspicious events inward Ga history would live attributed to him fifty-fifty if the events had occurred long before his reign. The existence of this form of imitation accusation amidst the local people is summed upwards inward the Akan proverb:
“Ade se prako” Evil befits the pig.
In reality, the pretext for the Ga-Akwamu state of war of 1677-80 was provided past times the Ga generals. According to oral tradition, Okai Kwei’s boy murdered the boy of Nikoilai, the groovy Ga general. Instead of Okai Kwei apologizing for the murder, he treated Nikoilai as if the deed were triviality.[71] Nikoilai inward revenge plotted with the other Ga generals to acquire rid of Okai Kwei. He managed to amass this back upwards because of Okai Kwei’s wickedness. He is remembered inward Ga tradition as a cruel king, boy of cruel woman parent Dede Akaibi,[72] i.e. “kaa fEE loofiE”, “the crab does non beget a bird.” He encouraged his boy to perform hostile in addition to vicious acts on his subjects. For example, they were said to have got murdered the sons of the Ga chiefs in addition to seduced other men’s wives.
Nokoilai in addition to his beau conspirators sought the assistance of Akwamu inward monastic enjoin to acquire rid of the tyrant Okai Kwei. They promised that if Akwamu declared state of war against the Accra king, they would non can their guns against the Akwamu army. However, the Akwamu saw this offering inward a rattling different light, regarding it as an chance for a consummate defeat of the kingdom of Accra. Thus, whilst the Ga saw the conspiracy on 1677 as a coup d’état with Akwamu assistance against a despotic king, the Akwamu saw it as an opened upwards state of war to live waged against the kingdom of Accra. The Akwamu hence begun to seem for allies inward illustration the Ga generals should alter their minds during the battle. The hired the Agona in addition to the Acron for this purpose. More importantly, they also purchased the neutrality of the Akyem, supposed allies of the Ga.
Okai Kwei, although aware of the Akwamu preparations for war, did non select whatever effective counter-measures. Instead, he treated the Akwamu threat with contempt, firstly because his soldiers were good armed in addition to secondly, to a greater extent than importantly, his regular army outnumbered the Akwamu in addition to their allies past times 10 to one.[73] Okai Kwei was manifestly non aware of the conspiracy of his generals, he is said to have got cursed the Ga in addition to committed suicide.[74] With his death, the Ga naively thought that the state of war would live over. It was only when they realized that the Akwamu were bent upon their consummate annihilation that they started to select the state of war seriously. However, instead of uniting together to human face the Akwamu onslaught, they broke into disputing parties over who should succeed Okai Kwei.
According to Romer, at that spot were a number of pretenders to the throne, each of which was backed past times armed supporters.[75] This disputed succession was in all probability the ground why Ofori, whom Barbot referred to as King of Accra inward 1679, chose to have got his residence inward Small Accra nether the Dutch fort Crevecoeur, instead of at the upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso.[76] At to the lowest degree on the coast he would have got felt secured from his warring rivals in addition to the endemic menace posed past times the Akwamu.
The 3 European companies residing inward Accra inevitably became involved inward the war. The rattling fact that King Ofori chose to live nether the Dutch fort shows that he had considerable faith inward their support. In 1679 the English linguistic communication ship ‘Isabella’ was sent from Cape Coast to aid inward the “realizing of Ofori, Rex of Accra.”[77] The Danes likewise thwarted an Akwamu endeavour to capture Osu.[78] The English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch either changed sides during the state of war or diplomatically supported both Akwamu in addition to the Ga. Tilleman commented that the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch, dissimilar the Danes, complied with every whim in addition to fancy of the Akwamu.[79] In July 1680, the English linguistic communication sent fusees to Ansa Sasraku, King of Akwamu, as presents. Furthermore inward September they lent him 1 hundred muskets in addition to iv barrels of gun pulverization for his terminal onset upon the Ga.[80]
The Akwamu finally succeeded inward taking possession of the kingdom of Accra inward 1680. According to Romer, the took wages of the disputes amidst the Ga in addition to fought 3 battles inward 1 yr which ended inward the total defeat of the Ga.[81] The king’s sis along with her ii children in addition to a few slaves escaped in addition to fled eastwards to Little Popo.[82] In Barbot’s account, King Ofori fled to Fetu, because he was a close relation of the Fetu King Ahen Penin Asirifi.[83] It is likely that Ofori later left Fetu to bring together his subjects in addition to kinsmen inward their novel settlement across the Volta.
In 1698 Tilleman made reference to a King Ofori of Little Popo, 1 of the novel settlements founded past times the fugitive Ga.[84] Bosman likewise made reference to ‘Aforri’, a deceased King of Little Popo who he described as beingness rattling warlike inward contrast to his blood brother who was a adult man of peaceful disposition in addition to who was ruling at the fourth dimension when Bosman visited Little Popo.[85] Bosman’s description of the belatedly King Ofori’s grapheme corresponds with Barbot’s description of King Ofori of Accra inward 1679. According to Barbot, Ofori was “a adult man of goodness mien, a groovy friend of Europeans but of too restless a spirit which at in conclusion occasioned his ruin.”
]
"Mrs Rottmann in addition to miss with girls inward Christiansborg.
Oral tradition collected from Fio Agbano II, paramount ruler in addition to descendant of the Ga who left Accra to found the novel settlement inward the nowadays twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia Republique du Togo, suggests that, inward the wake of the defeat of the Ga, ii Princes, Foli Bebe in addition to Foli Hemazro, took ii thrones from Accra to their novel settlements, 1 made of ivory in addition to the other of “ebene incrute d’or.” The ii princes were men of opposite temperament. One was calm in addition to peace-loving in addition to the other irascible. Foli Bebe in addition to his followers founded Glidzi, whilst Foli Hemzro took the thrones in addition to hid them at Zewla, half dozen kilometers from Glidzi. The ii brothers visited the Rex of Tado, who received them kindly in addition to gave them permission to settle. After Foli Bebe in addition to his blood brother founded their settlements, other Ga refugees came to bring together them. The leaders of these different groups of Ga refugees founded a number of straggling settlements amongst the Ewe inhabitants. Among the settlements founded past times the Ga refugees were Glidzi, the upper-case missive of the alphabet in addition to nowadays abode of the paramount ruler, situated almost 3 miles inland Zewla, where the stools brought inward past times the Ga were kept in addition to still inward hiding, in addition to Aneho, the sea side settlement in addition to port also known since the seventeenth century as Little Popo.
The Ga refugees did non live peacefully inward their novel settlements. According to Bosman, their main enemies were the Cotosians, who occupied the eastern banking company of the Volta. Both Popo in addition to Coto were hired past times the Akwamu to aid them inward their wars against each other, in addition to inward some cases the Akwamu forces inevitably found themselves fighting on opposite side. This was particu;arly truthful during the catamenia when Akwamu was ruled past times ii kingd, Basua in addition to Ado, the onetime bacing Popo, the latter Coto. In 1700, the Popo touted the Coto in addition to forced them to leave of absence the country. However, the Coto were reinstated on their ground when Akonor became King of Akwamu inward 1702.
Popo, nether the leadership of warlike King Ofori, became involved inward the wars of the Dahomean coast. According to Bosman, inward response to a telephone call upwards for aid from the King of Ardra (Allada), Ofori led a punitive expedition against the “Fidalgo, or Viceroy of Offra”, vassalof Adra. Another telephone call upwards for assistance from the Adra King involved an expedition against the Whydah. However, due to the fact that a convoy of reinforcements sent to King Ofori was attacked past times the enemy, this motion was ultimatively unsuccessful. Consequently, Ofori had to create a fast retreat from Whydah dorsum to Popo. On his homecoming to Popo he decided to punish his old enemies of Coto, who were said to have got attacked his kingdom during his absence. It was during this state of war with Coto that Ofori met his death. His blood brother in addition to successor duly avenged this decease on the Coto.[89]
According to the traditional sources, Foli Babe’s younger boy of Assiongbon Dadje, who was also warlike in addition to restless, left Popo in addition to became a full general inward the Dahomean army.[90] However, he became the object of jealousy inward the Dahomean upper-case missive of the alphabet because of the many successful expeditions he had led against the enemies of Dahomey. He finally escaped a plot to assassinate him in addition to fled dorsum to Popo with a department of the Dahomean army. An ensuing expedition sent past times the King of Dahomey to capture Assiongbon was completely routed.
The oral tradition describing these events is supported past times wider documentary evidence. In 1737, the Danes reported that the kingdom of Ardra in addition to Whydah were at state of war with the Popo in addition to had pursued them as far as Keta, where the Dutch had a fort. The Dutch later reported that the Dahomean regular army had ruined their fort at Keta. This regular army was inward pursuit of Ashanmo (Asjembo), a Caboceer of Little Popo who had affronted them in addition to afterwards fled to an isle inward the Volta River. Ashanmo joined forces with his cousin, described as “a sure Accra adult man named Ofori Caboceer of the Crom Ocoy”, in addition to together with the Crepe, they surrounded the Dahomean regular army in addition to totally defeated them. On this incident the Dutch Director-General De Bordes commented: “the only consolation that nosotros have, however, inward this pitiful occurance (i.e. the devastation of the Dutch fort at Keta) is that the United Accras have got fallen upon these plunders in addition to defeated them, yes indeed of the 13,000 Dahomean men, non a single 1 was able to escape.”[91] After the defeat of the Dahomean forces, ashanmo was able to gain command of the expanse from Little Popo to Keta in addition to beyond, maybe to the oral cavity of River Volta.[92] The Popo were said to live on the proceeds from slave-raiding expeditions against neighbouring states. They established a notorious reputation amongst the European companies for cruelty in addition to dishonesty inward their merchandise transactions. Bosman went so far as to depict tham as “fraudulent in addition to thievish.”[93]
The fugitive Ga maintained a strong human relationship with those who remained inward Accra after 1680. Popo in addition to the neighbouring towns became an Asylum for the Ga whenever problem arose with the Akwamu (especially inward 1708 in addition to 1724, when Accra was invaded past times the Akwamu forces).[94] The exiled Ga also gave active aid inward punishing those who offended their kinsmen inward Accra. For example, inward 1725 the Danish lodge at Keta was attacked, because It was believed that the Danish Governor Hern had invited the Akwamu to invade Accra. More fundamentally, the fugitive Ga also showed their willingness to subsidise the rebellion, which resulted inward the collapse of Akwamu powerfulness inward 1730. In homecoming for such generosity inward spirit, the Ga exiles expected reciprocal assistance from Accra when necessary. For illustration inward 1758, King Ashanmo sent an diplomatic mission to Tete, King of Accra in addition to his Caboceer Okaidza, to inquire for aid against Dahomean threat.
Such were the fortunes of the Ga people who fled from Accra after the Akwamu state of war of 1680. Those however, who chose to remain inward Accra had to adapt themselves to a rattling different environment. In 1680 the Ga upper-case missive of the alphabet Greater Accra had been destroyed, in addition to consequently the inhabitants were obliged to go in addition to live nether the protection of the European forts, or to displace to other Ga coastal towns. According to Barbot, it was only the presence of European forts that saved the Ga from consummate annihilation at the hands of the Akwamu: “had they wanted for that secure retreat, few or none of them had been left live or at best inward whatever status to drive the merchandise they at nowadays have.”
"Catechist Karl Rheindorf with his married adult woman in addition to begetter - inward Odumase."
Of all the coastal towns, it was Aprag or Little Accra, which suffered the worst Akwamu devastation. Aprag, which lay nether the protection of the Dutch fort, was the town where King Ofori used to have got his residence. However, during the onset most of the houses were burnt downwards in addition to lost. Bloome, an English linguistic communication factor at Accra, remarks inward his memoirs of 1693 that the Ga town Soko[100] (which lay nether the protection of the English linguistic communication fort) was “one of the finest in addition to largest of the Gold Coast”. This was because Soko had been enlarged past times a number of families who had fled to the town from Aprag.[101] By 1697, however, the other towns Aprag in addition to Osu must have got improved, for Tilleman observed that Aprag could make 500 armed men in addition to Osu 300, as compared to only 60 which could live produced past times Soko.[102]
In the aftermath of the Ga defeat inward 1680, came far-reaching changes inward the social in addition to political construction of the kingdom of Accra. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sure Nii Ayi (son of Okai Kwei’s sis past times a adult man of the majestic house) emerged as Rex of the remnant Ga. To allay people’s fears as to his eligibility to regulation he composed the kple song:
“AtseE mi Tunma Ayi Ablade “I am Tunma Ayi of majestic birth,
Nhie Ablade, nsee Ablade” I am Royal on both sides.”
Nii Ayi, who had his residence inward Aprag (Usshertown), was unable to wield whatever lasting influence over the Ga towns. Instead, each private town, nether the leadership of its petty ruler, acknowledged the supremacy of the Akwamu king. The onetime kingdom of Accra had go an agglomeration of separate units, which although still bound[104] together past times kinship, linguistic communication in addition to customary ties, had to acknowledge the King of Akwamu as its suzerain.
THE GA UNDER AKWAMU RULE AND EUROPEAN PROTECTION 1680-1728
The defeat of 1680 precipitated important alter on the Ga littoral. The Akwamu people, who had formerly been prevented past times the King of Accra from coming to merchandise on the Acra coast, at nowadays had untrammeled liberty to merchandise to all the Ga towns. However, due to the Akwamu’s relative inexperience in addition to the linguistic communication difficulties encountered when trading with the Europeans, they were unable to capitalies on this newfound freedom. Indeed the Ga were able to proceed acting as middlemen betwixt the Akwamu traders in addition to Europeans. Both Rask in addition to Romer commented that the Ga made enormous turn a profit from their spot as middlemen in addition to often cheated the Akwamu traders.[1]
However, some of the Akwamu who came to merchandise or seek their fortunes inward the Ga towns became permanent settlers. For Example, the ancestors of the Otublohun quarters of Ga Mashi are of Akwamu origin.[2] The leaders of these settlers, Pieter Pasop in addition to Amo, wielded enormous unflence as a outcome of their dual roles as Akwamu Governors inward Accra in addition to brokers for the powerful Dutch company.[3]
Commercially, at that spot was a gradual but ultimately crucial alter on the Gold Coast during the catamenia of Akwamu suzerainty. The slave merchandise started to gain importance. The Akwamu began to realize that it was to a greater extent than to capture slaves in addition to sell them to the Europeans than to rely solely on their gold-producing neighbours, especially when it became clear that Europe was visibly increasing its demand for slaves during these years.
The most important alter which resulted from the defeat of 1680 was a loss of status on the component of the Ga. People who had previously been overlords of the Akwamu in addition to the European trading companies at nowadays became vassals of Akwamu in addition to protégés or subjects of the European companies. Thus the Ga at nowadays had ii masters.
The Akwamu kings who ruled the Ga were Ansa Sasraku,[4] who died shortly after 1680, his successor Basua (who shared the throne with a sure Ado until his decease inward 1699), Ado[5], who ruled until his decease inward 1702, in addition to Akonor[6], who reigned until 1725. Akonnor was succeeded past times Ansa Kwao,[7] whose reign ended with the autumn of the Akwamu empire inward 1730.
The Ga, due to their spot as vassals to the Akwamu, had sure obligations to fulfill. The most cumbersome was the requirement to provide men inward fourth dimension of war. This meant that they had to risk their lives to strengthen an empire whose ascendance they resented. According to Tilleman, the Ga regarded the Akwamu as null to a greater extent than than “uncouth farmers.”[8] Consequently, the Ga displayed reluctance to aid Akwamu whenever the chance arose. For example, inward 1702 in addition to 1707 they refused to aid Akwamu to scrap Akyem.[9]
The Ga were also expected to send annual tribute to the king, consisting of a per centum of their products such as salt, corn in addition to cattle. According to Tilleman, these payments did non amount to much inward terms of monetary value, but served but as a symbol of Ga subjection.[10] The King of Akwamu was also entitled to a component of all buffaloes, elephants, tigers in addition to leopards killed inward his dominions.[11]
Apart from these recognized acts of vassalage, the Ga were also dependent to arbitrary extortion. Whenever the King of Akwamu felt the demand for to a greater extent than money, he would demand it from the nearest available source. For example, inward September 1719 it was reported that King Akonnor had marched to the leeward villages due east of Accra with the intention of extorting subsidies from them, in addition to had promised afterwards to descend upon Accra.[12]
The mains business office of the kings of Akwamu inward their role as suzerain was that of presiding over justice amongst the Ga. Since they were primarily interested inward the money to live gain inward the proceedings, they concerned themselves primarily with litigation amidst the rich in addition to used every chance to extort all they could from these litigants.[13] The kings themselves used women as bait to incriminate wealthy, unsuspecting men. According to Romer, the kings of Akwamu held special courts inward the towns to assay cases of adultery. The women involved inward these adultery cases were the king’s agents, especially chosen to seduce the men inward the towns.
The Ga also suffered ii major invasions. From 28th Nov 1708 to 1st Apr 1709, King Akonnor invaded Accra.[14] This invasion was in all probability provoked past times the systematic refusal of the Ga to select an active role inward the invasion of Adanme, the Volta expanse in addition to Kwahu inward 1702, 1707 in addition to 1708 respectively.[15] Rask who arrived on the coast straight off after the invasion, discovered that at that spot were only a few Ga caboceers left, due to the ravages of the Akwamu.[16] Likewise, according to Romer, Caboceer Puij (Okpoti) of Labadi lost ii G men, including his family, children, slaves in addition to slave children. Okpoti himself fled ii or 3 hundred miles into Crepe. It was only when King Akonnor granted an amnesty that he, together with his other Caboceers who escaped, felt it security to homecoming to Accra.[17]
During the invasion, the Akwamu went so far as to dig upwards every theatre where they knew a caboceer had 1 time lived. This was because Ga caboceers were usually buried inward their ain theatre amongst some of their wealth.[18] According to Romer, Akonnor afterwards regretted this harsh handling that he decided “to create 1 people of the Akwamu in addition to the Ga. This he did past times giving dorsum to the Ga the heads of their ancestors. He also gave ii Ga Caboceers, Okpoti of Labadi in addition to Dacon of Aprag (Usshertown), Akwamu noblewomen to marry.[19]
It would appear that King Akonnor’s regret as to the suffering he inflicted upon the Ga was only shot-lived. In 1710 it was rumoured that he had threatened to ruin Aprag (Usshertown), because they had stolen some of his subjects whilst he was absent fighting inward Kwahu. Furthermore, he was said to have got been nursing grievances against them from the fourth dimension of the 1708 invasion.[20] Fortunately for Aprag in addition to Soko, Akonnor spared them from this threatened ruin.
Akonnor, however, resumed his threats inward 1715. It was reported past times the Dutch inward March of that yr that the King had resolved to “ruin in addition to exterminate all the Ga”. This threat caused such consternation that “they publicly resolved to maintain their existence.”[21] Learning that the Dutch had received reinforcements from Elmina in addition to were taking precautionary measures, Akonnor declared that he had no quarrel with the Ga, but instead had come upwards to the beach, “for a trivial piece to amuse himself.” The Ga were, however, understandably apprehensive. When it was rumoured that the Akyem would onset the Akwamu, ‘Old James’ (an Adanme caboceer) was said to have got implied to King Akonnor that the Ga would sure as shooting select wages of the Akwamu, if the Akyem succeeded inward routing them. He hence warned that it would live safer for Akonnor to pre-empt the Ga in addition to destroy them firstly before going to scrap the Akyem.[22] Although, this rumoured state of war betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu was averted, it was reported inward Apr 1716 that Akonnor had at nowadays asked the Fante to aid him against the Ga, because they had been unwilling to march with him against Akyem.[23] But the Fante refused to ally with Akwamu against the Ga, in addition to hence Akonnor left the coast for Akwamu. However, fifty-fifty after Akonnor had left the coast, the Ga were said to live “still inward dubiety whether the Akwamu would undertake anything against them.”[24]
Akonnor, however, had decided to extort money from the Ga instead of threatening them with war. In May 1716, Akonnor claimed ii hundred bendas from the Ga as settlement for their differences.[25] The Ga sent ii bendas to Akonnor to purchase a caprine animal in addition to wine. Since this was non plenty for him, they added ii bendas half dozen pees “to opened upwards his mouth, 1 benda 1 pees, for the sheathing of his sword in addition to for ‘potje’ for the other Akwamu Caboceers.” This was still non plenty for Akonnor, who claimed 20 bendas more.[26]
In September 1716 Akonnor was still attempting to wrest sixty-three bendas from the Ga. They promised to send 15 bendas “in the hope that Akonnor would allow them a goodness reduction in addition to allow them pay the repose from fourth dimension to time.” The case, however, dragged on until the next year, when Akonnor decided to see Accra personally to demand payment. Akonnor manifestly had no faith inward the Ga hope to pay him as before long as the corn was ripe, because he arrived with over 1 G guns.[27] It appears that the Ga must have got temporarily satisfied Akonnor.
In 1719, having decided to create peace with the Akyem, wrath he had incurred during the Akyem-Asante state of war of 1717-18, Akonnor marched to the villages due east of Accra with the intention of extorting subsidies from them. He threatened to come upwards to Accra afterwards “to worry the natives living at that spot a bit”[28] in addition to was said to have got already forged a illustration of adultery betwixt the Ga Caboceer Ama Kuma in addition to 1 of his wives, for which he demanded 15 to 16 G bendas. It was 1 time again reported inward Dec 1719 Akonnor was demanding payment non only from his ain districts but from the others farther afield, inward monastic enjoin to cover the expensive peace with his powerful enemies.[29] These troubles continued into the next year, when it was reported that “the continual palavers betwixt the Ga in addition to Akwamu were a groovy hindrance to trade.”[30]
The side past times side major Akwamu invasion of Accra occurred inward May 21723. The Ga in addition to the Dutch blamed the Danish Governor, David Hern, whilst the Danes blamed the Ga Caboceer, Ama Kuma. Hern seized v slaves belonging to Ama Kuma as recompense for the fact that he in addition to some other Ga caboceers had been caught trading with interlopers inward Danish waters at Labbadi. Ama Kuma found an chance to avenge himself on Hern during the Ga Homowo festival of 15th August 1722. Hern had been invited past times the Dutch factor Svarte to witness the Homowo celebration inward Aprag. On his way spot from the celebration he was stopped past times some Aprags. His wig, chapeau in addition to stick together with his hammock in addition to the slaves who had been carrying him were seized in addition to his Danish flag was torn to pieces. He was so beaten in addition to dragged to the ground. All this happened, according to Danish sources, without the Dutch factor Svarte coming to Hern’s aid, apparently because he had been bribed past times Ama Kuma. Hern finally succeeded inward retiring to the Dutch fort in addition to straight off sent a message to King Akonnor, who was staying on the coast, to escort him dorsum to Christiansborg.[31] After this episode, Hern accompanied King Akonnor on a motion eastwards. They visited Kpone, Prampram in addition to Ningo, in addition to so Akonnor continued farther eastwards alone. It suspected that on this journey, Hern in addition to Akonnor conspired against the Dutch, the English linguistic communication in addition to also the Ga who had chosen to reside nether their respective forts.
The suspicion was vindicated when, straight off after Akonnor’s homecoming from the motion inward May 1723, he invaded Soko in addition to Aprag with 10 to twelve G soldiers,[32] carefully sparing the Danish Ga. The Dutch factor Svarte went so far as to accuse Hern of having bribed Akonnor with a hundred bendas’ worth of merchandise.[33]
Conversely, the Danish Company placed the blame for the invasion of 1723 upon the Ga Caboceer Ama Kuma. According to the Danish narration, Ama Kuma was unable to pay the 15 to 16 G bendas demanded past times Akonnor as compensation for adultery, he sent 8 people to Akyem with muskets in addition to presents to inquire for assistance inward attacking the Akwamu. Akonnor seized Ama Kuma’s messengers in addition to sent him a alert that he should purchase all the muskets in addition to pulverization that the Dutch fort held, because the King would live coming against him “with sticks, stones in addition to gravel to create an goal of him.”[34]
The invasion of 1723 should live seen as a outcome of an amalgam of different tensions – King Akonnor’s personal quarrel with the Ga in addition to especially with Ama Kuma, David Hern’s intrigues in addition to ultimately the instability that characterized the Gold Coast during these years. The invasion had repercussions non only inward Accra but also inward towns farther to the east. Many Ga left Accra to bring together their kinsmen inward Little Popo. In March 1724 the Danes complained that at that spot was a scarcity of nutrient inward Accra, which could Pb to widespread starvation. Aprag in addition to Soko, which had 1 time been “grainaries” for the other towns, had been completely ruined past times the Akwamu.[35] In August the Danes reported that the Ga who had previously fled to Popo in addition to neighbouring towns had non returned, whilst those who had originally remained inward Accra were at nowadays leaving to bring together their kinsmen farther east. The Danes attributed this exodus to the “villainous nature of the Akwamu.”[36]
The Ga also had to scrap with the intrigues of the European trading companies. The primary duty which the Ga had to perform for the Europeans was that of attracting merchandise to the forts nether which they lived. Through their capacity as interpreters, agents in addition to hosts of the inland traders, the Ga were inward a spot to persuade traders from the interior to purchase goods from a particular fort. Yet merchandise with European interlopers often proved to a greater extent than lucrative. The interlopers, who were non encumbered with the maintenance of forts in addition to their staff, sold goods at a much cheaper cost than the established European companies.[37] The Ga hence traded with interlopers whenever they had the chance to do so.
In a missive of the alphabet to London the English linguistic communication Council at Cape Coast wrote that the Brandenburg in addition to Danish companies were primarily supported inward their merchandise past times English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch interlopers.[38] Tis accusation is vindicated past times contemporary Danish documents. In a missive of the alphabet September 1725 Suhm, the Danish Governor, wrote that his predecessor David Hern had had a flourishing merchandise during his tenure of office, partly because he was lucky plenty to have got bought at a rattling inexpensive cost all the goods of a French interloper.[39]
It was the frequency with which Danish ships visited the Gold Coast that compelled the Danes to rely on interlopers to replenish their stocks. The interlopers were openly in addition to lavishly entertained in addition to sometimes fifty-fifty delivered letters to Copenhagen in addition to Christiansborg . inward 1702 the King of Akwamu sent a message to the Danish Governor asking him to purchase him guns from an interloper who had anchored inward Christiansborg.[40] The Ga would manifestly have got found it hard to sit down past times in addition to spotter the Danes purchase goods cheaply from interlopers, only to have got them sold at much higher prices. However, they ran the risk of their goods beingness confiscated past times the European companies if caught trading with the interlopers themselves.
European companies tried to command the activities of Ga traders non only within Accra but also inward the surrounding areas. On 1ST July 1722 the Danish Governor reported that he would endeavour to create the Ga hope to desist from selling common salt to whatever traders from the western coast. This was to encourage the Akyem traders to come upwards in addition to pass their golden inward Accra instead of concentrating their activities on Cape Coast in addition to Elmina, where the Danes had no forts.[41]
Other duties demanded of the Ga past times the European trading companies involved providing manual labour inward illustration of repairs or extensions of the forts.[42] They were also expected to provide armed men inward fourth dimension of need. In Feb 1698, the Osu Caboceers promised to “risk their life in addition to blood” for the Danish company.[43] In 1699, when an Akwamu trader in addition to Caboceer Asameni set upwards a canoe at Labadi to merchandise with interlopers, the Danish Governor sent a dispatch of armed caboceers in addition to their followers, assisted past times white soldiers, to destroy the canoe.[44] Only after this tactic had failed did the Danish Governor appeal to the King of Akwamu to send orders for Asameni to leave of absence Labadi.
In commutation for their services to the European companies the Ga caboceers received monthly stipends in addition to New Year's Day gifts. These payments were distinct from the monthly ii ounces of golden paid past times the 3 European companies to the Rex of Akwamu. The English linguistic communication marked the distinction past times calling that which they paid to the King of Akwamu ‘ground rents’[45], whereas the Dutch used the term ‘kostgeld’ in addition to the Danes ‘Costum’ to depict the payments made to both the Ga caboceers in addition to the King of Akwamu.
Another prerogative claimed past times the European companies involved a perceived right to maintain law in addition to order. For example, inward 1702 the Danish Governor settled a dispute which involved fighting betwixt opposing factions led past times the ii most of import caboceers inward Osu.[46] In 1717 at that spot was a dispute betwixt ii separate quarters inward Aprag (Usshertown), during which iv or v people were killed in addition to many to a greater extent than were wounded.[47] The Dutch factor inward Accra was consequently instructed past times the Dierctor-General, Bobertts to enquire carefully into the dispute in addition to grab the “authors in addition to miscreants.”[48]
The maintenance of law in addition to monastic enjoin was not, however, a uncomplicated issue. Because ascendance over the Ga was claimed past times both the Europeans in addition to Akwamu, at that spot was bound to live conflict over the jurisdictional right to deal with sure cases. For example, inward July 1727 King Ansa Kwao of Akwamu came to Accra inward monastic enjoin to settle some disputes that had arisen betwixt the Aprags in addition to Sokos.[49] The Dutch Director-General wanted to seize the chance to create the Sokos pay for a onetime misdemeanor for which the previous Dutch factor Jan Pranger had held them responsible. This he wanted to do before the Soko-Aprag illustration was settled; hence Norre questioned Ansa Kwao’s right to arbitrate inward such a illustration in addition to to exercise ascendance over “Dutch-protected people (Aprags) within the arrive at of their guns.” He ‘absolutely’ ordered the Aprags non to settle the dispute with the Sokos until the Dutch had obtained satisfaction inward Soko’s illustration with Pranger. He moreover, threatened that the Dutch society would never allow Ansa Kwao whatever presents, salutes of honour or ‘kostgeld’.[50]
Since the Akwamu King had come upwards to Accra solely to settle this dispute, he disregarded the Dutch threat in addition to completed his arbitration. He sent a caboceer in addition to ii servants to the Dutch in addition to assured them that as regards to compensation, the Aprags would bear according to the laws in addition to customs of their towns. He would also ensure that the Sokos repaid to the Aprags all the expenses they had incurred inward winning the case. The only work was that the Director-General’s sanction was needed to assure these conditions; hence Ansa Kwao offered him a caprine animal in addition to iv bendas in addition to moreover; pledged that the adult man Larte, who was the stimulate of all the trouble, would live compelled to go to the Dutch factor in addition to inquire for his pardon.[51]
The Ga, similar the King of Akwamu, were inclined to select a quick in addition to peaceful solution to the dispute. Whilst Ansa Kwao had non threatened to declare opened upwards state of war on them as in1723, he was sure as shooting inward the spot “to create it as fearful for them as whatever state of war had ever been for them.” If the Ga were attacked nether the fort, they could acquire protection; but if the routes were closed to the H2O whole beyond the arrive at of the fort, it would outcome inward the total ruin of their town. The Aprags hence entreated Norre with “clasped hands” non to live too headstrong inward the dispute, since the Sokos were “poor in addition to have got trivial to spare from which anything could live claimed from them.”[52]
Norre rejected the King of Akwamu’s presents, saying that he would live satisfied with null less than the caput of Larte in addition to threatening to leave of absence the Ga inward hereafter as “prey to the plundering of the Akwamu.”[53] Yet Norre’s objection to the Akwamu King’s arbitration was unjustified. The Europeans had acknowledged the suzerainty of the Akwamu over the Ga, in addition to furthermore, the Dutch society had fifty-fifty stated inward a treaty which they had signed with King Akonnor inward 1703 that “the Accra people shall live nether the regulation of the Akwamu King.”[54] Moreover, Norre’s ain subordinates inward Accra, de la Planque, did non believe that Ansa Kwao was beingness presumptuous inward seeking to settle the illustration betwixt the Aprags in addition to the Sokos. In a missive of the alphabet to Norre, de la Planque stated that the onetime could non realistically forestall the King of Akwamu from settling the dispute since the Ga were “having been subdued past times them past times strength of arms.” He also reminded Norre that Ansa Kwao had late exercised his right past times fining the Sokos xc bendas on business concern human relationship of a imitation palaver which they brought against the Aprags.[55]
Other controversies amongst the Ga over the enquiry of law in addition to monastic enjoin arose because of European companies. Occasionally, the Europeans co-operated with each other to maintain law in addition to order. For example, on 26th March 1721 Butler, the Dutch Director-General, wrote to subordinates inward Accra that “the Knavish Accras must live brought to submission,” in addition to that instead of complaining that the English linguistic communication were violating Netherlands territory he should co-operate with them.[56] Another illustration of co-operation betwixt the European companies occurred inward 1726, when a Danish soldier, Frans Andersen, was shot past times a Soko adult man in addition to lost 1 arm. The Danish in addition to English linguistic communication companies solved the work amongst themselves, in addition to the Sokos were made to pay for the lost arm with iv manful individual slaves.[57]
The European companies sometimes extended their commercial rivalry into the sphere of territorial rights in addition to rights of jurisdiction. They often could non concord on whether a adult man who had committed in addition to offence inward some other town should live dealt with past times the Europeans inward the town where he originated from or past times those inward the town where the offence was committed. In August 1721 the Dutch Director-General Butler protested to the Danish Governor Ostrup almost “the continual arrest of (Dutch) Accra natives (by the Danes), which the caboceers of the Dutch fort had complained about.”[58] The Danes, of the other hand, felt that they had every right to seize whatever Ga, live he a Dutch, English linguistic communication or Danish protégé, who was caught trading with interlopers inward Danish waters, since this was seen as a violation of Danish territory.
European rivalry was such that they plunged themselves into disputes which could have got been to a greater extent than effectively settled past times the Ga themselves. For example, inward 1725 a manful individual resident of Osu, who also had friends at Aprag, was killed past times an Osu man. Aprag undertook to punish Osu for this crime, but when the criminal escaped, the people of Osu agreed to settle the illustration amicably with Aprag. The Europeans, however, decided to interfere inward this purely Ga affair. The Dutch dispatched an assistant factor, who along with some Aprags travelled one-half way to Osu. They so demanded that the Danes should likewise send a society employee together with the Osus to them so that they could settle the case. The Danish Governor refused to comply with this demand. He suggested that if the Aprags had whatever quarrel with Osu, they should send their caboceers to Osu to settle the case. He refused to acknowledge the illustration was nether the jurisdiction of the Dutch company.[59]
The Europeans often created disorder past times dragging the Ga into their ain personal quarrels. For example, inward July 1722 Davd Hern the Danish Governor felt himself to live injured past times allegations made almost him past times James Phipps, the English linguistic communication Agent-General at Cape Coast. These allegations were pose forrard because Hern’ predecessor Niels Ostrup, the interim Danish Governor, had quarreled with Benjamin Martins, the English linguistic communication factor at Accra. This Ostrup-Martins quarrel had erupted into a scrap with each contestant backed past times his ain grouping of armed Ga.[60]
The role played past times the European companies inward fostering disharmony in addition to disputes amongst the Ga was remarked upon past times Smith inward 1726. On Accra, he commented: “here are large Negro towns belonging to all the forts in addition to though the natives are the most courteous in addition to civil to strangers of whatever form on the Gold Coast, yet the inhabitants of ii of these towns, which almost bring together together, tin never good agree, each distinguishing themselves past times titles of either English linguistic communication men or Dutch men.”[61]
In conjunction with the maintenance of law in addition to order, European claims to ascendance also involved helping in addition to protecting the Ga inward times of crisis. Apart from isolated instances,[62] this responsibleness was non adequately discharged. For example, 1716 when King Akonnor claimed sixty-three bendas[63] from the Ga, the latter asked for a loan of 20 to twenty-four bendas from the Dutch society in addition to offered to give them their children as pawns. Although it was the Dutch society which had advised the Ga to settle their illustration with Akonnor “in the smoothest way possible”, it afterwards refused to aid with this loan, accusing the Ga of ingratitude in addition to of thinking that the whites were their financiers, nether “an obligation to render it to them.” The Dutch society hence advised the Ga to seek for the loan from their ain large traders, who are able to pass so much money on the interlopers in addition to sometimes acquire 50 to 60 bendas on credit from there.”
The spurious nature of the European responsibleness for protecting the Ga is exemplified past times the ii invasions which they endured at the hands of the Akwamu. In the 1708invasion, the Europeans shirked their responsibleness as protectors of the Ga from the outset; indeed, the English linguistic communication openly supported the Akwamu.[64]
Unfortunately, Dutch records are soundless on this invasion. The only reference to it concerns Harring, the Dutch factor inward Accra. When transferred to Kormanting fort, he asked permission to remain for some fourth dimension inward Accra “because of the standing state of war at that spot over which he had spent much money.”[65] There is no evidence as to whether Harring had spent this money on the Ga or Akwamu.
The Danes were ambiguous inward their back upwards during the war. Twenty-four bendas’ worth of guns which arrived with a Danish ship inward 1707 were sold on credit to Osu, Labadi in addition to Nungua.[66] There is no evidence to suggest that the Danish Governor Lygaard sold these guns specifically for the 1708 invasion; but he must have got been aware of the implications of selling them to the Ga at this time. In a missive of the alphabet dated seventh Jan 1707 he stated that the guns sold to the Akwamu were used mainly for trading inward slaves but those sold to the Ga were used for defending themselves against the Akwamu.[67] Lygaard also admitted that he had had goodness merchandise with the Akwamu during the invasion, suggesting that he armed both the Ga in addition to the Akwamu inward anticipation of their confrontation.[68]
Frans Boye, a Danish employee who later succeeded Lygaard as Governor, went so far as to accuse him of having conspired with the Akwamu against the Ga.[69] The Ga also defendant Lygaard of beingness the stimulate of their ruin, because he had promised to aid them but had failed to honour his pledge, so that many Ga were eventually trapped in addition to massacred past times the Akwamu on a cliff right nether Fort Christiansborg.[70]
In 1709 a committee of enquiry was set upwards past times the Danish society inward Christiansborg to probe the affair. Many of the Dutch employees who gave evidence at the Commission attempted to exonerate Lygaard. They claimed that he had tried to dissuade the Ga from state of war with the Akwamu in addition to hence could hardly live blamed for refusing to aid inward a state of war which he had advised against.[71]
The European display of bad faith towards the Ga during the invasion tin live attributed to ii facts: firstly, they were concerned with ensuring their ain safety, in addition to secondly they wanted to turn a profit from the situation. Even if they could have got given the Ga active back upwards inward the war, they powerfulness have got mediated on their behalf to preserve them from the ravages which followed the invasion. Instead they tried to absolve themselves from blame past times depicting the state of war as a purely ‘negroes’ affair. In a missive of the alphabet to the Directors of the Danish society inward Copenhagen, Lygaard asserted: “the state of war did non concern the fort but the Negroes residing nether the forts.”[72]
In contrast to the 1708 invasion the European companies were openly involved inward the invasion of 1723. Danish involvement was illustrated past times Governor Davis Hern’s intrigues with Akonnor.[73]
Dutch participation inward the invasion tin live attributed to personal animosity towards the Akwamu rather than to whatever want to aid the Ga. Dutch relations with Akonnor had been strained since Nov 1720, when Amo reported to the Dutch Director-General Butler at Elmina that Akonnor was rattling angry almost his in conclusion see to Accra, because he had been rudely treated past times Overshie, the Dutch factor there.[74] It was farther reported inward Dec that Akonnor was demanding some considerable amount of golden as compensation from the Dutch company. this was because Akwamu who was involved inward a quarrel with a Dutch society slave had shot him himself “out of malice” whilst nether the Dutch fort Crevecoeur.[75]
The appointment of Hartman as Director-General inward 1722 did non improve this situation. He was sure as shooting hostile to the Akwamu, for when it was rumoured inward 1723 that Akonnor would invade Accra, Hartman recommended to Savrte that “those robbers (the Akwamu) should live at 1 time properly punished.”[76] Consequently, instead of the Dutch negotiating for peace to forestall the invasion, they started making grooming for war. Svarte reported that he was keeping a goodness watch, as “the Accra had sworn to live faithful to 1 another” in addition to the English linguistic communication had also promised to assist him inward defending the Ga.[77]
It is hence no surprise that the Dutch in addition to the English linguistic communication companies suffered during the invasion of 1723. After Akonnor had defeated the Ga, he blockaded the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication forts for 3 weeks, in addition to the Dutch had to give substantial gifts as peace offerings to Akonnor before they were permitted to unload their ship which had arrived inward Accra.[78] It is the conduct of the Dutch during the blockade that emphasizes the extent to which they had no genuine involvement inward defending the Ga. For example, they handed over to the Akwamu all the Ga women who had sought refuge inward Crevecoeur, inward monastic enjoin that Akonnor would get upwards the blockade against the fort. Moreover, Benus, the acting factor inward Accra, was reported as beingness pleased at the loss of the properties of those Ga who had managed to last the invasion. His joy emanated from the hope that since all the private traders were ruined, they would live obliged to go in addition to merchandise nether the fort in addition to so farther get upwards the turn a profit of the company.[79]
The European betrayal of the Ga people at the fourth dimension of their greatest demand tin live readily explained. The Europeans were living inward Accra during the fourth dimension of Akwamu suzerainty; hence they were tenants of Akwamu in addition to non tenants of the Ga. More importantly, they were on the Gold Coast primarily to merchandise in addition to exploit in addition to non necessarily to seek the interests of the inhabitants. This fact was never denied past times the Europeans. In 1716, the Dutch Director-General Roberts stated inward a message to the Ga that “the society does non maintain such a considerable fort at that spot (Accra) in addition to does non incur such excessive expenditure but for the defence strength of the natives in addition to to ship on their affairs. But merchandise is the ground in addition to centre upon which the affair turns.”[80] Similarly, inward 1730 the Danish Governor Wacro declared: “I have got come upwards hither for the turn a profit of my masters in addition to that consists solely inward merchandise in addition to non inward war.”[81] The Europeans hence found it to a greater extent than profitable to delight their powerful landlords, the Akwamu, than to aid their weak protégés, the Ga.
The Europeans sought to gain the goodwill of the Akwamu kings past times sending them gifts. On 22nd August 1699 the Danish Governor decided to send the King of Akwamu “a trivial present” inward monastic enjoin to attract merchandise to the Danish fort.[82] Between 1st June in addition to 31st July, 1704 the Dutch sent a cane with a golden knob in addition to a fine musket worth 3 oz. 8 engels “for the furtherance of trade.”[83] The English linguistic communication on 21st September 1717 sent the King of Akwamu “a costly bed with fittings.”[84] In Apr 1707 the Danish Governor Lygaard complained that he had to send gifts to the King of Akwamu, for otherwise traders in addition to farmers would live stopped from coming to the fort.[85]
The European /Akwamu human relationship was such that fifty-fifty Europeans suffered occasionally from Akwamu high-handedness. The Akwamu King had the habit of blockading the forts whenever he was displeased with the Europeans or felt that the Akwamu were non receiving plenty presents from them. For example, on 17th May 1700 a messenger from King Ado arrived at the Danish fort with the threat that the fort would live blockaded if the Danes did non send him a substantial gift in addition to to a greater extent than importantly cut back the prices of the company’s goods. This alert was carried out in addition to the blockade was non raised until the Danes agreed to pay 4 bendas.[86] In 1703 the route to the Dutch fort was closed; it was non opened until the Dutch factor had paid 5 bendas.[87] In the same year, the roads to the English linguistic communication in addition to Danish forts were closed on the pretext that the English linguistic communication factor in addition to the Danish Governor had conspired to murder King Akonnor. The Danes in addition to English linguistic communication had to pay a substantial fee inward recompense before the roads were re-opened.
The trend of the King of Akwamu to unopen the roads leading to the forts hung over the Europeans similar a sword of Damocles. Bosman remarked at the kickoff of the eighteenth century that although at that spot 3 forts inward Accra, the ascendance of the Europeans was inward fact confined to within their ain walls, “for if nosotros should create whatever endeavour on the Negroes, they would sure as shooting goal inward our destruction.”[88]
The catamenia of Akwamu suzerainty tin live seen as fourth dimension of oppression[89] when the Akwamu threatened in addition to intimidated Ga in addition to European alike. Ultimately, however, it was the Ga who were the principal victims, beingness forced to endure Akwamu tyranny without receiving whatever effective protection from the Europeans.
THE GA REBELLION AND THE COLLAPSE OF AKWAMU POWER
It would seem likely from the events described inward the previous chapters that sooner or later the Ga would experience compelled to rebel against the oppressive regulation of the Akwamu. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of factors precipitated the outbreak of this rebellion inward 1728. The firstly in addition to most of import was the murder of Otin, cousin of Ansa Kwao, King of Alwamu; the 2nd was the assurance of back upwards offered past times some of the Europeans in addition to past times Amo, the Akwamu representative inward Accra, in addition to the 3rd was the well-founded hope harboured past times the Ga of gaining allies from other disgruntled vassals in addition to neighbours of Akwamu.
Otin’s murder which occurred at Fort Crevecoeur inward Jan 1728, was the catalyst which sparked the rebellion. He had been sent for confinement inward the fort at the asking of Ansa Kwao, because he was said to have got robbed people of their slaves in addition to property. After the murder the Dutch factor, de la Planque, sent to Ansa Kwao “a little nowadays of spirits to have got no farther difficulties with him over the occurrence.” However, the latter rejected this insulting gift in addition to threatened to onset Crevecoeur in addition to send de la Planque in addition to his subordinates “also to the other world.” In response, de la Planque assured Ansa Kwao that the Ga were non responsible for the murder. He added that if the Akwamu began whatever hostilities against the company’s fort or its servants, “he would await with pleasance what they powerfulness undertake.”[1] He so rejected the demand of 2,000 bendas pose forrard past times Ansa Kwao as compensation for the murder.[2]
At the fourth dimension of Otin’s murder, the human relationship betwixt the European companies in addition to the Akwamu was non especially friendly. Of 3 European companies, the Danes were the to the lowest degree hostile; but fifty-fifty they, inward 1727, had been compelled past times Ansa Kwao to pay a fine of 46 bendas for selling the Akwamu golden pawns.[3]
In contrast to the Danes, past times 1728 the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch were sure as shooting non feeling amiable towards the Akwamu. In the previous yr an Akwamu prince had conducted a raiding expedition on the eastern coast. He proceeded to plunder the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication lodges at Keta, in addition to the Danes later reported that at that spot was a palaver betwixt the English linguistic communication in addition to the Dutch companies in addition to the King of Akwamu. They stated that the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch would non declare opened upwards state of war on Akwamu but would persuade Asante,”the most powerful state inward the surrounding districts”, to scrap on their behalf.[4]
The Dutch were overtly hostile. This was greatly influenced past times the grapheme of the adult man inward accuse of Dutch affairs inward Accra in addition to Elmina. Norre, who was appointed Dutch Director-General on 11th March 1727, had immense confidence inward the powerfulness of the European canons. His pronouncements on sure events which occurred on the coast reveal much of his character. For example, inward September 1727, when the Fante asked for the thirty-five ships which the Dutch owed them at Kormantin Fort, Norre decided non to pay the ships’ gifts until the Fante had settled a debt of 80 bendas which he claimed they had owed to the Dutch since the fourth dimension of Director-General Sevenhuysen. This meant that the debt was almost 30 years old. The Fante claimed that they had already settled the affair but when they insisted on their payment, Norre wrote to his subordinate inward Kormantin: “we do non hateful to concern ourselves whatever to a greater extent than with their demand rascalities. Mr. Valckenier had left hither in addition to today nosotros are at Elmina in addition to await what they testament undertake… We inward no way intend to think of ships gifts for the Fantees before they have got ended the old palaver to our satisfaction; much less do nosotros intend to court, or to create state of war on them, but nosotros are indeed ready to demonstrate them that nosotros inward no sense esteem, much less fearfulness them; in addition to if they set out anything against us, nosotros shall demonstrate how far our powerfulness extends.”[5] Similarly, inward Nov 1727, when the Agona overlord Kusi Adu threatened to unopen the way to Apam fort if the Dutch did non pay the rent which they owed, Norre replied: “We are inward no way disposed to allow Kusi Adu ‘Kostgeld’ before he makes goodness to us our half dozen slaves inward gold, or inward acceptable slaves. He is talking large with his threats but nosotros absolutely disregard them.”[6] It was this same Norre who thought that Ansa Kwao was beingness presumptuous past times settling the disputes betwixt the Ga inward 1727.[7]
Norre’s subordinate inward Accra, de la Planque, was of a similar temperament. In May 1727, when he felt that the Fante were damaging merchandise inward Accra, he wrote to Norre at Elmina: “if your highness is pleased that I give a goodness thrashing to the firstly 1 I acquire into my hands I believe that people (Sic) would non come upwards hither so often inward monastic enjoin to ship on their trade.”[8]
Men of Norre’s in addition to de la Planque’s temperament had their counterparts amongst the Akwamu leaders. Ansa Kwao was said to have got preferred the counsel of “young hot-tempered rascals” to that of the wiser in addition to older councilors.[9] The combination of such impetuous leaders in addition to unstable weather condition meant that problem was bound to flare upwards at the to the lowest degree provocation. It is hence non surprising that the Akwamu demand for ii G bendas was instantly rejected without whatever endeavour at bargaining. The Dutch must have got known that it was usual amidst the inhabitants of the Gold Coast to create demands far inward excess of what they really expected on the understanding that it was them upwards to the culprit to negotiate for a reduction inward the demand.[10] De la Planque treated the Akwamu demand as a challenge to Dutch powerfulness rather than as a claim for satisfaction for someone who had been wronged.[11] He was fifty-fifty supposed to have got shown powder, bullets in addition to other state of war materials to the Akwamu messengers in addition to told them that he would rather pay them with state of war than with goods.
The Dutch broker, Amo, supported the Ga inward their programme to rebel inward 1728. His backing was crucial, since he was also the Akwamu representative inward Accra.[12] Amo previously claimed to have got taken an oath of allegiance with the Akwamu majestic theatre unit of measurement during King Akonnor’s reign,[13] in addition to Ivor Wilks proposed an explanation for his alter of loyalty. According to Wilks, Amo was the rightful heir to the throne after the decease of Akonnor, since he was Akonnor’s sister’s son. He was however, bypassed inward favour of Ansa Kwao, Akonnor’s sister’s daughter’s son. Amo was disqualified because, having lived for 14 yr away from the spot of regime inward the subordinate spot of Akwamu representative inward Accra, he had apparently lost the right to live King of Akwamu.[14] Amo, hence saw the rebellion as a peril for him to regain his rightful throne from Ansa Kwao.
The 3rd factor which encouraged the Ga to rebel was their hope of securing allies from other vassals in addition to neighbours of Akwamu. The Ga were non the only people who suffered nether Akwamu rule. According to Romer, the King of Akwamu in addition to his chiefs “knew what form of roguery went on inward this land.”[15] The Akuapem, for instance, were forced to endure raids past times armed bands, known as siccadings,[16] who roamed the country, stealing innocent people in addition to selling them as slaves. According to Romer, “Aquando allowed his people to steal in addition to plunder amidst themselves in addition to to maintain of Negroes in addition to the Adampees.” Romer farther stated that the King of Akwamu had over 1 G siccadings.[17] The activities of the King’s nephews, Oten Abransamadu in addition to Oten Agyare, likewise caused grave discontent. Reindorf’s declaration that they “used the middle of the breasts of immature women of Akuapem as target inward exercising their newly arms”[18]should non live taken literally, but does dot the hatred felt towards them. In 1726, King Ansa Kwao informed the Dutch factor at Accra that he intended to onset the people of Brekuso, because they had shot dead 1 of his swordbearers. Amo was hence summoned to bring together an expedition against Brekuso.[19] The Brekuso men reacted to the threat of onset past times killing their wives in addition to children in addition to taking flying so the Akwamu were obliged to retire to their ground with null achieved.[20] It would seem apparent, therefore, that at that spot was considerable discontent inward Akuapem past times 1728.
The Adanme in addition to Ewe were also prepared to back upwards the rebellion inward 1728. In add-on to the siccading raids, they had been the victims of several Akwamu invasions, for example, King Ado’s inward 1700, in addition to Akonnor’s inward 1708 in addition to 1722.[21]
In Apr 1727, the Danes reported that an Akwamu prince, Amega, “who lived on null but robbery”, was stealing people’s belongings on the eastern coast. He was plundering 1 town after another, in addition to because of these ravages his victims had marshaled their forces in addition to eaten fetish to punish him. Their combined forces proved too strong for Amega, in addition to he had to seek reinforcement from the Akwamu. King Ansa Kwao dared non to send the reinforcement from Akwamu for fearfulness that Ofori’s successor inward Akyem would onset Akwamu inward the absence of his troops. Amega, however, received reinforcement, from his father, Asumansu, an of import caboceer inward Akwamu, who inward plough was able to acquire assistance from most of the other caboceers inward Akwamu.[22] Asumansu’s activeness showed that past times 1727 the king’s ascendance fifty-fifty within the Akwamu province was weakening. With such reinforcements Amega was able to proceed inward his plundering of the towns. In response, some of the towns either sued for peace or the people took flight. In September 1727 it was reported that the Keta people had fled to Aflao, a town farther east.[23] By Feb 1728, Amega reached Ningo, in addition to his arrival hither coincided with the murder incident of 1728.[24]
Of all Akwamu neighbours, the Akyem were the Ga’s most promising allies. From the goal of the seventeenth century to the outbreak of the rebellion inward 1728, the Akyem-Akwamu human relationship had been predominantly characterized past times war, or at to the lowest degree past times the threat of war. The underlying stimulate of all these conflicts was the Akwamu policy of disallowing the Akyem access to Accra coast to trade.[25] In Jan 1699 the Danes reported that merchandise was disrupted because the King of Akwamu was inward conflict with the Akyem.[26] By Jan 1700 the Akyem had acquired a “little town” from the Akwamu[27], in addition to inward February, Ado informed the Danes that Akyem wanted to wage state of war on him.[28] In monastic enjoin to forestall this war, Ado had to send presents to Akyem.[29] However, Ado’s presents did non select whatever durable peace, for inward May 1702, Ado’s married adult woman sent a message to him whilst on motion inward Popo in addition to the eastern coast, entreating him to homecoming to Akwamu immediately. It was feared that since the Asante-Denkyira state of war had ended, the Denkyira inward alliance with Akyem would onset Akwamu, who were allies for Asante.[30]
In 1704 state of war finally broke betwixt the Akyem in addition to Akwamu. The Danes reported that merchandise had ceased because the King of Akwamu was at state of war with Akyem in addition to “other Negroes”[31]. This state of war lasted for ii years, in addition to it was non until March 1706 that the Rex of Akwamu informed the Europeans that hostility betwixt him in addition to the Akyem was “nearly over”.[32] However, inward 1713, Akyem-Akwamu hostility seems to have got resumed. The Danes reported inward May 1713 that the King of Akwamu was 1 time once again living inward discord with the Akyem in addition to the surrounding nations. This had caused a decline inward merchandise due to the fact that Akwamu had closed its roads so as to forestall Akyem from coming to merchandise with the Europeans.[33]
In March 1715 King Akonnor informed the Dutch factor Zelst inward Accra that he was involved inward serious dispute with King Ofori of Akyem. Whilst Akonnor was staying inward Accra, his hamlet in addition to theatre inward Akwamu were burnt down. His chiefs sent a message to warn him that the Akyem were 1 time again threatening to invade Akwamu.[34] In May the Dutch factor Boerhaven was informed that the Akyem were preparing to scrap against the Akwamu in addition to that the Agna had taken an oath with Ofori in addition to Apintin non to unopen the paths but instead to sell the Akyem all the pulverization in addition to muskets they needed. Akyem traders, therefore, travelled daily to the coast through Agona.[35]
There was an endeavour at an Akyem-Akwamu rapprochement but this was brusque lived, for inward Oct it was said “positively’ that the Akyem would march against Agona in addition to Akwamu. The Akyem caboceers Apintin in addition to Ofori had joined in; Ofori had sent a considerable nowadays to the Zaay of Asante in addition to obtained his approbation on the coming battle, in addition to caboceer Apintin had sent spot Akonnor’s daughter, his wife.[36] After this, at that spot was 1 time again an endeavour at a peace settlement, but 1 time to a greater extent than this broke down. Yet, inward spite of preparations for war, no battle was investigated. inward March 1716, it was reported from Bereku that the Akyem had ‘shamefully fled to their country.”[37] According to Finn, the ground for this Akyem retreat was that the Asante threatened to acquire inward the state of war at the asking of the Agona.[38]
After the retreat of both the Akyem in addition to Akwamu forces, at that spot was negotiation for peace. In September, Snoek at Accra reported that the differences betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu were non yet settled because “the demands which the Akyems create cannot live agreed to, inward monastic enjoin to settle everything.”[39] However, the Akyem eventually modified their terms in addition to made peace with the Akwamu, primarily due to the fearfulness of an Asante attack. War did finally bkeak out betwixt the Asante in addition to Akyem, but the latter were able to defeat the Asante inward 1717. However, the state of war ended inward tragedy for both sides, resulting inward the decease the Asante King Osei Tutu in addition to the Akyem leader Apintin.[40]
Akwamu tin live seen to have got acted treacherously towards both Akyem in addition to Asante during this war. Before the state of war commenced Akonnor promised to demonstrate the Asante a way past times which they could onset the Akyem in addition to “very easily overmaster them.” At the same fourth dimension Akonnor also agreed to select tending of Akyem women in addition to children until the state of war was over. Akonnor, however, betrayed the motion of the Asante forces to the Akyem army, who consequently used this information to defeat the Asante. Upon their defeat some of the Asante forces, struck past times famine, retreated to their supposed allies, the Akwamu, for help. However, it seems that these unfortunate men were sold past times the perfidious Akwamu to the Europeans “with groovy tranquility.”[41] Akonnor also seized the chance provided past times the Akyem-Asante state of war to plunder in addition to pillage Akyem. He fifty-fifty went so far as to sell a number of the Akyem women in addition to children entrusted to his care. It is, therefore, non surprising that intelligence of the Akyem victory should have got caused fearfulness in addition to apprehension amongst the Akwamu.
The Dutch factor inward Accra thought it likely that the Akyem caboceer Ofori “may good come upwards to demand business concern human relationship of the many Akyem natives whom Aquando had sold in addition to seized their goods they had with them.”[42] Ofori was, inward fact, so enraged at Akwamu’s treachery that the fugitive Akyem women who were returning to their ground from Akwamu were sent dorsum along with the message that “he would come upwards in addition to demand them all dorsum from Aquando at 1 fourth dimension in addition to so have got the residue given past times each one’s friends inward monastic enjoin to discovery those lacking.”[43]
After this duplicity, relations betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu became increasingly antagonistic.
Eight years after the Asante-Akyem war, Akwamu’s ‘treachery’ was still beingness recounted inward Accra. In seeking to explicate the ground for Akyem- Akwamu hostility inward 1725, the Danish Governor reported that during the Asante-Akyem state of war of 1717 the Akyem had sent their women to Akwamu for safe-keeping. At the goal of the war, the King of Akwamu had non only kept the women instead of returning them as promised, but furthermore, had given the women in addition to children to his people in addition to fifty-fifty sold some of them as slaves. Indeed, the King himself had kept the Akyem King’s sis in addition to treated her as a slave. She remained inward Akwamu despite the fact that Akyem had sent presents to secure her release. This was the ground why the roads had been closed to the Akyem for so long in addition to at that spot appeared to live no hope of their beingness re-opened, as long as Akonnor lived. With Akonnor’s death, however, the Danes were filled with the hope of a possible Akyem-Akwamu friendship, because “the novel King finds himself surrounded past times enemies in addition to his powerfulness at nowadays is rattling weak so he testament seek for friendship.”[44]
The possibility for whatever shape of friendship betwixt Akyem in addition to Akwamu became bleaker when Ofori died inward 1727. There was a province of uncertainty inward Akwamu, because Ofori’s successor was said “to have got ever been hostile to the Akwamu.” Moreover, it was the custom of Akyem that, before the novel Rex sat on the predecessor’s tool; he had to prove his bravery past times fighting an enemy.[45] By 1728, on the eve of the outbreak of the Ga rebellion, Akyem in addition to Akwamu were said to live “deadly enemies.” Hence Akyem saw it advantageous to back upwards the Ga inward their insurrection. Their spot tin live summed upwards past times the Ga saying “Kwao Mensa ni miitao Gua aya inward atsu le Anomabo,” which literally way “Kwao Mensah, who wants to go to Cape Coast, instead has been sent to Anomabo.” The proverbial Kwao Mensah is used to depict an opportunist.
By 1728 the possibility of Akwamu obtaining aid from Asante, Fante in addition to Agona, the states which were traditionally acknowledged as friends was rattling faint. The Asante, similar the Akyem, had non forgiven the Akwamu for their conduct inward 1717.[46] In 1718 in addition to 1722, Rumours had suggested that the Asante would ally with Akyem to punish Akwamu. Although these rumours did non materialize, past times 1729 it was possible for Akyem to purchase Asante neutrality past times offering Asante v hundred slaves inward commutation for beingness allowed v months within which to defeat Akwamu.[47]
By 1728 Fante’s friendship with Akwamu was also precarious. In 1716 an alliance had been formed betwixt Fante in addition to Akwamu due to the rumour of an Akyem attack,[48] in addition to inward 1724 the Akwamu had conspired against Agona during the Fante-Agona war.[49] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 disagreement betwixt Fante in addition to Akwamu after this war, maybe over the sharing of the spoils, had eventually been settled inward Nov 1724. In 1726 the Dutch society attempted to intermission the Fante-Akwamu alliance. The Dutch Director-General Valckenier, instructed his subordinate Pranger inward Accra to persuade Akwamu to bring together an Asante-Dutch alliance against Fante “to instruct them a lesson for their maliciousness.” Valckenier suggested that the Fante were committing “every possible insolence” past times panyarring Dutch canoes on the heads of natives who owed them nothing. He was prepared to pay the Akwamu 30-40 bendas inward goods in addition to shelter all the Akwamu women in addition to children inward the forts, if they agreed to march uup in addition to bring together the Asante army.[50] Unfortunately for Valckenier, Asante withdrew her forces unexpectedly, when recalled past times King Opoku Ware. He claimed that his conflict was only with Intiere of Wassa in addition to that he was too weak to select on the Fante army.[51]
After the Asante retreat, rumours started to circulate that the Akron were trying to acquire Akyem to declare state of war on Akwamu. Apparently the King of Akwamu had sent ii hundred muskets in addition to some other goods to the King of Asante in addition to promised him that as before long as Asante came to onset Fante, Akwamu in addition to the district of Agona would autumn on the Fante from behind.[52] These rumours reveal that, past times the goal of 1726, Fante had no confidence inward Akwamu friendship. In 1727 it was reported that Fante, Asante, Assin, Akyem in addition to Kwahu had together resolved to onset Akwamu.[53]
Agona’s human relationship with her powerful friend, Akwamu, was also weakened past times 1728. In 1716, when Akonnor was returning from his state of war with Akyem, he had indulged inward “some plundering amidst the Agona.”[54] In 1718 it had been reported inward Bereku that “Aquando has received displeasure against his groovy friend Janconcoe, Headchief of the Agonas.[55] Furthermore, Akwamu had acted treacherously towards the Agona when the latter was attacked past times Fante inward 1724. During the attack, the King of Agona with 10 of his caboceers in addition to almost iv G men fled to Akwamu[56] believing them to live friends, or at rattling to the lowest degree neutral. Akonnor, however, captured the refugees in addition to promised to portion the booty with Fante.[57] After this deceit, Akonnor attempted to regain the friendship of Kusi Adu, the novel overlord of Agona, past times sending him a “golden morion”, golden arm ring, a string of Conte de terre beads in addition to twoscore cattle. The Dutch remarked: “such a nowadays is seldom made out of courtesy, but 1 usually sees that inward that way difficulties are removed in addition to a union results. “[58]
At to the lowest degree component of Agona still nursed grievances against Akwamu for her conduct inward 1724. Because if this, their mental attitude at the outbreak of the Ga rebellion inward 1728 tin been seen as double-edged. The Dutch reported that Agona “still inward appearance remains the friend of Aquamboe, so that they testament pay Aquamboe with the same coin, which they (Agona) received at the fourth dimension they were defeated past times the Fantees. They, too, thought that Aquamboe was their friend in addition to hence seem refuge with them, in addition to were all made prisoners past times them.”[59]
From the to a higher spot analysis, it is clear that past times 1728 Akwamu was isolated. King Ansa Kwao himself admitted to the Danes that his enemies were ‘numerous.’ The Ga therefore, had sufficient stimulate to believe that circumstances were ripe for rebellion against Akwamu.
The firstly people to endorse the thought of fighting against Akwamu were the Aprags in addition to Sokos. Led past times Amo in addition to Ayikuma,[60] they were able to persuade other Ga towns, Osu,Labadi, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema to bring together them. Each town paid a subsidy to the state of war inward proportion to its size. According to the Danish Governor, Wellemsen, Osu paid 3 ounces of golden (48 rix-dollars), because they were led to believe past times Amo that the subsidies were going to used merely to pacify Akwamu snd non as contribution towards the war.[61] Even if the Danish versionis right in addition to Amo in addition to Ayikuma did deceive the town of Osu into paying the 3 ounces, it is clear they did non afterwards withdraw their support, when they realized that their contribution state of war meant for the war.
When Wellemsen realized that the Aprags were trying to persuade Osu in addition to Labadi to bring together them inward the scrap against Akwamu, he called the Caboceers of Osu in addition to Labadi to the fort on twelfth Nov 1728. Here, they were able to select an oath pledging that they would non go involved inward the war. The Caboceers were thereupon given presents worth sixty-two rix-dollars past times the Danish company.[62] However, past times Dec 1728 inward contravention to the before oath, they decided to bring together the other Ga towns inward the state of war against Akwamu.
Amo in addition to the Ga were able to secure back upwards from Akuapem, Adanme in addition to Krepe. When the representatives of the allied forces met inward Accra to verbalize over their state of war plans in addition to to swear oath of loyalty, the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch promised to stuff assistance during the war. They also flattered the representatives past times saluting them with canon shots. However, when Caboceer Ayikuma led the representatives to the Danish fort in addition to demanded a similar hope of aid from the Danes, the Governor declared that he was neutral. He had come upwards to the coast to merchandise in addition to non to indulge inward state of war in addition to therefore, was prepared to merchandise in addition to create friend with anyone who brought him slaves, golden in addition to ivory. He farther declared that it was no concern of his if his ain towns chose to live involved inward the war. The only commitment that the Danish Governor would create was to give Caboceer[63] Tete of Osu an old silk flag on status that, when inward the hills, he should send downwards millet on the Danish Company’s account.
In June 1729 formal state of war finally broke out betwixt the allied forces in addition to the Akwamu. On 18th June de la Planque reported: “affairs betwixt the Aquamboe in addition to the people of Accra have got at in conclusion broken into formal war; the onetime having hostilely fallen upon the hamlet of Tashi almost ii miles below Accra – a few days ago, massacred some people in addition to plundered goods – but to this Crom (town) they have got non yet dared to come upwards for fearfulness of the Akims whom the Accras with their allies have got got to resolve too much upwards against Aquamboe (Akwamu). Makelaar Amoe in addition to his people, too the people of Labbodee (Labadi) in addition to Tema in addition to other beach people, have got already risen on the 15th instant, in addition to the repose of the Accras will, for the most part, follow inward iv days’ fourth dimension inward order, together with the colina people, to onset Aquamboe; piece they are assured that Akim is also inward readiness to extend a helping manus to them.[64] The Akwamu regular army adcanced farther westwards to Labadi, which on 20th June was set on can in addition to plundered of goods.[65]
The outbreak of state of war caused pandemonium inward Accra in addition to led many people to seek protection inward the forts. It appears that the Ga did non confine themselves solely to the Accra forts. In July the Dutch factor inward Bereku apologized for the delay of his monthly returns for May in addition to June, declaring that he was “so occupied past times the Akra people that he does non fifty-fifty know where to shelter his trunk in addition to has hardly a spot to slumber in, through the numerous women in addition to children whom the Accra people have got sent him to live sheltered till the state of war with Aquamboe is over.[66]
Although the Ga regular army had marched upwards into the hills inward June, battle was repeatedly postponed until September, when the Akwamu finally attacked component of the allied regular army in addition to compelled it to retire. Most of the Ga fled dorsum to the coast; but the remainder, along with Amo in addition to the other allies, retired into Akyem. (Akyem had previously given hostage as guarantee that they would bring together the state of war against Akwamu.[67] With this battle ended the firstly stage of the war. According to de la Planque, it was only due to the faint-heartedness of the Ga that Akwamu were non totally defeated. He did however, discovery that Akwamu had gained a trivial wages inward the onset since, inward contrast to the allied forces; it had lost a substantial number of caboceers.[68]
The initial victory of the Akwamu provoked various reactions. The Dutch Director-General Norre shifted the blame on to the Ga for starting the war: “having seen the faint-hearted retreat of the Accra men, nosotros are all the to a greater extent than confirmed inward our opinion, namely, that nosotros have got ever had trivial confidence inward the outcome of this perilous understanding, but as nosotros are non inward whatever way involved inward this war, nor were nosotros consulted almost it, nosotros testament await its goal tranquilly, especially as nosotros have got been able to discovery that the Company stood to create whatever turn a profit past times it fifty-fifty though it had succeeded according to wishing (sic). The Accra people tin hence view how they tin acquire out of it in addition to must select take heed that they don’t problem us almost whatever of the consequences.”[69]
De la Planque, however, disagreed with Norre over the issue. He declared: “although it is truthful that the Accras are waging this state of war on their ain account, in addition to without the special permission of your Highness, still, I consider it my duty to inform your Highness of everything I hear almost it. That your Highness considers that fifty-fifty if that succeeds according to the wishing of the Accras this would non select whatever turn a profit to the Honourable Company is, however, with all respect, contrary to my opinion, seeing that the Aquamboe are the sole stimulate that the Akims cannot come upwards hither to the beach to trade, but are obliged to leave of absence everything inward Aquamboe which so 1 time again trades goes so badly here. Wherefore I imagine that, if the Aquamboe powerfulness 1 time live defeated in addition to driven out of their country, the golden in addition to ivory merchandise would flourish 1 time again as inward onetime times.”[70]
Indeed, de la Planque had so much confidence inward the favourable outcome of the state of war that he invested his ain money inward it. He was fifty-fifty said to have got offered 24 bendas to whoever would select him the caput of Ansa Kwao, King of Akwamu. He was also defendant past times the Danes of having boasted publicly that he would hoist Ansa Kwao’s caput on his flag staff in addition to had farther sworn that, if he did non acquire take hold of that ‘black dog” Ansa Kwao inward the war, he would do so when he became Director-General, fifty-fifty if it should cost him 1 hundred marks. As farther evidence of de la Planque’s keen involvement inward the war, he kept ii of his servants inward the regular army to deed as spies, so that he could have upwards to engagement information almost the progress of the battle. All these factors earned him the nickname “akwamu wura”, which meant Akwamu’s master.[71]
The Ga who had fled to their homes compensated for their defeat past times taking reprisals inward Accra. On twelfth September 1729 the Ga caboceer Ayikuma in addition to his followers panyarred some Akwamu in addition to Brekuso who had visited the Danish fort.[72] The Ga also directed their hostility against the Danish society itself. On 21st September 1729 de la planque reported that the Danish Governor had incited the hatred of the Ga because “he is taking the side of the Aquamboes rattling strongly.” As a outcome of this aggression, all the Governor’s dependent people, including the canoemen along with their canoes, had fled from nether the protection of the fort. Moreover, because of his “violent zeal” for the Akwamu, the Ga were employing every way possible to forestall the Danish Goernor from receiving provisions. It was de la planque’s believed that if the Akwamu did non win the war, the Ga would eventually starve out the Danish fort.[73] It was farther alleged that the Danish Governor had been told past times the Ga to select his fort on his dorsum in addition to go with it to Akwamu if he wanted provision.
The feeling of animosity which the Ga held toward the Danes was aggravated past times the fact that the Danish Governor had received jawbones from Akwamu messagers as a token of their victory inward the firstly war. The Governor also sent servants bearing presents to the Akwamu king. On 31st Dec 1729 1 of his servants, amo, was sent together with a mulatto, Christian Peterson de Widt, on a mission to akwamu. Whilst en route he threw downwards the anker of spirits that he was carrying as a nowadays to Ansa kwao in addition to sought refuge with the other Ga nether the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication forts.[74] It is non known what information this deserter gave to the Ga, but on eighth Jan 1730 they decided to select activeness against the Danish Company.
Okain, a Ga coboceer, together with some of his followers went to Osu in addition to encited the Danish slaves into leaving the service of the company. Those who were of Ga rootage left willingly, those who were non strength to society them. The slave comprised 14 men, 2 women in addition to 1boy. Okain in addition to his followers also seized 20 goats in addition to 1 sheep together with the man child who tended them. The Danish governor straight off sent a messeger, Noi, to inform de la plaque almost the robbery in addition to to inquire for redress, but his messenger did non return. That same night, the Ga tried to sabotage the Danish caoes, inward an endeavour to forestall from securing whatever back upwards from their ship,k the haabet Galley, Which was so anchored off Osu. The saboteurs were, however, repelled with manus grenades. For the side past times side 15 days in addition to nighttime the Ga attacked the Danish fort but were unable to halt reinforcement arriving from their ship. The Ga were alleged to have got bragged at the kickoff of their onset that they would seize the Danish fort within half dozen days, massacre all the occupants so that non a”single Christian soul” remained in addition to so get upwards the Dutch flag. However, the only apparent success achieved past times the Ga was the wounding of 3 spldiers, 1 of whom later died of his wounds.[75]
During the siege of the fort, the Danish Governor sent a sure Mr. Hougaard to the the Akwamu Caboceer, Amega, who was so inward Great Ningo, to inform him of the Danish predicament. Amega straight off sent a messege to King Ansa Kwao, who responded to the asking past times sending v Cboceer along with their followers to salvage the Danes.[76] The arrival of the armed men inward Accra on 23rd Jan 1730 marked the kickoff of the 2nd stage of the war.
The Akwamu troops had been inward Osu for less than a quarter of an 60 minutes when they were attacked past times the Ga. They fought until noon in addition to so retired because of the excessive oestrus of the sun. After the Akwamu’s poor lineament ammunition had been replaced with meliorate ammunition past times the Danish Company, they renewed their fighting with vigour. They continued inward this vein until 25th January, when they were joined past times ii farther Caboceer in addition to their followers from Akwamu. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia later the Akwamu forces were farther strengthened past times the arrival of the groovy caboceer kwesi Bibri, the king’s brother-in-law. By this stage the Akwamu forces numbered over ii G men, yet inward spite of these reinforcements, they were unable to defeat the Ga.[77]
On Feb 6th, de la Planque reported that the Akwamu had attacked the Ga twice but, having been repelled past times the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication canons had so non been able to penetrate into Aprag in addition to Soko.[78] The Akwamu later claimed that they had lost seventy-five men inward these battles.[79] There was a temporary cessation of fighting on sides until the 13th February. Onm this engagement Kesi Sibri, inward accordance with an agreed plan, enticed the Ga attackers onto the beach nether the Danish fort, where they were fired upon past times the Danish canons. In the human face of this setback, the Ga retreated, carrying with them their dead in addition to wounded.[80]
On Feb 14th, the King of Akwamu arrived inward Accra with reinforcements. The Akwamu forces drove the Ga into in addition to Dutch forts in addition to inward doing so gained command of the towns, despite the fact that both the European companies were firing upon them. After the Akwamu forces had entered the towns, they set can to them in addition to besieged the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication forts.[81]
When Director-General Norre was informed of the attack, he expressed his “vexation” in addition to defendant de la Planque of non giving him the total information almost the events which led to the siege. He declared that if the Ga had consulted him almost their intention to wage state of war against Akwamu, he would non have got failed to dot out to them that “to onset Aquamboe could have got no other outcome for them than that of a hare aousing in addition to aggravating a sleeping lion.[82] He also advised de la Planque to spotter Amo closely since he believed the latter was employing “his talent” to deceive both the Ga in addition to the Dutch. In spite of his anger, Norre, offered to send a ship- to Accra to collect all the women in addition to children, but the Ga politely declined the offer, preferring to send the women in addition to children away past times their ain canoes. For the duration of the siege, the Ga were forced to fetch H2O from Bereku on 5th March, Guicherit the factor at that spot reported that almost twe3nty little canoes went daily to9 Accra with water, as a outcome of the groovy scarcity of H2O inward the Accra forts.[83]
After the Akwamu had besieged the forts for a considerable length of time, the Rex sent a messenger to the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication in addition to asked them if they were disposed to create a palaver with him. In response, both de la Planque in addition to the English linguistic communication Agent General Braithwaite, who was so on a see to Accra, replied that they would only take heed to the king’s proposals if he withdrew his forces in addition to sent someone on his behalf to view them.[84] However, Braithwaite afterwards changed his psyche in addition to made peace with Akwamu despite the fact that the acting Dutch factor Gawron made every elbow grease to persuade him to delay inward this course of study of activeness for at to the lowest degree 3 or iv days. Gawron was intent on this delay because he had received ii boys as pawns from the Akyem as security for their prospective advance agaist the akwamu, in addition to so the Akyem were concerned that the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication should non acquire inward into friendship with Akwamu.[85] However on the nighttime of 22nd March, the Akwamu unexpectedly in addition to quietly withdrew their forces from Accra.[86]
The abrupt withdrawal of Akwamu forces from Accra suggests that at that spot was an urgent province of affairs to live dealt with inward Akwam. Gawron was convinced that the hurried divergence of the Akwamu forces meant that the Akyem had already fallen upon the Akwamu country, especially, since the Akwamu did non hold back to have payment for tow slaves that they had sold to the English linguistic communication the nighttime before they left.[87] Although Gawron’s declaration is perhaps exaggerated, at that spot is no dubiety that the presence of the Akwamu Rex in addition to his forces inward Accra left his ground exposed to attack. Indeed, on 5th March, Guicherit reported that next the siege of the Ga past times the Akwamu, a political party of seventy-one Fante volumteers had descended upon Akwamu for the purpose of a marauding expedition, but had obtained null except a adult man in addition to a woman. They had however, promised to homecoming inward the hope of at5taining to a greater extent than booty. It was fifty-fifty rumoured that the FDante would unite with the Akeym in addition to together they would scrap Akwamu.[88]
The catamenia betwixt the withdrawal of Akwamu forces from Accra in addition to the terminal stage of the state of war was exploited past times both theAkwamu in addition to their enemies as an chance to seem novel for allies, or else, to ensure that the powerful neighbours would at to the lowest degree remain neutral.
On Apr 20th, Ansa Kwao sent a retainer to Gawron, the acting Dutch factor,with gift of yams in addition to 2 ankers of palm wine, 1 for Gawron in addition to the other for Ayikuma. Ansa Kwao “begged” Gawron in addition to Ayikuma to send a representative to Akwamu “to settle the palavers” He wanted to renew the onetime friendship with the Dutch society in addition to assured Gawron that he had no farther ground to ascension upwards against them but that he was previously “instigated thereto past times other who had turned his head. “When the Dutch council at Elmina was informed to the the king’s message, they decided to settle the disputes for the welfare of trade. Even though they believed the Rex of Akwamu was inward the wrong, they were willing to comply because the Akwamu”appeared so submissive in addition to were fifty-fifty the firstly to seek for peace.” The council, therefore, authorized a commission, comprising the principal factor de la planque in addition to Blittersdorp, to go to Accra in addition to settle the disputes with the Rex of Akwamu. The commissioners were, however, instructed non to create whatever payment or expenditure to the accuse of the company.[89]
When de la planque in addition to Bliteersdorp arrived inward Acrra, the Rex of Akwamu sent a retainer to Crevecoeur. De la planque advised the retainer to inquire the Rex to send downwards some caboceers with total powers to settle the disputes in addition to to arrive at an understanding “otherwise they would have got rattling serious consequences.”[90] De la planque stayed inward Accra until May 19th, only deciding to homecoming to Elmina when he realized that the Rex had non as jet sent his delegation. At the goal of May, the Rex sent a messenges to apologise for this delay in addition to as security for his genuine intention to settle the dispute the messenger wasaccompanied past times ii man child pawns. He did declare, however, that before settling the disputes, he had to scrap with “the colina people to view who testament live master.”[91]
In June a battle was fought betwixt the Akwamu in addition to the allied forces backed past times a number of Akyem troops. Although the Akyem Caboceer, Oforidua[92], was said to have got so gallantly that he got “quite 50 heads of the Aquamboes”, the battle ended inward defeat for the allied forces. This defeat tin mainly live attributed to the treachery of the Akuapem Caboceer, who evidently deserted during the battle to bring together the Akwamu. Although the caboceer was caught whilst deserting in addition to was promptly beheaded, many of his people did succeed inward joining the Akwamu.
According to Ivor Wilks, the predominant ground for this defection lay inward the fact that most of the Akuapem had joined the state of war non because they wanted to view a consummate overthrow of Akwamu power, but because they wanted to rebel purely against the tyrannical personal regulation of Ansa Kwao.[93] When the Akuapem realized that they had go mere adjuncts to the Akyem objective of total devastation of the Akwamu, a large number of them decided to revert to Ansa Kwao. They had no intension of helping to select almost the Akyem rule. Among the people who joined Ansa Kwao were many of the followers of Osei Agyeman, who at nowadays render the Nafihene of modern Akwamu.[94]
The intelligence of this Akwamu victory is reported to have got caused groovy consternations amongst the Ga. They must have got realized the enormity of the penalization which would live meted out of them if the Akwamu finally won the state of war in addition to so they judiciously decided to renew their involvement inward the fighting. Accordingly, Ayikuma expressed his want to panyar some Akwamu messengers who had brought jaw bones to the Europeans inward Accra as proof of their vicotory. Blittersdorp, however, objected because he saw this deed as a violation of the law of the nation, which granted that, “all ambassadors had the liberty to arrive at to in addition to fro unmolested.”[95] More importantly, Blittersdorp thought that such a violation would non live to the wages of the Company, mainly because, as a outcome of the disturbances, Crevecoeur had been without merchandise for a long time. Although the Ga did finally allow the messengers to homecoming to Akwamu unmolested, some other grouping was non so fortunate. Twenty farther Akwamu messengers, 1 of whom was a retainer with the King’s stick, were attacked close the Dutch fort inward July.[96] Although Akwamu denied whatever knowledge of the attack, the assailants were said to have got spoken Ga. The responsibleness for the onset was eventually attributed to Tete Kpeshi, a Caboceer of Soko.[97]
Immediately after the Akwamu victory, Ayikuma sent ii delegates, Grande Tete in addition to Okaidza, to send a messenger to Akyem in addition to Agona to assay to persuade them to bring together the advance against Akwamu. He also asked Blittersdorp to send a messenger to Akyem to secure their support, but he declined to do so, suggesting that he had been sent to Accra to merchandise in addition to non to “thrust” himself into whatever novel quarrel.[98] The Akyem were, however, busy taking precautions before committing their forces to the war. In July, the Akyem regular army sent ii people to the Dutch factor, Gawron, at Apam as security that they would select possession of the Akwamu ground in addition to renew the merchandise in addition to alliances with the Dutch Company. They alleged that the Fante had been the stimulate of their delay because they had made a novel demand for 100 bendas, which had already been sent. They were taking these precautions to safeguard their alliance ewith the Fante so that “their minds tin live at rest” over their wives in addition to children whom they intended to leave of absence inward Agona.[99]
Gawron’s credence of the Akyem pledge reveals a lack of co-ordination amongst the various Dutch forts. It seems that whilst Blittersdorp was trying to create peace with the Akwamu, the other factors were supporting their enemies. On 11th July, Blittersdorp received some servants who had been sent past times King of Akwamu. They had brought with them a boy, to prove that Akwamu had won the state of war against her enemies. On twelfth July, Gawron was given ii jaw bones past times an Akyem caboceer, as a token that they had fought Akwamu. These jawbones were given to Gawron past times Tete in addition to Okaidza, the Ga delegates to Fante in addition to Agona.[100] Gawron was later reprimanded for this activeness past times Director-General Pranger, who believed that Ansa Kwao would live offended when he discovered that the Akwamu jawbones, had been presented past times the Dutch to his enemies the Ga, especially at a fourth dimension when Akwamu was trying to settle her differences with the Dutch.[101]
Pranger’s reprimand should non live taken too seriously, for he himself on July 22nd had authorized the factor at Accra to give protection to some Akuapem women inward response to entreaties past times Ayikuma.[102] Indeed, pranger’s determination to offering protection to the enemies of Akwamu was, for practical purposes, worse than that of the donation of Akawamu jawbones to Tete in addition to Okaidza. His empty threats[103] towards the Ga. Whilst the Dutch may have got wished, either secretly or openly, for the defeat of the Akwamu, they also felt compelled to convey the pretence of friendship, inward illustration Akwamu eventually did win the war. In a missive of the alphabet to the Directors, dated ninth July 1730, Pranger wrote: “it would live desirable that the Aquamboes were defeated, or their wings clipped, since it is they solitary who inward every way forestall in addition to hinder the Akyem the passage to the beach; in addition to if they were somewhat prevented from doing this, in addition to the Akyem could acquire passage through Akwamu, it is evident that the merchandise at that spot would alter for meliorate for the Company.”[104]
In contrast to these Dutch machinations, the English linguistic communication in addition to Danish companies were to a greater extent than consistent inward their dealing with the war. The English linguistic communication had originally supported the rebel forces; but when they made peace with the Akwamu inward the aftermath of the siege of Accra, they remained constent inward their spot as friends of Akwamu. On September seventh 1730, Cruickshank, 1 of the English linguistic communication agents at Cape Coast, visited Accra. Upon his arrival he straight off had Tete Kpeshi, the Soko caboceer defendant of having panyarred the Akwamu messengers, pose inward irons. The Dutch factor Blittersdorp commented that Cruickshank “strongly takes side of the Aquamboes.”[105] Cruickshank believed that if the Akwamu were defeated, it would live prejudicial to trade. The Fante would doubtless select kpossession of their country, proceed their merchandise with the interlopers at Anomabo in addition to , crucially, forestall the Akyem from coming to merchandise at the fort.in short, Cruickshank’s declaration implies that the English linguistic communication pro-Akwamu policy emanated from the fearfulness of what a Fante victory would hateful for the English linguistic communication Company’s merchandise prospects.
The Danes remained friends of Akwamu throughout the state of war regardless of their previously avowed neutrality. In spite of this, the Ga hostility towards them lessened after the siege of Accra: the Ga began to sell the bulk of their slaves, most of whom were stolen in addition to of the best quality, to the Danes.[106]
Despite evidence which suggested that the Ga were stepping upwards their anti-Akwamu activities, the Akwamu continued to pursue both their friendship in addition to that of the Dutch, fifty-fifty after the June victory. The messengers who had brought the jawbones in addition to intelligence of the Akwamu victory to Accra also informed Blittersdorp that Ansa Kwao would send messengers to settle the disputes as before long as everything was inward monastic enjoin again. They farther advised Blittersdorp that at that spot were almost 3 hundred slaves or captives inward Akwamu, some of whom they would select along when they eventually came to settle the disputes.[107] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 2nd grouping of messengers arrived ii weeks later, accompanied past times a man child whom they had taken captive inward the war. These messengers informed Blittersdorp that the caboceer who had been chosen to settle the disputes was afflicted with guinea worm.[108] Upon receiving this latest evidence of what he saw as Akwamu procrastination, Pranger instructed Blittersdorp to send a retainer to the King to inquire him categorically whether he entended to settle the disputes or not. He was to assure the King that his ambassadors would non live injured or molested. Blittersdorp was also instructed to inquire the Ga to recall their delegates who had been sent to Fante in addition to Agona, as they previously assured Pranger the Fante would never ascension upwards against Akwamu. The Ga were warned “on hurting of severe opunishment” non to molest the Akwamu.[109]
Such threats turned out to live ineffectual, for when the 3rd grouping of messengers, sent past times Ansa Kwao were panyarred past times the Ga, Pranger did non punish them. He said that he was unable to forestall the Ga or punish for panyarring the Akwamu whilst the disputes remained unsettled. He was, however, convinced that “if the Aquamboes saw an chance to acquire take hold of whatever Accras, they would non allow it arrive at to panyar them all.[110]
After this latest onset on his Akwamu messengers, the Rex sent Boakye (son of the onetime king, Akonnor) to Accra. Boakye protested against the panyaring in addition to insisted that this in addition to other small-scale grievances should live redressed before whatever of the major disputes were settled. He farther demanded that Blittersdorp should hold back until he had returned to Akwamu in addition to made his study on the molestation, before sending the Dutch retainer to Akwamu.[111] Boakye returned to Accra at the appointed fourth dimension in addition to swore inward the presence of Blittersdorp in addition to the Ga caboceers that no impairment would befall the retainer who was to accompany him to Akwamu.
Boakye had to postpone his homecoming to Akwamu, he learnt that a large grouping of men, mostly Kusi Adu’s people, were waiting to molest him in addition to his political party en route.[112] He hence requested in addition to was duely provided with escorts to Pb some of his men dorsum to Akwamu. Boakye’s people returned to Accra some days later, bringing with them men armed with muskets to safeguard Boakye. Upon the arrival of these armed men at the outskirts of Accra, Boakye left the town on the pretext of taking some drinks to his people. Nothing farther was heard of him in addition to so Blittersdorp kept all his goods in addition to the political party of v boys whom he was to have got taken dorsum to Akwamu.[113] With Boakye’s divergence from Accra inward the middle of August went all possibility of the Akwamu ever making peace with the Ga in addition to the Dutch before the goal of the war.
Blittersdorp began to dubiety the Akwamu sincerity inward ever desiring a peaceful solution: “as regards the Aquamboes I tin shape no view almost them in addition to I believe they proposed everything with deceit in addition to rascality, in addition to they came hither to spy out what was going on.” It was this same Blittersdorp who had commented before that “so far as regards the protestations in addition to outward appearance of the Aquamboe Caboceer, I should presume that the Aquamboes are inward earnest almost settling the disputes which have got arisen.”[114]
Boakye’s abscondance from Accra may have got resulted inward the fact that he similarly did non believe that the Ga in addition to the Dutch would live honest inward their settling of the disputes. Blittersdorp himself said that he presumed that the Ga were non “altogether inclining to create the palaver.”[115] During the negotiations, too repeatedly panyarring Akwamu messengers, the Ga gave active back upwards to the enemies of the Akwamu.
On 18th July, Akwamu asked Blittersdorp to grant protection to the wives of the “hill people”, because the Ga had taken an oath inward the presence of de la Planque to assist them inward this way.[116] On ninth July, Blittersdorp reported that a large trunk of the colina people, amongst whom were the caboceers Anpon in addition to Etoe, had retired to Accra. These caboceers sought refuge with the Ga, because their people, many of whom had rejoined the Akwamu forces, wanted to manus them over to the enemy inward monastic enjoin to create peace. Ayikuma asked permission of Blittersddorp to fortify the Dutch common salt hut on the beach inward monastic enjoin to shelter the refugees, as the fort was too little to accommodate them all inward the trial of an Akwamu attack. By the fourth dimension Ayikuma received permission from Director-General Pranger, the fortification had already been started.[117] Unluckily, the construction these fortifications coincided with Boakye’s presence inward Accra. In add-on to protecting the enemies of the Akwamu, the Ga also deliberately did non pay take heed to Pranger’s instructions to recall their delegates from Fante in addition to Agona. In August when Frimpong Manso (leader of the Akyem Kotoku responsible for the main offensive against Akwamu) wanted 50-60 bendas worth of pulverization on credit from the Dutch factor Gawron, it was the Ga in addition to Agona king, Kusi Adu, who guaranteed what he received.[118]
The Akwamu negotiations for peace with the Ga in addition to the Dutch were conducted whilst the state of war was still beingness fought. After Akwamu’s June victory, they appear to have got suffered a temporary reversal. On the twelfth July, Gawron reported that an Akwamu strength had been surrounded past times enemy men in addition to moreover that the King of Akwamu could non go to their assistance because 3 Akyem captains had previously truthful cat his communication line past times seizing a large town of Akwamu. It seems that the Akyem were biding their fourth dimension in addition to waiting for the Fante before attacking Akwamu with their total force.[119] However, Akwamu was able to revenge this setback, for on 31st July, Blittersdorp reported that the Akwamu had 1 time again fought the colina people in addition to he believed they had won, because some colina people had already fled to Accra in addition to almost v hundred to a greater extent than were expected.[120]
In September, Akyem stepped upwards her offensive against Akwamu. On 5th September, Gawron reported that Akyem had already captured the Akwamu bush villages in addition to cutting off the Akwamu nutrient supplies. Furthermore, the Akyem had promised that they would capture the whole ground of Akwamu, whether Fnate marched upwards or not.[121] Indeed, on 17th September, they sent a messenger to inform Gawron that they “as goodness as had the Aquamboe ground inward their possession, as they had fought against them in addition to taken possession of all the Aquamboe croms, except the King’s crom, with which they were waiting to view what Fantyn would undertake for their assistance to whom the had advanced golden to aid them. But if Fantyn does non also ascension upwards against Aquamboe, they have got allow them know that they testament grab in addition to cutting off the heads of all their thieves who are at nowadays plundering inward Aquamboe in addition to would select farther measures against Fantyn itself as before long as they had settled their palaver with Akwamu.”[122]
Gawron farther stated that the Akyem had “so unopen in” the Akwamu they could flee neither forwards nor backwards; many Akwamu were surrendering to “mercy or displeasure” of the Akyem, others scattering inward the bush in addition to the King had to “flee everywhere” from the Akyem, “so that Akim is already master copy of this whole ground from which goodness merchandise may live expected from Honourable Company.”[123]
The Danes likewise give a description of this terminal battle. Waeroe reported that the Akwamu, inward monastic enjoin to scrap the Akyem, crossed a river which was depression plenty at the fourth dimension to enable them to easily wade through. Akyem, however, did non bring together the battle straight off in addition to inward the meantime it rained heavily andd the river naturally filled up. The Akyem so proceeded to onset the Akwamu who, when forced to retreat, were forced to cross the swollen river. They lost to a greater extent than than iv times as many men doing this so those who had already been killed inward the battle. The Akyem so followed them, attacked them inward their ain land, in addition to within 3 days had destroyed in addition to conquered the whole Akwamu.[124] Ansa Kwao was captured, pose inward irons in addition to finally beheaded.[125] In October, Amo returned from the state of war to Accra bringing with him the caput in addition to manus of Ansa Kwao, King of Akwamu.
The terminal defeat of the Akwamu led to a full general province of disorder. The major culprits inward this latest upheaval were the Fante, almost 15 to 20 G men, had joined Akyem, in addition to although they had non taken component inward the battle, they wanted them to manus over component of the booty they had taken, “all of which causes considerable troubles inward the interior.”[126] Guicherit at Bereku also reported that the roads were unsafe in addition to no adult woman in addition to children inward the croms which they (the Fante) marched through are safe, in addition to that would in conclusion for almost 8 days, yet when the Fante in addition to Akyem caboceers, so is said , testament so live inward Agona in addition to testament select everything inward tranquility there.”[127]
Many of the Akeamu who were captured were sold as slaves. Romer commended: “one could imagine what was done with the Akwamu so long as a pot of brandy could live obtained from each of them.[128] Some of the Akwamu who were fortunate plenty to escape from the full general plunder in addition to cassacre, fled beyond the Volta in addition to founded novel Akwamu (the modern Akwamu state). Here, at that spot resided nether the leadership of Akonnor Kuma, boy of the belatedly King Akonnor past times a slave woman.[129] According to Romer only almost v hundred families across the Volta, in addition to these included non to a greater extent than than 1 G fighting men.[130] This, however, could live an underestimate, intended to illustrate that only a little proportion of the Akwamu population founded the novel province of Akwamu. New Akwamu continued to maintain links with Accra.
The remnant Akwamu who did non bring together their brethren beyond the Volta were consigned past times the Akyem to live nether the leadership of Akwamu caboceer Kwasi Bibri. Pranger inward reference to this somewhat peculiar province of affairs, noted that: “it is an old custom amidst the natives ever to leave of absence a component of their vanquished foes inward their ain ground in addition to to entrust the ascendance over it to someone of the same, whom they so as tribute-paying vassals: those of the triumphant political party can, however, settle at that spot if they are so disposed without nevertheless having a portion inward the government.”[131]
It appears that Caboceer Amo in addition to other sections of the Ga were non wholly satisfied after the defeat of the Akwamu. In Dec at that spot rumours that Amo still felt disposed to onset those Akwamu who had fled to “an inland”, in addition to would do so as before long as he had gathered together the necessary men.[132] Amo manifestly succeeded inward gaining this support, for inward March 1731 Aprag was “entirely devoid of people”because of the motion inward the Volta area.[133] Amo was joined past times Ayikuma, Okpoti kof Labadi in addition to the people of Osu. Ayikuma, however, returned to Accra inward May 1731, leaving the others to proceed with the campaign.[134] The motion lasted for to a greater extent than than ii years, for it was non until 1733 that Okpoti returned to Labadi. Dako (who had taken over the leadership after his begetter Amo’s death) likewise returned to Aprag after defeating the Awuna inward 1733.[135]
The Ga who chose non to go on this motion in addition to instead remained nether the leadership of Ayikuma attempted to solve their differences with the Akwamu who were left inward their country. In May 1731, a political party of Akwamu who were going to Bereku were attacked, in addition to 1 of them was shot dead past times some Ga assailants.[136] The continuation of such hostilities was injurious to trade, in addition to so inward June 1731 an endeavour was made to negotiate a peace settlement. An oath was taken past times the Ga in addition to the Akwamu inward the presence of Blittersdorp inward Accra, declaring that:
1) Hostilities were at nowadays at the end.
2) The Ga in addition to Akwamu would live similar goodness friends
3) The Akwamu would come upwards in addition to ship on their merchandise inward Accra.
4) The roads could live used on either side unmolested in addition to without hindrance as before long as the Akwamu had established themselves inward their country.[137]
Blittersdorp did non have got much confidence inward this agreement, because he believed that “no reliance tin live placed on forced in addition to dominated people such as the Akwamu.”[138] He was convinced that upon the smallest peril of deliverance, the Akwamu would seize the chance in addition to create the Ga pay dearly for beingness the primary stimulate of their misfortune. However, after this understanding was signed the merchandise paths did apparently go safe, in addition to inward Nov 1731 it was reported past times Guicherit that the ways from Alwamu, Agona in addition to Akyem were opened upwards 1 time again for trade.[139]
Another grouping of people with whom the Ga had to create peace were the Akyem. In Oct 1730, the Ga caboceer in addition to Amo agreed to pay 350 bendas in addition to half dozen stings of conte de terre, as a state of war contribution to the Akyem.[140] The Ga were at firstly only able to pay 120 bendas in addition to v strings of conte de terre in addition to fourth dimension was fixed for the payment of the rest. In return, the Akyem envoys who received the payment swore according to local custom in addition to on the Bible to live inward friendship with the Ga.
Barely 1 calendar month after this promise, the Akyem sent envoys to Ayikuma to demand the balance of the payment (amounting to 240 bendas in addition to 1 string of conte de terre) fifty-fifty though non to a greater extent than than one-fifth of the fourth dimension fixed for the payment had expired. The Akyem claimed that they were compelled to demand the amount because they needed it to back upwards the fugitive Wassa King, Intiforo, to whom they had pledged their aid inward fighting the Asante.[142]
From the preceeding chapter, it would seem clear that it was largely the Ga rebellion of 1728 which participated the complex state of war that culminated inward the collapse of Akwamu powerfulness inward 1730. With the disintegration of Akwamu ascendance came the work of filling the powerfulness vaccum which at nowadays existed inward the Accra plains.
THE PERIOD OF TURBULANCE 1730-42
The catamenia 1730-1742 tin live seen as the most turbulent inward the history of the Ga. It witnessed attempts past times the Ga to piece of work out a modus Vivendi with the Akyem in addition to the Europeans, it beheld a civil warm, in addition to finally, it saw the Ga confronted past times the powerful Asante after their defeat of the Akyem.
The Ga used this catamenia after the defeat of the Akwamu non only to reassert themselves, but also to affirm their rights to the ownership of Ga lands which they believed to include the Adanme coast.[1] They hence challenged the European propensity to build on their lands without firstly seeking permission. Such protests to the Europeans implied an unwillingmess to select the Akyem inward the role of suzerain, as landlords who had but taken over where the Akwamu had left off. Ga efforts to reassert themselves were farther manifested through their attempts to intermission the powerfulness in addition to influence of Akwamu elements inward Accra, some of whom had go permanent settlers, in addition to who fifty-fifty today are known as the Otublohuns.
In March 1732 the Danes reported that, since the defeat of the Akwamu the Devil’s “Accras” (frandens Accraer) had arrogated far too much powerfulness to themselves.[2] This comment past times the Danes is non surprising when 1 considers that they were the firstly victims of the newly assertive Ga.
In Jan 1732, whilst the Danes were edifice a lodge at Great Ningo, the Ga seized the Danish representative Sparre. He was taken to Aprag (usshertown) in addition to was non released until he had promised to pay 100 bendas to Ayikuma.[3] The primary objection which the Ga held towards the erection of the Danish lodge was the fact that the Danes had non asked for their permission before project the enterprise. Secondly, the Ga were still suspicious of the Ga back upwards for Akwamu, especially because the Danish determination to build at Ningo coincided with the catamenia when Akwamu had fled in addition to settled inward the Volta area. The Ga therefore, saw the Danish enterprise as a way of giving assistance to the Akwamu, who were still perceived to live ‘mortal enemies’ of the Ga.[4]
The Ga were actively encouraged inward their onset upon the Danish lodge past times the Dutch factor Elet,[5] who saw the presence of the Danish lodge inward Ningo as a threat to the Dutch trading involvement on the leeward coast. Significantly, the Dutch Director-General Pranger was far from pleased at the demolition of the Danish lodge. He viewed the incident as a sign of Ga defiance, which could easily live extended to all the Europeans if it was non forstalled. In his protestation to Elet, the Director-General expressed his surprise that he had non “emphantically checked the excessed of our subjects (Ga), in addition to if they had been wronged anywhere past times the Danes, to have got him inquire for justice or satisfaction, instead of allowing them to select the law into their ain hands… We also consider the expressions of your natives (Ga) regarding their hatred of the Danes pre-eminently insolent, in addition to impertinent, the to a greater extent than so as nosotros could conform to them in addition to nosotros say inward reply that nosotros are past times no way disposed to allow the law live set downwards for us past times anyone on the coast, especially, non past times the Accras who are the biggest rascals inward the world… you lot tin hence monastic enjoin them inward our call to refrain henceforth from all hostilities as regards the Danes of whatever other nation… in addition to with regards to their threat that if nosotros did non discovery the Danes inward the wrong, they would abandon your crown in addition to retire elsewhere, you lot tin tell them that nosotros are rattling thoroughly convinced past times their ‘lachiteyt’ (cowardice)? And that they hence have got non the courage to proceed beyond the arrive at of our fort as the Fante would straight off swallow them upwards shell in addition to all.”[6]
Pranger gave farther empjhasis to his disapproval of the Ga molestation of the Danes, past times travellin to Accra himself inward Apr 1732, to settle the matter. The Ga were made to pay 153 oz. golden as compensation. At a coming together betwixt the Dutch, Danish in addition to Ga representatives, Pranger advised Ayikuma to live friendly with the Danes. The Danish Governor thereupon gave Ayikuma substantial presents, in addition to the latter promised to the Danes’ friend inward all matters.[7]
Another protestation against the European determination to build on ground without Ga permission was issued inward 1740, when the English linguistic communication started edifice a lodge at Prampram. The Ga sent a messenger to the English linguistic communication to inquire them “what ground they had to build on their (Ga) land.” The Ga caboceers, who were so inward friendly terms with the Dutch, claimed that the lartter could have got possession of all the ground frm Bereku to the eastern towns since the Ga had won them inward the Akwamu state of war of 1728-30 only with the assistance of the Dutch. The caboceers must have got realized that their declaration would live challenged past times the English linguistic communication in addition to so they hence claimed that although the English linguistic communication had also helped them inward the war, their assistance had been paid for.[8]
The European companies were prepared to select the Ga claim to ownership of lands on the Ga-Adanme coast. For example, inward 1732 fifty-fifty after the Ga had thwarted the Danish endeavour to build inward Ningo, the Danes, instead, obtained permission to build a fort from the Akyem caboceer Owusu, variously described as nephew or blood brother of Bakwante.[9] They had to pay a amount of 20 bendas before the fort was built in addition to continued to pay I oz. a calendar month to Owusu.[10] In 1738 Owusu farther demonstrated his ascendance over Ningo past times imposing a fine of 7 slaves on Ningo Caboceer for flying the Dutch flag without his concent.[11]
In 1740, the English linguistic communication ignored the Ga claims to Prampram in addition to continued to build their lodge. While the Ga were making these claims, the Danish Governor (who manifestly acknowledged the Akyem as owners of the land) sent a message to the Caboceer Owusu. He suggested that if the Akyem permitted the English linguistic communication to build at Prampram, the Danes would pass upwards to create the monthly payments for Ningo, because to give permission for an English linguistic communication lodge would a violation of the understanding signed betwixt the Dnaish Company in addition to Owusu when Ningo was firstly built. Owusu cunningly sent the Danes the reassuring message that what the English linguistic communication could build inward half dozen months, he could destroy it inward 1 day.[12] His message was manifestly a way of allaying Danish fears until the English linguistic communication lodge was completed, since the English linguistic communication were, most likely, edifice with his consent.
The mental attitude of the Ga, the Europeans in addition to the Akyem towards the ownership of ground along the Ga-Adanme coast reveals fundamental difference of interpretation as to the implications of 1728-30 war. The Ga had seen the state of war of 1728-30 primarily as a struggle for their ain independence. The state of war had started as a Ga rebellion against Akwamu power; the Akyem had been invited to bring together as allies of the Ga in addition to had been compensated for their services. The Ga, therefore, found it hard to select the thought of the Akyem as novel overlords, which had simply taken over the role vacated past times the Akwamu. Moreover, dissimilar the Akwamu, the Akyem had non defeated them inward war.
The Akyem, on the other hand, chose to interpret the state of war as a culmination of powerfulness stuggle betwixt themselves in addition to the Akwamu. It was they who had been responsible for the main offensive which had brought almost the collapse of Akwamu powerfulness in addition to so the Akyem saw no ground why they should non acquire ownership of onetime Akwamu territories.
It has already been shown that Akyem’s right to dispense with Ga-Adanme lands was acknowledged by; the Europeans. The Akyem also collected the rents from the forts on the Ga-Adanme littoral.[13] An interesting characteristic of the contestation over the ownership of the Ga-Adanme lands is the fact that the Ga did non straight challenge the Akyem right to command over their lands; instead they contended themselves with protesting to the Europeans when the latter did non seek permission before edifice their merchandise posts.
The records from this catamenia did non provide a clear film as to the type of human relationship that existed betwixt the Ga in addition to the Akyem. It appears that the Akyem were satisfied with their rents from the forts in addition to the right to dispense with Ga lands, in addition to so they left the Ga to themselves except at the fourth dimension when they needed help.
There are only 3 recorded instances of the Akyem asking the Ga for support. In 1734, Owusu sent messengers demanding the Ga march with him against the remnant Akwamu. However, the Ga were reluctant to scrap in addition to so started devising way of satisfying him inward “a tranquillity unobtrusive manner.”[14] In 1740 Owusu 1 time again asked the Ga to accompany him on a motion to the eastern coast. This fourth dimension the Ga complied with the request,[15] although the Dutch objected to it on the grounds that their society could non live responsible for the remnant Ga women in addition to children, left behind past times the men embarking on the campaign. The men’s absence would leave of absence their dependents inward a vulnerable position, especially since the Fante were reported to null but “steal in addition to rob.”[16] In 1742, Akyem 1 time to a greater extent than asked the Ga to aid them inward their state of war against the Asante, but this fourth dimension they emphatically refused.[17]
It would appear that the Akyem did non endeavour to found theatre command over the Ga. For example, at that spot is no evidence to suggest that Akyem had governors to supervise the Ga towns. In fact, the Akyem leaders did non fifty-fifty see the Ga coast. There is only 1 recorded instance of Akyem leader having visited Accra, in addition to this was Owusu’s see inward 1738. In response to the repeated entreaties of the Ga Caboceer Okaidza,[18] Owusu finally arrived, accompanied past times over half dozen G men. However, fifty-fifty nether these circumstances, Owusu’s see did non outcome inward an assertion of Akyem supremacy over the Ga.
In contract to the Akwamu, the Akyem did non constantly plague the Ga with threats in addition to extortions. There was only 1 occasion on which the Akyem threatened the Ga in addition to this was during the civil disturbances of 1737-38. Even then, sectionalisation amongst the Akyem leaders rendered their threats ineffective, for owusu supported Dako in addition to the Dutch faction.[19] It would seem clear; therefore, that Akyem command over the Ga was never especially strong.
The Akyem’s lack of coherent leadership meant that the Ga began to struggle for powerfulness amongst themselves. This conflict escalated into civil state of war inward 1737. On 1 side were the Ga caboceer Okaidza in addition to his followers inward Usshertown, supported also past times Osu, La, Teshi, the Danes in addition to the Akyem leader Owusu. Fighting against them were Dako in addition to the Otublohuns, supported past times the Aseres, the Dutch, a number of Fante in addition to finally, the Akyem leaders Bakwante in addition to Frempong.[20]
Three major factors caused this civil state of war of 1737-38, resentment against the influence in addition to powerfulness of the Otublohuns, commercial jealousy betwixt the Danes in addition to the Dutch in addition to the fearfulness of Akyem hostility.
Resentment against the Otublohuns had existed since the fourth dimension of Akwamu suzerainty. This resentment stemmed from the powerfulness in addition to influence enjoyed past times the Otublohuns leaders, Pieter Passop in addition to Amo, as a outcome of their dual roles as Dutch brokers in addition to representatives of the Akwamu regime inward Accra[21]. In 1730, the Dutch factor Blittersdorp stated that at that spot was ‘faction in addition to enmity” betwixt Amo’s people in addition to Ayikuma’s people which was caused past times the fact that when Amo was inward Accra, he was ever sent past times the Dutch to give orders to the Ga Rex Ayikuma. Hence, inward June 1730 Ayikuma seized the chance provided past times Amo’s absence from Accra to slander in addition to molest the Otublohuns. Ayikuma reported to the Dutch factor blittersdorp that the Otublohuns were responsible for the panyarring of Akwamu messengers sent to Accra. Consequently, at that spot was a confrontation betwixt Ayikuma’s followers in addition to the Otublohuns which nearly resulted inward armed fight.[22] Futher disputes betwixt the ii factions were only averted when blittersdorp, acting on instructions from the Director-General, warned both parties that if either of them committed hospitalities, they would live sent inward irons to Elmina.[23] This cessation of hostilities was farther aided past times the absence of Amo in addition to his boy Dako from Accra, on a motion inward the Volta area. In Jan 1733, it was Okaidza, a fellow member of Ayikuma’s theatre unit of measurement who was judiciously sent past times the Dutch on an diplomatic mission to Akyem,[24] thereby performing the functions previously enacted past times Pieter Passop, Amo in addition to later Dako.
The appointment of Dako as Dutch broker inward March 1737 past times the Dutch Director-General de Bordes[25], precipitated the resurgence of the latent resentment against the Otublohuns. Okaidza, who acted as the champion of this resentment, was aware that the strength of the Otublohuns during the catamenia of Akwamu suzerainty had lain firstly inward the strong ties betwixt their leaders in addition to the Akwamu majestic theatre in addition to secondly inward their spot as Dutch brokers. This, inward effect, meant that the Otublohuns were backed past times the ii strongest powers inward Accra. Okaidza was non prepared to view a similar province of affairs develop during the catamenia of Akyem regulation over the Ga. Because he could non hope to intermission the bond betwixt the Otublohuns in addition to the Dutch, He tried instead to alienate both parties from the Akyem.
Okaidza gained the back upwards of the Akyem Caboceer, Owusu, past times sending him presents[26]. He was able to win the back upwards of the eastern Ga towns osu, La in addition to Teshi, because they saw the disputes as an chance to react against the domination of Akwamu elements inward Ga Society. In a petition to the danes for help, the representatives of these towns stated that okaidza was the only accra caboceer left in addition to if they did non aid him , the repose of Ga would live thrown at the mercy intrigues of Dako, who was only “a slave’s boy elevated past times the help of the whites.”[27] However, the petition from these towns was non the sole ground behind the Danish determination to back upwards okaidza. More importantly, the Danes were prepared to offering their assistance because of the commercial rivalry betwixt themselves in addition to the Dutch.
Danish-Dutch relations had non been especially harmonious since September 1735[28], in addition to the province of affairs worsened during the next year. In Apr 1736 the Danish Governor reported that the African inhabitants had so much love for him that they hardly passed past times his fort to merchandise with the other Europeans so long as he had the goods they required. He also stated that for every 20 slaves he had purchased, he was sure the Dutch in addition to English linguistic communication had non obtained two. There was a merchandise boom inward Osu which had enticed all the inhabitants who had previously deserted to return. Furthermore, many other people, including 1 of the small-scale caboceer of Usshertown in addition to his followers had decided to settle inward Osu. All these people were goodness traders, in addition to the resultant commercial wages annoyed the Dutch factor so much that he was prepared to send Dako on a mission to set can to Osu. However, the Danish Governor, manifestly aware of the intrigue, straight off distributed muskets in addition to pulverization to his people to maintain a goodness spotter in addition to defend themselves.[29] In Jan 1737, the Dutch Director-General de bordes in addition to the council at Elmina reported that they had foiled the Danish attempts to build forts at Teshi in addition to the Fante country, the Danes had managed to build at Ningo, thereby causing groovy inconvenience to merchandise at Crevecoeur.[30] The Dutch heightened their intrigues against the Danes inward Teshi past times edifice a lodge themselves. Under such circumstances, it was non surprising that the Danes supported Okaidza against Dako in addition to the Dutch.
Dako’s back upwards inward the state of war comprised the Dutch, the Aseres, the Fante in addition to the Akyem leaders Bakwante in addition to Frempong. The Dutch were obliged to back upwards Dako because they were already implicated inward Okaidza’s scheming[31]. If Okaidza ever succeeded inward alienating them from the Akyem, the commercial losses for the Dutch society would live substancial, due to the fact that the Akyem provided the mass of the merchandise on the leeward coast.
Aseres’s back upwards for Dako is interesting since it was the stimulate of 1 of the principal divisions amongst the Ga. According to oral tradition, Okaidza originally belonged to the Asere sectionalisation but he left the sectionalisation to found his ain Akutso (quarter) of Gbese[32]. Asere’s back upwards for Dako in all probability stemmed from a feeling of resentment they held towards okaidza for trying to arrogate too much powerfulness to himself as leader of the Ga. Similarly, Asere’s stand upwards could also live due to a sense of loyalty to the Dutch company.
The Fante decided to back upwards Dako because they were invited to do so past times the Dutch. Likewise, the Akyem leaders, bakwante in addition to Frempong, supported the Dutch in addition to Dako because they were offered presents to ensure their loyalty. However, at that spot is no concrete evidence to suggest that Bakwante in addition to Frempong’s men were ever involved inward the actual fighting.
It has already been stated that Okaidza attempted to alienate Dako in addition to the Dutch from the Akyem in addition to indeed, it tin live seen that it was this elbow grease to arouse hostility which provided the prelude to civil war. In 1737 rumours began to circulate that the Dutch, past times way of bribes in addition to promises, were trying to persuade the Asante to onset akyem.[33] The Akyem readily believed this rumour, because they had long been suspicious of the Dutch friendship with Asante. For example, inward Oct 1734, the Dutch factor Augier inward Accra reported to Elmina that the Akyem reproached him daily because he was a friend of “king pockoe of Assiantyn” (opoku Ware I) in addition to had hence refused to sell arms to akyem trades. Akyem’s reproach Stemmed from the fact that her traders could non obtain the quantity of arms they needed from the Dutch at Crevecoeur during this period.[34]
When, inward May 1737, the rumours of the Dutch-Asante conspiracy against Akyem finally reached Elmina, the Director-General de Bordes, together with Messrs. Raams in addition to Worst were dispatched to Accra to settle the matter.[35] On their arrival, de Bordes sent a messenger to the Akyem leaders Frempong, Bakwante in addition to Owusu demanding to know the reasons behind their state of war preparations.
The Akyem leaders claimed that they were only preparing for state of war because rumours abounded that the Dutch had hired the Asante to intrigue against them. The Akyem delegates, who had been sent to Accra, declared that Okaidza was the stimulate of the disturbances. He had sent Patram(a adult man who had previously been dismissed past times the Dutch factor in addition to had sought protection inward Osu) to Owusu to study on the Dutch-Asante conspiracy. He had also offered a considerable amount of money to Owusu with the asking that the latter should come upwards to Accra to exterminate Darko in addition to his followers.[36]
After receiving this information, de Bordes had Okaidza pose inward irons, in addition to the next twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia a coming together of the Dutch representatives, Accra caboceers in addition to Akim delegates was held inward the Dutch fort to deal with Okaidza’s case. In the course of study of the proceedings, it became clear that Okaidza had also advised the Danish Governor to onset the Dutch fort Crevecoeur, because at that spot was enmity betwixt the factor in addition to the Director-General, making it unlikely that the factor would have whatever aid from Elmina. Okaidza had also told the Danish Governor that he would proceed staying inward Usshertown inward monastic enjoin to protect Danish interests there. However, inward the trial of an onset past times the Dutch, he would retire to Osu to ensure that he would live nether Danish protection.
After Okaidza’s machinations had been revealed, the Accra people declared unanimously that he was “a disturber of the world peace in addition to a traitorous rascal.”[37] Their mental attitude changed however, when de Bordes condemned Okaidza to death. They begged de Bordes to spare Okaidza’s life in addition to instead to create him pay a fine; otherwise it was feared that he would straight off leave of absence with his followers to seek protection nether the Danes inward Osu. The Caboceers promised to maintain a unopen spotter on Okaidza’s hereafter conduct. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 delegation of Okaidza’s followers, accompanied past times the Accra caboceers, offered the Director-General 70 bendas for Okaidza’s release. This was duly accepted past times de Bordes, in addition to Okaidza was afterwards released. However, since the 70 bendas offered were non straight off available, some of his people were taken as pawns in addition to kept inward Elmina.[38]
The imposition of this penalty on Okaidza did non avert civil disturbances. It but delayed actions for a few months in addition to allowed Okaidza the chance to proceed his intrigue inward Akyem. In Nov 1737, Darko sent a messenger to the Dutch factor at Bereku entreating him to send some people to collect his women in addition to goods from Accra, because he was beingness threatened with state of war past times the Akyem caboceer Owusu.[39] In Dec at that spot was farther confusion inward Accra, because Owusu in addition to his men were said to live camped “two hours journeying from the hill.” Owusu sent a messenger to Dako to demand satisfaction from him but Dako replied that he had been unaware of the existence of whatever quarrel betwixt them. The confusion inward Accra was such that some of the people took their goods to the Dutch fort whilst others took theirs to the Danish fort. The people so started preparing their defence strength against Akyem. The Dutch factor Starckenburg was convinced that fifty-fifty if Owusu failed to invade Accra, at that spot was bound to live a civil war, because the people were determine to punish those elements who were constantly causing trouble. Okaidza in addition to the Danish Governor were defendant of beingness responsible for Owusu’s threatened invasion of Accra.[40]
On 23rd Dec 1737 the people of Accra heard that Owusu had approached to within v or half dozen miles of the town with the avowed intension of supporting Okaidza in addition to exterminate all the other subjects. Acting upon this news, the people complained to the Dutch factor almost the “rascalities in addition to treachery” committed past times Okaidza in addition to as a outcome of their remonstrance were ordered past times the factor to arrest him.
It was this order, given past times the Dutch factor, which precipitated the outbreak of fighting. When Olaidza heard the intelligence of his impending arrest, he retired to Osu, where he was helped past times its people, in addition to to a greater extent than importantly past times the canons of fort Christiansborg, to scrap against the pursuers. On this same day, Okaidza returned to Usshertown with his supporters, determined to onset Dko in addition to his party. However, after an indecisive battle Okaidza retired to Osu.[41]
On 31st Dec Dako’s supporters went to Osu to attack. They believed that Okaidza’s men would live drunkard because they had been presented with New Year’s drinks past times the Danes. However, they were 1 time once again forced to retreat. On 15th Jan Okaidza’s men, aided past times some Akyem forces set out Usshertown but were met one-half way past times Dako’s men. The latter were afterwards driven dorsum to their town but they were helped past times canon shots from Crevecoeur which eventually forced Okaidza’s people in addition to their Akyem allies to retreat. The Dutch doubted wether Owusu had whatever genuine want to aid Okaidza, because he had previously given orders for his men to leave of absence Accra straight off after they finished this 1 skirmish. The Akyem forces stayed longer than they were ordered to only, because Okaidza sent a farther “good present” to Owusu as an incentive to send to a greater extent than men if he could non come upwards to Accra himself.[42]
On 21st Jan 1738 Owusu himself arrived inward Accra with betwixt half dozen in addition to 8 G men. He was met past times a deserted Usshertown, because Dako in addition to his supporters were beingness protected inward Crevecoeur. Realizing that he could non onset the Dutch fort, as his strength was non strong enough; Owusu stayed nether the Danish fort in addition to sent messengers backwards in addition to forwards to the Dutch. After a fruitless stay, he withdrew his forces in addition to returned to Akyem.[43]
Owusu’s retreat from Accra was followed past times disputes over Teshi. In March 1738, the Dutch representatives Jansen, Hoes in addition to Hecre were sent with goods in addition to orders to merchandise at Teshi. Upon their arrival, they were confronted past times ii or 3 hundred armed men who demanded that they leave of absence at once, since Okaidza would non tolerate whatever Dutch merchandise at Teshi. Later, a messenger who had been sent past times the Dutch representatives to the factor inward Accra was beaten en route in addition to forced to return.[44] In response to this, some Akyem messengers,[45] sent past times Bakwante in addition to Frimpong to the Dutch inward Accra, asked Okaidza why he persisted inward obstructing the Dutch trade. He replied that he would non only protect the ground from Osu as far due east as Keta, but would also non tolerate whatever Dutch merchandise beingness transacted inward that district.[46]
On 24th March Dalo’s supporters marched out to “open the ways to the leeward croms which they were hindered from going to past times Okaidza.” This resulted inward a scrap betwixt Okaidza’s in addition to Dako’s forces, during which Labadi was burnt downwards past times Dako’s men.[47]
In Apr the Dutch factor sent a retainer to the “King of Akyem” to inquire for his help. On eighth Apr the factor wrote to Elmina to say that the retainer who he had sent to Akyem had promised to homecoming the next twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia “bringing with him some armed men from the King of Akyem inward monastic enjoin with his help, 1 time again to found the lodge downwards below.”[48] However, at that spot is no evidence to suggest that the King of Akyem did send downwards these promised armed men.
In June 1738, the sword-bearer of the “King of Akyem” was sent to demand of Olaidza that he drops his “unfounded claim” to the towns on the leeward coast in addition to desist from molesting the servants of the Dutch company; otherwise he would “feel the displeasure” of the King of Akyem. Okaidza ignored the Akyem threat in addition to replied that “he would hold back for 3 years or so” whilst considering what he would do, but inward the hateful fourth dimension he “smash without mercy” the firstly Dutch adult man he found inward whatever of the leeward towns.
When the King of Akyem received Okaidza’s defiant message, he asked the Dutch for 25 bendas’s worth muskets in addition to pulverization for the purpose of “teaching Okaintie a lesson for his large talk” in addition to inward so doing would create the Dutch masters of the leeward towns. The Dutch thereupon resolved to give the required arms, to aid “render a world enemy incapable of crying out his evil intensions.”[49] There is, however, no evidence that the Akyem fulfilled the promise. After this ineffective Akyem threat the civil state of war reached a stalemate.
The Danes continued to harbour Okaidza because he conferred on them many advantages. His presence inward Osu made it the largest in addition to the most powerful of the Ga towns. This was manifestly appreciated past times the Danes, especially because they had been instructed past times their directors inward Copenhagen to “enlarge in addition to render their towns with goodness Negroes.”[50]
Okaidza’s presence inward Osu also gave the Danes a groovy commercial wages over the Dutch, because his supporters would non allow the Dutch to merchandise inward whatever of the other leeward towns. In June 1738 Starckenburg, the Dutch factor inward Accra, observed: “there is no hope to merchandise hither (Crevecoeur) before the leeward coast is 1 time again brought nether this Company, in addition to I believe that the ground why Okantye is strongly protected past times the Danes, as he is at nowadays having a goodness merchandise there.”[51]
Towards the goal of 1738 attempts were made at reconciliation betwixt the opposing factions. In Oct of the same year, Starckenburg reported that the Akyem leaders had sent for Dako in addition to the other subjects inward monastic enjoin “to settle everything in addition to select this ground into peace in addition to quiet.”[52] Unfortunately, null resulted from this Akyem endeavour to negotiate a peace settlement. However, the European allies of Dako in addition to Okaidza did go reconciled inward Oct 1738, due to the intervention of the English. They agreed to engage inward hostilities concerning Okaidza’s affairs.[53] However, Okaidza himself rejected a Dutch invitation to move to Usshertown to settle the disputes because he feared that “there was finesse nether their sweetness words.” Moreover, Okaidza had sworn past times his begetter that he would never live inward Usshertown so long as Dako resided at that spot in addition to de Bordes was Director-General. He hence chose to remain inward Labadi.[54]
This deadlock continued until 1739, when Okaidza finally began to modify his stand. In Nov 1739 Okaidza together with representatives from Osu, Labadi in addition to Teshi requested permission from the Danish Governor to homecoming with his blood brother Tyke Tette (Fat Tette) to Usshertown. The Danish Governor agreed to this, on status that Okaidza came to the town of his ain accord. He farther stated that Okaidza could leave of absence whenever he so desired, but he would have got to select that, when he left Danish protection, they could no long live responsible for his safety. After the Danish Governor had granted the required permission, Okaidza in addition to rthe other towns took an oath of loyalty towards each other to ensure that “whoever touched 1 of the political party had touched the rest.”[55]
It would seem that Okaidza’s homecoming to Usshertown inward 1739 was only a partial reconciliation, since he was accompanied past times only 1 of his wives in addition to almost 10 men. He left the repose of his theatre unit of measurement in addition to followers together with his goods inward Labadi in addition to Osu. Moreover, he neither rebuilt his theatre nor showed the to the lowest degree inclination to build it upon his return. The Danes were convinced that he had only agreed to homecoming to Usshertown because the Dutch factor had promised to negotiate the homecoming of his people who were beingness held as pawns past times de Bordes inward Elmina.[56]
It was until July 1741 that a consummate reconciliation occurred, in addition to this was due only to the intervention of the Akyem. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 coming together was held inward Accra betwixt the Akyem representatives in addition to the Ga to resolve the illustration betwixt Dako in addition to Okaidza. Okaidza was “found inward the right; whereupon the side which got the right has paid “esson” to the Akyem in addition to Accras as good as the English linguistic communication natives, according to the custom of the country.”[57]
The Ga had hardly settled their internal conflict, when they were confronted past times external work which did non straight concern them. This was the outbreak of the state of war betwixt the Akyem in addition to the Asante. During the preparations for the war, the Akwamu seized the chance to wreak vengeance on the Ga for their defeat inward 1730. In Dec 1741, it was reported that the Akwamu in addition to the Accras were both panyarring anything they came into contact with, in addition to as outcome the Ga felt compelled to select reprisals to protect their town. These Akwamu in addition to Acron insurgents declared to the Gat oestrus they “had got the Accra ground from King Pokoe as a present” in addition to moreover threatened also to invade Labadi, Teshi in addition to Tema.[58]
Before the Akyem joined the battle, they demanded that the Ga should aid them against the Asante onslaught. However, the Ga Caboceers unanimously refused to comply, suggesting that it was to a greater extent than of import for them to protect their ain country.[59] In the end, only Dako of Otublohun assisted the Akyem, but fifty-fifty here, it was alleged that he had gone to Akyem to settle his ain palavers before the state of war started in addition to he was hence forced past times the Akyem to participate.[60]
In March 1742 it was reported that the Asante had defeated Akyem.[61] During this state of war Dako had fallen into the hands of the Akwamu in addition to had been beheaded. In Apr 1742 it was reported that the Akwamu had his head.[62]
News of the Akyem defeat caused much confusion amongst the Ga. The Usshertown people started putting upwards fortifications to protect themselves. The residue of the Ga either sought protection inward the fort or fled from their towns in addition to went to places such as Bereku. Accra which in all probability could have got protected them all, was experiencing H2O shortages in addition to so was non a suitable spot to seek refuge. In short, at that spot was full general panic amongst the Ga.[63]
On ninth Apr 1742 information reached Accra that the firstly in addition to groovy retainer of the Asante King along with ii “ensigns in addition to v G muskets” had arrived inward Akwamu.[64] The Ga promptly sent an diplomatic mission to the Asante General,[65] in addition to this activeness in all probability saved them from the ravages of the Asante army. According to this same general, if the Ga had non have got the foresight to send a delegation, the Asante would have got released an regular army of “three to iv quarters” upon Accra. However, as a outcome of the embassy’s diplomacy, the Asante sent a messenger to Accra to declare that they had no quarrel with the Ga but, nevertheless, they expected the latter to pay 17 bendas to avert whatever possibility of war. With friendly negotiations the amount was reduced to 12 bendas for each Ga town.[66]
Each Ga town from Accra to Ningo, paid this state of war levy. At Ningo, the Danish factor Dorf, who was inward accuse of Fort Fredensborg, initially refused to pay. He called the Asante diplomatic mission “thieves in addition to vagabonds.” This predictably resulted inward an invasion of Ningo past times a 4,000-strong Asante army. During the siege they carried off all the Ningo subjects, plundered their houses in addition to blockaded the Danish fort, so that Dorf was finally obliged to sue for peace in addition to pay the Asante what they had originally demanded.[67] This wpisode at Ningo illustrates what the fate of the other Ga towns would have got been, had they non initiated friendly negotiations with Asante.
Despite the fact that other towns had all paid their state of war levies, the Ningo incident caused such terror amongst the Ga that they fled into the forts with their women, children in addition to worldly goods. The full general panic was aggravated past times the fact that after the invasion of Ningo, the Asante regular army visited Tema “with hot heads” in addition to plundered goods worth 30 marks (even though Tema had paid her state of war levy).[68] Fortunately, at the point, the King of Asante personally intervened. He vociferously objected to the behavior of his regular army in addition to offered to repay the cost of the plundered goods to the Dutch society in addition to to the people of Tema. He afterwards started making installments of payments in addition to asked for receipts inward monastic enjoin to know how much he still owed the Dutch company.[69]
However, despite such diplomatic gestures towards peace, the involvement of Dako inward the state of war was taken rattling seriously past times the Asante. On 18th Apr 1742 envoys from Asante, accompanied past times 50 fully armed men, came to Accra to demand, inward the call of their King, the surviving theatre unit of measurement of Dako.[70] On 20th Apr some other Asante ambassador, who had previously been sent to Elmina, arrived inward Accra in addition to demanded everything that Dako owned, downwards to the smallest, most insignificant article.[71] During the ensuing 3 weeks of negotiations, the Ga pointed out to the Asante that prior to the state of war betwixt Akyem in addition to Asante, Dako had gone to Akyem to settle some palavers. He had non only been detained against his testament as the Akyem prepared for battle but had also been compelled to scrap with them against the Asante. This excuse manifestly did non print the Asante, because they insisted inward taking non only Dako’s people, but also those of Amo in addition to Pieter Pasop. In short, they seemed determined to select accuse of all Otublohuns.
The Datch representatives inward Accra endeavoured to negotiate milder terms for the Otublohuns, because the “Holland state is accustomed to protect its subjects in addition to non to give them as a prey to their enemies.” When the negotiations reached deadlock, the Dutch had the guns at the forts “moved a bit,” to demonstrate them that they were non prepared to live bullied. This must have got had effect on the Asante, because they started “playing a softer tune”. They finally reached a settlement, whereby the Asante agreed to select all the conte de terre (beads) of Dako, which consisted of v large strings, the worked in addition to loose gold, ii kelders in addition to everything else that was inward Dako’s household amongst Dako’s women in addition to slaves. The Asante also accepted 58 bendas from Usshertown as a nowadays to their novel King, but upon negotiation the amount was reduced to 12 bendas. This peace settlement was rounded off with 7 gun salutes from the Dutch fort.[72]
The Ga confrontation with the Asante inward 1742 started some other stage inward their tumultuous history. Through their submission, the Ga had acknowledged the supremacy of the Asante without really facing them inward opened upwards battle. Henceforth Asante became the novel suzerain of the Ga.
The Asante, similar the Akwamu in addition to the Akyem who had preceded them, demonstrated their newfound ascendance past times straight off taking over the rents from Accra’s 3 forts. Romer stated that when the Asante envoys came to collect the rents, the Danes informed them that they were only paying for the sake of trade, in addition to hence, if no merchandise came to their fort they would non experience obliged to pay them at all. The Asante hence made a affair of policy to select downwards merchandise with them each fourth dimension they came to collect the rents.[73] It would appear that the Asante were unable to consolidate their spot as suzerain over the Ga during the years straight off next 1742. In fact, Asante traders could non fifty-fifty acquire undisturbed access to the Ga coast. They were hindered past times the Akyem, who attacked whatever Asante who attempted to arrive at the coast.[74] The Ga likewise suffered from the menacing activities of the Akyem. According to the Danes, the Akyem unremarkably descended on Accra inward bands of 1000 armed men, camping ground ii to 3 miles from the coast in addition to sending messengers to the forts to demand state of war levies. This usually caused such commotion amongst the Ga that they often sought protection inward the forts.[75] As a outcome of the obstruction caused past times the Akyem, Asante traders had to usage a circuitous route through the Volta gorge and, moreover, to move inward caravans of 2,000 men to ensure their protection en route.[76]
Under such circumstances, it was hard for Asante to get upwards in addition to consolidate its spot of ascendance over the Ga. However, it appears that past times the belatedly eighteenth century, Asante was finally able to found some sort of supervision over the Ga towns. According to Reindorf, “there was truthful honor in addition to friendship betwixt the Asantes in addition to the Akras.”[77] Yet the Ga did later bring together the alliance of southern states which finally defeated the Asante at the battle of Akatamansu inward 1826 in addition to inward doing so contributed towards the collapse of Asnate suzerainty.[78]
SOCIO-POLITICAL CHANGE AMONG THE GA
The main areas of the Ga society which have got been influenced past times events of the seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries are; the composition in addition to organisation of the Ga towns, the Ga family, faith in addition to language. An of import outcome of the wars in addition to invasions of 1680 to 1742 was the depletion of the Ga population inward the Accra plains. It has already been stated that the southern component of the Republique du Togo, became an asylum for the Ga whenever they were disturbed or threatened inward the Accra plains. Apart from the voluntary fight, the population of the Ga was also diminished due to repeated capture. The lamentations inward the kple vocal below demonstrate the feeling of the GA towards the dwindling of their population.
Ani Lomo live moment kwaraa?
Aha Lomobii fee
Nyeha Lomobii blublu
Oshi Adu Kome, lomo live moko kwraa
Aha Buadzabii fee;
Naa, Buadza live mo.
Ahu komebii fee:
Kome live moment kwaraa.
Nyeha Dodebii fee;
Naa Dode live mo;
Aha Dodebii fee;
Naa nye ha Nkranpong fee;
Nye ha folio eha Nkranpong fee;
Wo Atsimbii ameha Nkranpong fee
Eta
Ameha Nkranpong blublu;
Mua Nkranpong live mo.
Does adult man have got anyone at all?
They snatched all man’s children;
You snatched all man’s children;
You snatched all man’s children;
Skumo, adult man has no 1 at all.
They snatched all Olila’s children;
Lo, Olila has no one.
They snatched all Sakumo’s children
They snatched all Sakumo’s children;
Sakumo has no 1 at all.
You snatched all Dode’s children;
Lo, Dode has no one.
They snatched all Dode’s children;
Lo, you lot snatched all Great Accra.
You allow uncircumcised people snatch all
Great Accra;
Our Akims have got snatched all Great Accra;
It is finished.
They snatched all the people of Accra;
So Accra has no one.[1]
The seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries also witnessed the intermixture in addition to reshuffling of the population inward the Accra plains. Originally, members of the same lineage lived unopen together, causing lineage in addition to local grouping to live almost identical. The situation, however, began to alter as lineage members moved away to settle inward other Ga towns. In the course of study of time, the descendents of the emigrant lineage members began to spot themselves with the town inward which they had settled rather than with their ancestral home. This procedure is good encapsulated past times the Ga saying, “himee he hey fe fomo he”, “A happy spot is meliorate than nascency place.” The emigrant lineage members, however, continued to usage their ain theatre unit of measurement names in addition to to worship their particular theatre unit of measurement gods. An illustration of this tin live found inward the broad dispersal of the worshipers of the god Klan, who are to live found inward Ga Mashi, Labadi in addition to Teshi.
Occasionally, 1 tin witness a feeling of solidarity amongst branch members of the same lineage, fifty-fifty if the intermission occurred to a greater extent than than ii hundred years ago. This feeling of belonging together, often experienced past times branch members of the same lineage, is revealed inward the kple song:
“Tsatsa swekumei;
Womli egble yaa.
Si wole wohe
Tsatsa awekumei
Wole ii ni wowo,[2]
Shi mole wohe
The relatives are scattered;
We are scattered,
But nosotros know ourselves.
The relatives are scattered;
We know the tree that bore us.
(But) nosotros know ourselves.”
The migration of lineage members from 1 town to some other was precipitated past times several factors. The most of import of these was economic. In essence, ambitious in addition to adventurous members of the lineage often felt compelled to leave of absence their ain towns to merchandise or seek fortune inward different in addition to perhaps to a greater extent than lucrative environments.
"Women inward Christiansborg, with 3 different hair-styles, dressed inward European cotton fiber material." Date: 1900 -1904
The propensity of the European companies towards preventing the Ga from trading with interlopers or European nations other than the 1 nether whose fort they lived, led to the migration of many Ga traders from 1 expanse of Accra to another.[3] It was non uncommon for a Ga living nether the Dutch fort to seek refuge or settle nether the English linguistic communication or Danish fort in addition to vice versa. An illustration of such an incident tin live seen inward the flying of Caboceer Tyke Tete from Dutch Accra to Osu, upon his arrest past times the Dutch for trading with interlopers.[4]
The 2nd factor which could stimulate the migration of lineage members was dissension or civil war. An outstanding illustration was the motion of a department of La people nether the leadership of Nmasi to Teshi inward the seventeenth century.[5] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 similar migration powerfulness have got occurred with the Gbeae of Ga Mashi if Okaidza had non been reconciled with Dako in addition to the Dutch after the civil state of war of 1737.[6] In fact some of Okaidza’s followers who fled with him to the eastern Ga towns did non homecoming to Ga Mashi fifty-fifty after the reconciliation. This was in all probability because they had go contracted inward matrimony in addition to had meliorate hope for hereafter prosperity inward the towns where they had sought refuge. These remnants of Okaidza’s theatre unit of measurement in addition to followers came with their families to pay their in conclusion honor to Okaidza when he died inward 1770. There was a scrap betwixt the mourners from Teshi in addition to some Ga Mashi people at Okaidza’s funeral.[7]
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 3rd grouping of Ga who moved from their towns to settle inward other towns were criminals who wanted to escape punishment. These included adulterers, thieves, murderers in addition to sorcerers.
Frustrated or sick people also migrated from their towns of nascency to seek medical tending or consolation from some of the to a greater extent than reputable fetish priests in addition to priestesses inward the other towns. These people often stayed permanently inward the towns inward which they had been cured.
This migration of sure Ga people from the towns of their nascency was paralleled past times the influx of members from other ethnic groups into the towns which had been left depleted. The predominant grouping amongst these newcomers was the Akan. However, groups of Adanme, Ewe in addition to other people from the coast of present-day Nigeria also came to settle amidst the Ga. Some of these groups came to Accra as traders in addition to fortune seekers; others arrived as official representatives of their country. This was especially truthful of the Akwamu, Akyem in addition to Asante who ruled the Ga inward the seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries. The residue worked as brokers, labourers in addition to slaves for the European companies inward Accra.
These different ethnic groups added a novel dimension to the composition of the Ga towns. Each Ga town was (and still is) divided into Akutsei or quarters. The Akutsei came into existence as a outcome of the intermission from an original lineage group. For example, inward Labadi, Fante fishermen[8] who settled at that spot became known as Abese Fante department of Abese, an already established Akutso, whilst inward Osu, immigrants from Anahor established the Anahor Akutso. Of the 7 Akutsei inward Ga Mashi, 3 are alien origin: Otublohin is of Akwamu origin, Abola is predominantly Fante; it was referred to inward eighteenth century as the slave quarter of the Dutch company, because their labourers in addition to slaves resided there. These labourers in addition to slaves joined past times Fante fishermen.
In the eighteenth century, the Ga mantse together with a grouping of Ga estranged from the Asere Akutso also joined the Abola, so that it is at nowadays a mixture of Ga in addition to aliens.[9] The Alata Akutso is a combination of the people from the present-day Nigeria in addition to Fante. Alata was the residence of the slaves in addition to labourers of the English linguistic communication society inward Accra. According to their ain oral tradition, the firstly leader of the Alata Akutso was Wetse Kodzo from Lagos, who was amongst the labourers in addition to slaves who originally came with the English linguistic communication society to Accra to build James Fort.[10] The descendents of these labourers in addition to slaves continued to serve the British company.
The presence of these alien elements inevitably affected the governmental mechanism of the Ga towns. The aliens became incorporated into the governmental construction through theatre unit of measurement ties in addition to their personal ability.
Within Ga society, the theatre unit of measurement is a miniature political organisation with an elected head. The Ga are divided into patrilineal houses called Wei, in addition to each Ga belongs to his father’s We. Offices inward the towns are held past times a We in addition to non an individual, in addition to it is the members of the We who create upwards one's psyche on the suitable individual to live chosen for posts vested inward the theatre unit of measurement in addition to to administer belongings left past times a deceased fellow member of the family.
European writers of the seventeenth in addition to the eighteenth centuries described succession amongst the Ga as beingness pratilineal. In the seventeenth century Dapper commented: “in thr inheritance of the crown, the blood brother succeeds, or for want of brothers, the eldest of the family, without whatever consideration of the children, non fifty-fifty inward the inheritance of their father’s property; for this goes from the begetter to the blood brother or, for want of brothers, to the sisters children; only at Akara the children inherit as good the father’s as the mother’s goods, except that inward the affair of the crown the blood brother comes first.”[11] In the eighteenth century Bosman stated: “the children they have got past times their wives are indeed legitimate, but all along the coast never inherit their parents’ effects except at Accra only.”[12] Barbot also declared: “the right of inheritance all over the Gold Coast, except at Accra is rattling strangely settled, for the children born legitimate never inherit the parents’ effects. Accra is the only spot where the children are the sole lawful heirs to their father’s or mother’s effects.”[13] Rask likewise observed: “when a Caboceer or other gratis Ningo dies inward Accra, the eldest boy inherits his father’s slaves in addition to all that he left with the responsibleness of taking tending of his brothers in addition to sisters till their tin fend for themselves, but the Akwamu have got a different regulation of succession whereby 1 blood brother succeeds the other.”[14]
The law of succession practiced past times the Ga implied that children of Ga men past times women of different ethnic groups had a right to succeed or inherit their father’s property. Problems were however, bound to arise when Ga women had children past times men, who were foreigners to Accra. It testament appear that at the kickoff of the eighteenth century sexual involvement betwixt Ga women in addition to aliens to Accra was non common. This was primarily due to the fact that many of the foreigners were uncircumcised in addition to Ga women considered it an abomination to go sexually intimate with uncircumcised men.[15] The women, however, began to intermission these traditional taboos due to sure lucrative attributes of the newcomers. Many of the Akan in addition to European men, although uncircumcised, had access to powerfulness in addition to wealth. Hence, the Ga women became the concubines in addition to sometimes fifty-fifty the wives of the foreigners inward Accra. What so was the legal spot of the children of Ga women in addition to their alien partners, who were non permanently domiciled inward Accra?
The existence of sure practices inward the Ga theatre unit of measurement made it possible for such a kid to live incorporated into the mother’s patrilineal family. The Ga have got a scheme of adoption whereby a kid of unresolved paternity is adopted past times his maternal grandfather. Even when at that spot is no contestation almost the paternity of the child, the maternal granddaddy tin reject the biological begetter if he considers him to have got been an unsuitable correspond for his daughter. In such circumstances the kid is outdoored past times his maternal grandfather’s family. In this case, whether the kid has a known or unknown biological father, he belongs to his mother’s family. In other instances, a kid may live compelled to bring together his mother’s theatre unit of measurement because his begetter is a stranger who has died or neglected him in addition to returned to his ain country. In these circumstances the kid tin retain the name[16] given to him past times his father, but he becomes accepted as a fellow member of his mother’s family. This is made possible past times the fact that although the Ga are patrilineal, they also have got sure rights in addition to obligations towards their mother’s family. Field made a revealing comment on succession amongst the Ga: “there are no stiff laws of inheritance as a European understands codified law. There are only sure usual practices which the elders are at liberty to modify inward whatever way they deem fit. They do non administer law, they administer what seems to them justice in addition to wisdom.”[17] This way that a neglected boy of woman individual fellow member of a Ga theatre unit of measurement could succeed or inherit belongings held past times the theatre unit of measurement if he proved to a greater extent than intelligent, hardworking in addition to reliable than sons of manful individual members of the family.
The compromising stand upwards adopted past times the Ga towards inheritance has given ascension to the contestation in addition to confusion concerning the legal right of succession. Judgements given inward the Accra courts inward the closing decades of the nineteenth in addition to inward the nowadays century have got favoured matrilineal succession, especially, amidst the people of Ga Mashi. Sarbah stated: “it would live doubtless noted that the so-called customary law of succession past times children, said to live the regulation at Accra in addition to amidst the Ga tribe, is of doubtful authenticity.”[18] Quartey-Papafio, on the other hand, condemned the regulation of matrilineal succession beingness applied to the Ga: “among the Ga tribes proper, sons succeed inward preference to nephews, or inward other words, succession amidst the Ga tribes proper is through the manful individual line.”[19]
In spite of Quartey-Papafio’s contention, judgements inward the Accra courts continued to live inward favour of matrilineal succession, although at that spot were ever witnesses to the contrary.[20] The other Ga towns did non allow the law of matrilineal succession to live applied on them. This is because, as Ollenu stated, inward cases which came before the judges, at that spot was a “mass of evidence uncontradicted that they were patrilineal, in addition to the judges were compelled to select that custom, inward some cases with groovy reluctance.”[21] This has led to the view expressed past times Ollenu that “the custom of succession inward Accra is the same as that of the Akan tribes in addition to different from that obtaining inward all the other Ga-Adanme towns in addition to states.”[22] This, inward effect, implies that the Akan elements inward Ga Mashi have got dominated the Ga elements. The Ga elements who wished to retain their patrilineal law of succession have got been forced to select an alien law of succession through the law courts. What the judges were non aware of, was the fact that the Ga are ethnically mixed in addition to it was through compromise in addition to peculiar circumstances that sons of woman individual members of a Ga theatre unit of measurement could succeed. Even the Ga towns which are at nowadays supposed to live patrilineal compromised in addition to still compromise on succession. For example, Adzei Wulu, the nowadays theatre unit of measurement caput of Ahimako We, a department of the Koe Akutso inward Labadi, is a boy of Yoomo Akrong, a woman individual fellow member of the house.
The compromising mental attitude to succession amidst the Ga was extended to of import offices inward the town. This has given ascension to what are termed nephew stools. The nephew stool usually has its rootage inward a boy of a woman individual fellow member of the theatre unit of measurement volunteering to perform a hard chore which sons of manful individual members had refused to do. After the boy of the woman individual fellow member had performed the necessary task, he was compensated with the business office held past times the mother’s family. The business office was kept past times his descendents after his decease or his theatre became 1 of the groups which succeeded to the postal service past times rotation. An illustration of a nephew stool is Kwakwaranya We, 1 of the houses which render the mantse of Labadi.[23]
From the above, it is evident that men of alien paternity or maternity could go component of the ruling organ of the Ga towns. However, intermarriage was non the only way past times which newcomers were incorporated inward the governmental machinery. Sometimes the Ga gave a particular business office to the immigrants so that they could have got a feeling of belonging to the town in addition to thereby co-operate inward its smoothen running. For example, the Sanshi grouping inward Labadi who came from Aneho inward the Republique du Togo to settle inward Labadi inward the eighteenth century were given the business office of Mankralo.[24]
Titles in addition to offices were also conferred on aliens who proved to have got outstanding qualities such as bravery in addition to wealth. This arose from the fact the Ga have got a custom of honouring members of their society for groovy feats. Rask remarked at the kickoff of the eighteenth century that before a adult man could go a Caboceer, he must have got done at to the lowest degree 3 of the following: he should have got been to war, killed an elephant, a tiger in addition to buffalo. Rask commented that the rules were non adhered to as strictly as they were inward the olden days.[25] This implies that the pre-requisite weather condition for the achievement of Caboceer status must have got experienced a gradual alter according to the needs of Ga society inward the eighteenth century.
In add-on to bravery, the ruling course of study inward Ga society needed wealth. This was because the Ga needed people who could afford to render them with in addition to Pb them inward fourth dimension of war. These requirements made it easier for talented in addition to wealthy aliens to live accepted inward the Ga ruling course of study in addition to fifty-fifty supersede the trueborn Ga rulers. The presence of the European forts inward Accra also helped this process. The Alata Akutso inward Ga Mashi provide a goodness example. As labourers in addition to slaves of the English linguistic communication company, some of them had the chance of rising inward the service of the company. In the mid-eighteenth century, 1 Cudjo[26] was referred to, variously, as English linguistic communication society slave in addition to English linguistic communication society linguist. In Cudjo’s capacity as linguist in addition to messenger of the English, his influence became remarkable inward Accra, especially inward the English linguistic communication department known as Jamestown. It was in all probability the same Cudjo who was referred to as Caboceer Cudjo inward Accra inward 1469.[27] According to oral tradition, Kodjo, the firstly Alata Mantse, was provided with a chief’s stoolby Oto Blafo of Otublohun in addition to adopted the Akan Odwira custom.[28] Kodjo’s achievements did non goal with his spot as Mantse of Alata. He superseded the mantse of Sempe, the original rulers in addition to owners of the ground on which James Fort was built in addition to the mantse of Akanmudze. The descendents of Kodzo became acknowledged as mantse of the whole of Jamestown comprising Sempe Akamadze in addition to Alata, in addition to inward this capacity he claimed compensation from Jamestown ground acquired past times the Government.[29] In evidence given past times the Alata mantse Kodzo Ababio IV inward March 1912, the Alata mantse declared “my predecessors inward championship have got been recognized as mantse of Jamestown. The mantse of Alata was made mantse past times the Sempes in addition to Akamadzes as he had power, he had money in addition to inward going to state of war he ever went inward forepart of them.[30] The Sempe, the original rulers in addition to owners of the land, began to resent the powerfulness in addition to influence of the Alata mantse inward 1906, when the Alata mantse Kodjo Ababio had go so entrenched inward his spot as Jamestown mantse that he fifty-fifty denied that the Sempe, whom he had superseded, had a right to elect a mantse for their ain Akutso. Before a committee of enquiry held inward 1907 past times the District Commissioner Crowther, Ababio IV claimed that the caput of the Sempe was his Mankralo, in addition to this infuriated Moi, representative of the Sempe, that he asked “I am a Ga, did you lot come upwards from Lagos in addition to create me Mankralo here? Can you lot who say you lot are a stranger create me Mankralo?”[31] Kodjo Ababio withdrew his objections in addition to claims in addition to from so on, Sempe refused to acknowledge the mantse of Alata as mantse for the whole Jamestown.
The influence of Otublohun inward Accra during the Akwamu era has already been mentioned.[32] The fact that they continued to have got influence inward Accra after Akwamu had been defeated inward 1730 was due to the powerfulness of their leaders in addition to their spot as brokers of the Dutch company.[33] the martial qualities of the Otublohun leaders were acknowledged in addition to respected past times the Ga. In 1785, when a combined strength of the Ga, Ada in addition to Volta part settlements marched with the Danes to scrap Awuna inward the Volta area, it was Oto from Otublohun who was chosen as a leader of the allied forces.[34]
The nature of leadership amidst the Ga has also undergone some important changes. Reindorf in addition to Field were right inward stating that originally the Ga were ruled past times priests.[35] Reindorf is wrong, however, inward has dating of the separation of the priestly from secular authority.[36] According to him, the separation of powers took spot after the Ga had been defeated past times Akwamu inward 1780. It has already been stated that the separation of powers occurred inward the private Ga towns at different times. Whilst inward Ga Mashi it took palce at the goal of the sixteenth century, Labadi continued to have got her fusion of priestly in addition to secular ascendance inward the eighteenth century. Romer, who was on the coast inward the mid-eighteenth century, stated that King Okpoti of Labadi was at the same fourth dimension high priest of Labadi.[37]
In describing the procedure of separation of priestly from secular authority, Ffield stated that the principal priest inward the Ga towns were originally the heads of the ruling organ; the mantse, who is at nowadays acknowledged caput of the ruling organ of the Ga town, was originally just small-scale priest chosen to deed as liaison in addition to messenger betwixt his people in addition to the Europeans, since the principal priest could non move to in addition to from performing such menial tasks.[38] Field referred to the mantse as a “small boy” in addition to described him as a “vestigial survival without function, similar the vermiform appendix inward the human trunk in addition to is of embarrassment rather than usage to the organism.”[39]
Field’s generalization is misleading just as each Ga town evolved its secular ascendance at different times, so also was the conferment of secular in addition to priestly powerfulness done past times different processes. In some Ga towns the separation occurred when secular or armed forces leaders seized powerfulness from the small-scale priests; inward others, the separation of powers came almost the ruler delegating 1 of his slaves or a small-scale branch of his theatre unit of measurement to performhis priestly functions for him. In the latter case, the original ruler became the mantse whilst his priestly functions were performed past times someone else; Labaki is goodness example. According to Labadi tradition, the King who was so principal priest chose a subordinate to performthe rituals of the Lakpa, principal god of Labadi. Lakpa’s grove was hence removed from its original spot at the courtyard of the Rex in addition to placed inward the outskirts of the town inward the nowadays Leesi Akutso, where the Rex kept most of his slaves. Some of my informants claim that it was 1 of the king’s slaves who became the novel Lakpa priest; others claim that a adult man called Odoi from the king’s Akutso was made the novel priest. It does non really affair whether it was a slave[40] or a gratis born who was made the novel Lapka priest at the fourth dimension that the separation of powers occurred. The crucial dot is that when the alter occurred, the original ruler retained the mantseship in addition to chose a subordinate to go the principal priest. At a committee of enquiry held on stool disputes inward Labadi inward 1938 the witnesses asserted that the Lakpa priest’s ancestry is non royal.[41]
An interesting characteristic of the evolution of secular leadership amidst the Ga is that at that spot was no consummate severance of the mantse from the priesthood. The mantse was in addition to is still subjected to religious sanctions in addition to taboos. For example, Tilleman stated that King Okai Kwei could not, inward accordance with religious sanction leave of absence the Ga upper-case missive of the alphabet Ayawaso to the coast, except 1 time a year.[42] Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 vestige of the religious role in addition to functions of the mantsemei inward the Ga towns is revealed past times the fact that they still have on the white wristband, Afli, associated with the priestly order. In some of the Ga towns, they perform priestly rituals in addition to have got the business office of small-scale priest. For example, the Labadi mantse is priest of the god Nyonmo Tsaa in addition to also deed as priest of Lakpa when at that spot is no Lakpa priest.
The priests too continued to have got influence as long as the Ga continued to worship in addition to seek protection from the gods for which they were responsible. For example, the Sakumo priest or god was able to impact a major political upheaval, which brought almost the novel dynasty inward the paramount Ga stool. According to tradition, the Ga were so perplexed almost leadership that they consulted the Sakumo oracle to appoint someone to Pb them inward pending state of war inward the nineteenth century. It was in all probability this province of affairs which gave ascension to the kple song:
Abola pong,
Moye, mobe;
Obi nni Abola.
Great Abola
Someone is there, no 1 is there;
No 1 is inward Abola.[43]
When the Ga consulted the Sakumo oracle almost leadership, a mysterious phonation was heard inward the grove telling the Ga to select a adult man called taki, 1 of the slaves who had sought asylum in addition to was so living with the Sakumo priest. The Ga accepted the monastic enjoin from the mysterious phonation in addition to Taki led the Ga to war. Taki was so successful that the state of war ended, he became acknowledged as the Ga mantse, paramount principal of the Ga.[44]
Fetish priest in addition to priestesses Gold Coast." 1880
Another interesting characteristic of the evolution of secular regulation is the adoption of alien, especially Akan, paraphernalia in addition to characteristics past times the Ga mantsemei. The stool which is the symbol of business office of the mantse is said to have got been copied from the Akan. The text of the spoken language or appellations blown on the horn which heralds the approach of the Ga mantsemei are mostly inward unusual language, usually Akan. Fro example, the horn of the Akanmadze mantse sounds:
Onipa nii aye
Onipa nii aye
Onipa to nsu mu a ma onko
Aboa to nsu mua yino kodi.
Man is ungrateful
Man is ungrateful
If a adult man falls into a river, allow him go
If an fauna falls into a river, select it out to eat.
Some of the texts are a mixture of Akan in addition to Ga. For example, the horn of the Labadi mantse sounds:
Kwao ee! Kwao ee:
Kwao woye Foroanko
Hena before? Hena before?
Swuo loo?
Wuo loo?
Otamfo kata wani.
Kwao ee! Kwao ee:
Kwao you lot are impossible to climb.
Who testament climb?
Who testament climb?
Is it the bush cow?
Enemies cover your eyes!
The text of the Ga mantse’s horn is non Akan but Ewe.
It sounds:
Kpo Avuu
Kpo Avuu
Kpo Avuu dodome
Look at dogs
Look at dogs
Look at their dog-like faces.
Nketia also stated that the text of the spoken language mode of drumming associated with the Ga courts is “invariably Akan (Twi, Fante). There does non appear to live an established tradition of drum linguistic communication based on Ga.”[45]
The mantsemei inward the Ga towns are aided inward their regulation past times the Dzaasetse, Mankralo Shikiteele, Akwasontse in addition to Asafoatsemei. Apart from the Dzaasetse, who is caput of Dzaase, the trunk which elect the mantse in addition to the Asafoatse, a armed forces captain, the functions of the other officials differ from town to town in addition to are known nether differing names. This relative lack of uniformity inward titles in addition to functions is due to the fact that the offices were created according to the exigencies of the province of affairs inward the Ga town concerned at a given time.
The armed forces organisation of the Ga has been influenced past times the Akan. Each Ga town is organized into armed forces companies called Asafoi nether captains called Asafoatsemei. The Akan influence on the Asafo is borne out the fact that the Asafo songs are mainly In Twi. The songs of the Out religious cult associated with state of war are also the Fante. In the study of a committee of enquiry held inward Accra inward Oct 1907, the Commissioner inward accuse stated that the Ga stools “are arranged for armed forces purposes inward groups of wings in addition to from the fact that Twi words are used to depict such divisions, at that spot is a strong presumptive evidence that this formation has been imitated, if somewhat imperfectly, from that mutual to the Akan race. (Evidence on details of this application was conflicting in addition to somewhat meager but this may live attributable to the fact that it does non impact the judicial system.) the stools of Asere, Obese in addition to Otublohun from circular the stool of the Ga mantse, the centre; those of Alata, Sempe in addition to Akumadze the left wing; those of Osu, La Teshi-Nungua in addition to Tema on the right wing.”[46]
Religion is some other aspect of Ga life which has been influenced past times the influx of aliens. The Ga claim that of all the cults, Kple is the only 1 which is of pure Ga origin. Kple reveals a unity inward Ga religious belief in addition to is an embodiment to the Ga concept of the universe. Marion Kilson stated that “underlying Kple cult activities is a systematic conception of the ordering the universe. This cosmology non only validate cult activities inward so far as sure rituals are taught to live necessary to maintain in addition to restore ordered relations within the universe, but it is re-created through the performance which expresses aspects of the cosmic monastic enjoin in addition to the interrelations of its categories… such rites ate performed on behalf of the entire Ga community. The aims of these rites, therefore, unite all living Ga within the Kple community. The community of believers, however, incorporates non only living men but also ancestral shades… the Kple cult hence is all encompassing inward so far as it embraces a total world view in addition to total community.”[47]
Kilson farther stated that the Ga believed inward the existence of a supreme being, Ataa Naa Nyonmo, who created the world. Between this creator in addition to human beings are the gods or dzemawodzii, who deed as mediators. The Ga hence pray to the creator through these dzemawodzii, unremarkably symbolized past times the sea, rivers, lagoons in addition to trees.[48] If Marion Kilson’s business concern human relationship is accepted, so the proliferation in addition to multifariousness of gods amidst the various groups of Ga is non a sign of religious fragmentation, since Ga worship has 1 apex --
Ataa Naa Nyonmo. Unity inward Ga worship is also revealed past times the Ga concept of the dzemawodzii as a family. Thus the Sakumo inward Tema is Sakumo Nukpa, blood brother of Sakumofio inward Ga Mashi. The Sakumo inward Ga Mashi has ii wives, Naa Koole also inward Ga Mashi in addition to Ogbedee the Kpeshi Lagoon inward Labadi. These ties amidst the dzemawodzii were in all probability meant to epitomize interrelations amidst the Ga. Another sign of religious unity amidst the Ga tin live observed inward the text of the spoken language of the Ga Wulomei or priests when they pour a libation. They do non offering the imbibe to (or inquire for approbation from) the particular god for whom they officiate, but to in addition to from all the gods from Lanma close Nyanyanu inward the due west of Ada at the oral cavity of the Volta. An illustration is the text of the Lakpa priest’s prayer. After calling on all the gods known to the Labadi people, he states:
“Milee maa kulibii ayibE ni
Male ny yibE.
K dz la ma, k ya i Ada wilao
K dz suoy k ya I amli
Bibii ke ewudzi f abanu eko.”
“I cannot count the grains of millet
So I do non know your number
From Lanma to Ada inward the Volta.
From the due north to the south.
Come in addition to imbibe both Great in addition to Small.”[49]
Kple, however, is non the only cult which prevails amidst the Ga. The aliens who settled amidst the Ga brought with them their cults in addition to gods. For example, the Europeans brought Christianity. Field had classified Ga gods into iv categories. The Kple in addition to Kpa gods are Ga, the me gods are Adanme rootage in addition to the Out in addition to Akon gods are of Fante in addition to Akuapem origin.[50] When the mediums of these gods are possessed, they speak the linguistic communication of the original spot of their gods. Thus kple mediums speak Ga, me mediums speak Adanme, Out mediums speak Fante in addition to Akon mediums speak Twi when they are possessed.
Further evidence of Akan influence on Ga worship is revealed past times the fact that the text of some of the religious songs are inward Akan language. This is truthful fifty-fifty of kple, which is supposed to live a Ga cult. For example:
Kome, midzara Omanip;
Miti ade, mproobi
Kome, midzara Omani,
Mihu ade mproobi.
Sakumo, I correspond the nation,
When I hear something, I do non reject it.
Sakumo, I correspond the nation;
When I hear something, I do non reject it.[51]
In fact what tin live termed the religious anthem of the Ga has absorbed some Akan words:
Awo! Awo! Awo!
Agba ei!
Bleku tso.
Esu Esu
Enam Enam
Manyeo Manyeo
Adebani kpotoo.[52]
Exalted! Exalted! Exalted!
It is beingness prophesized.
Abundant rain,
Water, Water,
Fish, Fish,
Peace, Peace;
Abundant food.
The influence of unusual languages on the Ga tin live observed non only inward ceremonial speeches, state of war in addition to ritual songs but also inward recreational music in addition to dances. Adowa is an illustration of Ga adoption from the AAkan. Nketia described Ga recreational music as “a mutual coming together ground of Akan in addition to Ga forms.”[53] The spoken linguistic communication of the Ga has also incorporated a number of unusual words, phrases, idioms in addition to proverbs. This came almost past times the Ga beingness obliged to communicate with foreigners through merchandise in addition to politics. Foreign languages also acquired a prestige value for the Ga. In such cases the unusual words have got either completely ousted or dwarfed the Ga equivalent. In some cases the Ga were obliged to usage unusual words, because the articles which the words described were of unusual origin. Example of Akan words commonly used past times the Ga are: anihao – lazy, ohiafo – pauper, kunim – victory, ahuntoo – bother, pesenkuminya – selfish. The Akan proverbs “adebone se preko” – “evil befits the pig”[54] has completely ousted whatever Ga equivalent that may have got existed. In describing the difference betwixt the Adanme in addition to Ga languages, Zimmerman stated that “the Adanme dialect is to live considered as the woman parent dialect of Ga proper beingness to a greater extent than primitive in addition to less mixed with unusual elements than the latter, which is somewhat mixed with Otyi” (Twi).[55] The Ga linguistic communication also has borrowings from the European languages: Skist is a corruption of the Danish discussion Saks, Klakum – turkey- is from the Dutch in addition to Danish kalkoen/kalkun, in addition to kaklaka – cockroach- is the call as the Dutch in addition to Danish kakkerlak.
The existence of cultural, religious in addition to linguistic identity or similarities amidst the Ga has given ascension to the contestation as to whether the Ga-speaking people should live considered a single political unit of measurement nether the leadership of the Ga mantse who is at nowadays paramount principal of the Ga people. Field has stated that “Each of the half dozen coastal towns is an independent democracy with its ain territory in addition to its ain unique set of customs. There has never been whatever political association betwixt the towns in addition to they have got never had a paramount principal or indeed whatever chiefs at all inward the sense that the discussion usually conveys.”[56] Manoukian has also stated that “each Ga town is an independent unit. There has never been whatever confederation of the towns.”[57] Among the Ga themselves, view is divided. Some claim that the Ga are a cohesive political unit of measurement nether the Ga mantse, piece others claim that each Ga town is an independent unit.
The ground for this contestation is that changes have got occurred at different historical periods. Originally, the Ga lived inward independent towns, villages in addition to hamlets, in addition to they moved into the Accra plains inward independent groups. From the kickoff of the seventeenth century to 1680, they were a cohesive political unit of measurement nether the King of Accra, whose territories stretched from Breku inward the due west to the Volta inward the east. The defeat of the Ga past times Akwamu inward 1680 shattered the political cohesion of the kingdom of Accra. This was caused past times the fact that the novel King of Accra did non have got the mechanism to grant protection in addition to enforce his testament inward the Ga towns. The subjects inward the private Ga towns turned to their ain leaders for protection. These leaders owed allegiance straight to the King of Akwamu in addition to non through the King of Accra, fifty-fifty if the Ga had wanted to proceed acknowledging the ascendance of the King of Accra, it is doubtful whether, apart from the Dutch, the other European companies would have got encouraged it. This was because the King of Accra lived nether the Dutch fort and, since he depended on the Dutch for protection, was likely to live influenced past times the Dutch company. the English linguistic communication in addition to Danes would hence discovery themselves in addition to their protégés, ruled past times a Ga Rex nether the command of their merchandise rivals, the Dutch.
The political fragmentation of the Ga was so effective that fifty-fifty the town of Accra was divided into ii distinct parts owing allegiance to the Dutch in addition to English. The separatism of the English linguistic communication in addition to Dutch sections of Accra erupted occasionally into fights in addition to disputes during the eighteenth century.[58] This rivalry was carried on into the nineteenth century fifty-fifty after the Dutch had left their fort in addition to the English linguistic communication were the sole rulers of the Gold Coast. In 1884 at that spot was a civil state of war known as the Agbuntso War betwixt the English linguistic communication (James Town) in addition to the Dutch department (Ussher Town).[59] In the in conclusion decade of the nineteenth century, Nii Tackie, King of Acra living inward Ussher town, tried to solve the work of rivalry in addition to separatism of the ii sections. He informed the English linguistic communication Governor that “the people of James Town in addition to Ussher Town had mutually agreed that James Town should no longer live a separate town but that its King should live nether King Tackie … the whole of Accra is at nowadays nether him in addition to that the chiefs in addition to captains of James Town have got sworn fealty to him”.[60]
Tackie’s endeavour to reunite Ussher Town in addition to James Town brought resentment on the component of the newly installed chief, Amoako Atta, known nether the stool call of Kodjo Ababio IV of James Town. This resentment became obvious when King Tacki introduced the newly installed principal together with other newly installed chiefs, Okaidza of Obese in addition to Adotey of Sempe, to the English linguistic communication Governor inward Oct 1892. The next is a description of the introduction ceremony:
“Amoako Atta stood before the Governor with a fillet on his head. King Tackie removed it, an deed which caused Amoako Atta to scowl at him. The Governor having so expressed his pleasance at the annunciation that James Town in addition to Ussher Town agreed to amalgamate in addition to to go 1 town nether King Tackie, congratulated Amoako Atta upon beingness elected principal of 1 of the quarters of James Town. There upon Amoako Atta drawing himself upwards said “I am non 1 of King Tackie’s chiefs, I am King of James Town. James Town is English linguistic communication town in addition to English linguistic communication people can’t serve Dutch people.”[61] Ironically, Kodjo Ababio had, inward accordance with customary rites, taken the oath of allegiance to King Tackie almost 3 weeks before his introduction to the Governor.[62]
In the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries, the King of Accra or Ga mantse was non able to retain in addition to exercise consummate command over the inhabitants of the town of Accra, how could he live expected to create his powerfulness felt inward all the Ga towns stretching to Tema during that period? Isert made an apt description of the fragmentation of powerfulness amidst the Ga when he stated “the Akras were 1 time a mighty state who had their ain King until they defeated past times the Aquamboes inward the preceding century. Their Rex in addition to a groovy number of Blacks were forced to flee accorss Rio Volta to as far as Popo. .. .. .. Accra is at nowadays a democracy inward which the kabossies in addition to their grandees together exercise the supreme powerfulness inward the town.[63]
The political fragmentation amidst the Ga people existed simultaneously with their cultural in addition to kinship ties. This ambivalence sometimes infuriated the Europeans inward the eighteenth century, for the Ga were reluctant to ship their quarrels in addition to rivalries to extremes in addition to were usually prepared to live reconciled when their European protectors were not.[64]
It was in all probability the existence of these cultural ties which encouraged the British Government (largely for reasons of administrative convenience) inward the twentieth century to regard the Ga-speaking people as a single political unit of measurement in addition to to strengthen the powerfulness of the Ga mantse over the other Ga towns. Since Ghana’s political independence governments have got tended to follow the illustration of the British colonial regime inward this respect. The other Ga towns view the nowadays traditional political set-up as a degradation of their status, for, they have got been pose inward the same category as Akutso chiefs such as Asere, Gbese, Otublohun, Sempe, Akwanmadze, Alata in addition to Abola of Ga Mashi. In the nowadays era, when democratically elected governments with their appendages of police clitoris in addition to armed forces forces have got command over traditional authority, the shape of traditional set-up rests non with the Ga people themselves but with the Government, in addition to it is for this reasin that all the petitions of the ckiefs of the towns of Osu, Labadi, Teshi, Nungua in addition to Tema for recognition of their independence have got been directed to the Government.
The socio-political changes amidst the Ga are eloquent testimony to the importance of the catamenia 1600-1742 inward the history of the Ga. The changes which have got been discussed are sure as shooting non the only ones which have got taken place. In fact changes are still occurring, non to the lowest degree on business concern human relationship of Accra’s spot as the upper-case missive of the alphabet of Ghana.
Perhaps the most revealing remark on changes inward Ga society is the 1 given past times the Kple song:
Naa, live ko mba “Lo, a sure fourth dimension is coming.
Oshwila, live ko miiba; Oshwila, a sure fourth dimension is coming;
Beni abo ado, dzee neke abo ade. When the world was created, it was non
dzeng ko bamba;
niimei boa de dzee neke abo ade.
dzeng ko bamba;
Oshwila dzeng ko ba.[65]
“Lo, a sure fourth dimension is coming.
Oshwila, a sure fourth dimension is coming;
When the world was created, it was not
Like this that the world was created.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sure Civilization is coming,
Oshwila, a sure civilization is coming;
Grandfather’s world, it was non similar this
that the world was created.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sure civilization is coming
Oshwila, a sure civilization is coming.”
RELIGION OF THE GA PEOPLE
by
INTRODUCTION
African Indigenous Religion, similar other world religions, is the way of life of Africans since it permeates into their daily activities as good as their social lives; in addition to the Ga of Republic of Ghana are no exception. In view of this, my focus inward this discourse shall live on the religious belief scheme in addition to cultural practices of the Ga people. Here, I shall examine the doctrine of the Kpele cult – the faith of the Ga people, as good as their cultural norms in addition to practices.
Spiritual Bathing. Ga women Washing their trunk with a concoction of herbs, schnapps, in addition to raw eggs (you tin view 1 on the ground there).
KPELE: RELIGION OF THE GA PEOPLE
The contemporary Ga, who speaks a Kwa dialect: 1 of the sub-languages of the Niger-Congo linguistic communication family, are an ethnically in addition to culturally diversified people. According to Kilson, “Their cultural heterogeneity arises from a variety of factors which include penetrable natural boundaries; the entrepreneurial role of the Ga inward prehistoric in addition to historic times; the Akwamu domination of Ga society during the belatedly seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries; the location of the centre of colonial in addition to later national ascendance in addition to international commercial activities of Accra.”
These she attributed to the fact that the Ga perceived their cultural heritage as unique in addition to distinct from other Ghanaian cultures. Even though, much of contemporary Ga civilization may owe its richness to contacts with other African nationals: in addition to non to say the least, to that of Europeans during the past times 3 centuries. These contacts, they assume non to live limited to the commutation of ideas in addition to customs, but also believed that the impacts of these interactions are reflected conspicuously, inward their political in addition to religious institutions.
This view is also shared past times Field (1937), who was of the view that the polytheistic nature of Ga faith in addition to their habit of toleration, in addition to consideration for other people’s gods gave impetus to such amalgamations. To back upwards these assertions, Kilson farther argued that with honor to religious institutions, 3 of the iv major traditional cults practiced past times contemporary Ga are non-Ga inward origin.
For example, “me is an Adangbe cult, otu and akong are Akan cults. Kpele, the quaternary cult is believed to live the indigenous Ga religious system.” Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 religious system, whose story of linguistic usage has been influenced past times the mixture of Akan, Adangbe in addition to Guan words, which appear inward the liturgies of both the eastern in addition to western Ga people.
DOCTRINE OF THE KPELE RELIGION
Kpele is an ancient faith that the Ga kroŋ considers as the faith of their ancestors: a religious belief system, which fundamental theology in addition to doctrine is the systematic conception of the ordering of the universe. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 doctrine, which Kilson opined, validates the cult’s activities insofar as sure rituals are thought to live necessary to maintain in addition to restore orderly relations within the universe.
Indeed, the fundamental concept of the Kpele doctrine has the taxonomy of the hierarchy of beings made upwards of a Supreme Being, divine beings, human beings, animals in addition to flora as its principal teaching. These groups of beings according to Kilson are classified, based on their iv distinctive characteristics that set them apart for 1 another, namely: creative/created, immortal/mortal, rational/irrational, in addition to mobile/immobile.
THE SUPREME BEING
In her analysis of the classification of the to a higher spot named characteristics of beings as found inward the Kpele doctrine, Kilson argued that the creative powers of the Supreme Being distinguishes it from all other classes of beings, piece the perceived immortality of the gods or divine beings differentiates them from all other creations. Moreover, the rationality of human beings sets them apart from both plants in addition to animal, in addition to the mobility of animals distinguishes them from plants.
Thus, at the apex of the Ga religious belief scheme is the Supreme Being: a personified creative life strength that the Ga has termed Ataa Naa Nyongmọ. An indication of the importance that the Ga attaches to the attributes of this personified life giving force: for inward daily usage, Ataa is a term that way father, provider or protector based on the context inward which it is beingness applied. In this context, however, the usage of the term has a different connotation.
Since indigenous exegesis of the name Ataa Naa Nyongmọ has been interpreted to mean taolọ naanọ nyoongmọ (seeker, eternal, nocturnal being). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 notion considered past times the Ga, which suggests that Ataa Naa Nyongmọ is an eternal, nocturnal being; creator of the universe, who seeks in addition to tending for all his creations.
However, some other aspect of the exegetical commentary indicates that Ataa Naa Nyongmọ nurture his creations through the provision of sustenance from the bounties of the earth, as a woman parent does for her offspring. Thus, in Kpele thought, the bisexual nature of the Supreme Being is acknowledged inward the belief that Ataa Naa Nyongmọ not only created the universe inward the distance past, but also continues to live the source of all forms of life inward the present.
This conception is expressed inward the following Kpele song:
Nyongmọ Adu Akwa, God
Lε dzi okua agbo lε; He is the groovy farmer.
Lε ebọ dzeng; He created the world;
Ni eha anyieọ mliŋ ahi. And He gave it to them to live in.
As lyrics of the above Kpele song imply, the Ga believe that human beings non only depend on Ataa Naa Nyongmọ for their existence, but also for their way of sustenance in addition to the perpetuation of life on earth.
DIVINE BEINGS
The 2nd aspect of the doctrine of the Kpele religion is the belief in divine beings or spirits of nature (dzemànwọdzi). According to Kpele teachings, these are sky-dwelling spirits associated with sure topographical features such as the ocean, lagoons, rivers, mountains, etc: which are thought to live the natural habitation or places of descent for these dzemànwọdzi. Of course, these terrestrial beings non only manifest themselves inward these topographical features, but also to a greater extent than often than not, do manifest themselves inward human forms or may speak straight to the people through mediums such as Wọŋtśεmεi (traditional priests in addition to priestesses).
Consequently, the Ga regard the dzemànwọdzi as intercessors or mediators betwixt humanity and Ataa Naa Nyongmọ for the protection in addition to approbation of the living, in addition to the hereafter generation of the Ga people. Whereas, the dzemànwọdzi are believed to live the most of import intermediaries inward the affairs of the Ga, ancestral shades on the other hand, every bit play an of import role inward the lives of their descendants past times liaising betwixt them in addition to the dzemànwọdzi when the demand arise.
Field (1937), researching into the religious belief scheme of the Ga was of the view that an thought mutual inward West Africa, but unusual to them is the worship of fetish, in addition to that the typical Ga high priests (Wọlọmεi) have got no fetishes (wọdziŋ) inward their shrines (gbatsui) in addition to hence are non fetish priests. She emphasized that these Wọlọmεi are servants of the dzemànwọdzi who interpret the testament of these divine beings, through the medium of wọŋyei to the people.
Moreover, she tried to differentiate betwixt a fetish (wọŋ) in addition to a deity (dzemànwọŋ), past times giving the Definition of the latter as understood past times the Ga people. In her opinion, the discussion that the Ga interpret into a deity is dzemànwọŋ (divine beingness or spirit of nature that moves around the world in addition to the towns) in addition to hence concluded that awọŋ “is anything that tin piece of work but non live seen in addition to include smaller beings of specialized in addition to limited activity associated with medicines in addition to magic”.
While a dzemànwọŋ on the other hand, is regarded as a powerful type of intelligentwọŋ (deity) not only specialized inward its activities, but also every bit omnipotent in addition to omniscient though non limited to whatever particular locality. For these in addition to other reasons, the Wọlọmεi do believe that direct communication with the Supreme Being is non possible since He is Invisible, Omnipotent as good as Immortal.
This inward their opinion, tin only live achieved through the mediation or intercession of the dzemànwọdzi (deities/spirits of nature) believed to live intermediaries or messengers of God with earthly features. For example, deities such as Sakumọ (Tema),Sakumọ fio (Accra), Kọrle (Accra), Klọte (Osu), are residents of rivers in addition to lakes;Gbọbu (Nungua) inward a hallowed grove, while Nai and Trotroe (Accra) are spirits of the sea.
Thus, as illustrated inward the Ga belief inward the Supreme Being – Ataa Naanọ Nyongmọ/Atta Naa Nyongmọ; Creator of the world, Invisible, Omnipotent in addition to Immortal, at that spot are almost similar beliefs expressed inward the intercession of thedzemànwọdzi who are regarded as Nyongmọ tsulọi (messengers of God), in addition to inward this illustration are referred to anthropomorphically as Klewi. Thus indicating the mysterious human relationship betwixt God in addition to humanity, as expressed inward the following Kpele song:
Atẹ Nyampong baana; Father God testament see;
Klewi baana. Klewi will see.
This is an assertion that has been given credence past times Reindorf (1897) who had before on argued that, “The Ga worship must live of unusual origin. As at that spot is no African state or tribe ever known to have got advanced inward their religious views as the Akrahs, 1 is inclined to suppose that the Jewish scheme of worship has been before on introduced or imitated from the people who came out firstly to this coast.”
On these bases, the Kpele worship of the Supreme Being through the intercession of the dzemànwọdzi as indicated before on past times both Kilson in addition to Field may live compared to the angels of God, which appeared to Moses, Abraham, Joshua in addition to other leaders of the Israelites.
In corroborating these assertions, Henderson-Quartey noted that the Ga sharing of similar religious beliefs in addition to cultural practices with the Hebrews could live traced to the Semitic people. Especially, Jews in addition to Arabs inward their encounter with most Africans believed to have got originated from the southern Sudan in addition to the Niger plateau region.
He farther argued that traditional Ga faith in addition to civilization fundamentally differs from the Fante, Twi and many others systems inward Ghana. This is because investigations conducted into Ga religious belief scheme in addition to cultural practices from oral sources have got revealed some similarities betwixt the ii cultures in addition to religious traditions.
Prominent amidst some European researchers who conducted these investigations were scholars/authors such as Bosman, Barbot in addition to Cruickshank. Their findings have got confirmed as good as commented on the semblances betwixt Ga religious beliefs in addition to cultural practices, in addition to that of the pre-Christian Jews.
ANCESTRAL SHADES
In monastic enjoin to sympathise in addition to fully appreciate the role of the ancestral shades inward theKpele doctrine, 1 needs to examine the concept of a human beingness (gbọmọ adesa) from the Ga perspective. According to Kilson, the Ga believe that all persons (adesai) have got ii aspects of humanity namely, the corporeal in addition to the spiritual: in addition to that inward the mortal life of everyone, the soul (susuma) inhabits the trunk (gbọmọ tśo) except during sleep, when it leaves the trunk in addition to travels almost without beingness limited past times fourth dimension or space.
However, at physiological death, the soul (susuma) is believe to remain inward the trunk for 3 days, after which it vacates or abandons the trunk to wander about, until burial in addition to the performance of terminal funeral rites (faafo). It is therefore, at this stage, that the souls of the deceased persons attain their ultimate social status as ancestral shades (sisai/nsamantanŋi), inward the underworld or “dead person’s world” (gbohii adzeng).
Nevertheless, the Ga firmly believe that the ancestral shades proceed after decease to demonstrate much concern inward the affairs of their living descendants, due to the blood human relationship which a individual derives from both parents at nascency in addition to which affiliate 1 with individuals in addition to groups (we kui) inward the Ga society
As a result, ancestral shades may sometimes manifest themselves to the living inward human forms or through dreams. Moreover, their spiritual presence may sometimes live invoked to assist the living during periods of crisis or calamities. On this basis, the role of the ancestral shades inward the Kpele doctrine cannot live underestimated, since they non only deed as guardians of the welfare of their living kith in addition to kin, but also serve as the custodians of Ga culture. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 civilization firmly established past times the founding fathers of the Ga State.
This latter aspect of the Ga belief is especially relevant to the Kpele religious scheme for the fact that it is the embodiment of Ga traditions, which achieves its ascendance through the enactment of customs established past times their predecessors. Thus, the role of ancestral shades as embodied inward Ga customs in addition to traditions inward general; in addition to the Kpeleworship inward particular, are expressed inward the verbal shape of Kpele ritual prayers inward the next words:
Tśwa, tśwa, tśwa. Hail, hail, hail.
Manye aba! Let happiness come.
Wọgbèi kome? Are our voices one?
Ngmεnε ashi mέ? What is today?
Ngmεnε ashi họgba. Today is Sunday.
Niimεi ahọgba. Grandfathers Sunday.
Naamεi ahọgba. Grandmothers Sunday.
This shape of prayer expresses the importance that the ancestors attached to the unity of the Ga people in addition to some specific days of the calendar week during their existence on earth. Days set aside for the do goodness of both humanity in addition to nature inward the shape of rejuvenation after human activities, in addition to for the regeneration in addition to reproduction of flora in addition to fauna. As good as, unity that translates into harmony, cohesion, peace in addition to tranquillity for the evolution of the Ga State.
Others tin live found in Kpele ritual songs, which limited the importance of Ga cultural practices to the contemporary generation of Ga people as seen inward the lyrics of this song:
Ataamέi shi ha wọ. Ancestors left it to us.
Tśεmέi shi ha wọ. Fathers left it to us.
Thus, the belief inward the role of the ancestors as founders in addition to custodians of Ga civilization and Kpele religious belief scheme as substantiated inward the above Kpele song, is the ascendance for contemporary Kpele rites: based on the precedents that they have got established inward the Kpele religion in addition to Ga cultural practices of the distant past.
HUMANITY, ANIMALS AND PLANTS
Finally, the Kpele doctrine teaches that though animals in addition to plants similar human beings may wither in addition to die, humanity is quite different from these ii species; since human beings have got the capacity to reason, hence the Ga human face (dzwεŋnmọ dzi gbọmọ) important “the psyche is the person”. This is deduced from the fact that, the rationality of humanity enables them to coordinate their social in addition to moral existence: especially, their sexuality on which the procreation of humanity depends for the survival of the human race on earth.
In view of this, the Kpele doctrine has utilized the concept of the taxonomy inward the hierarchy of beings inward explaining the human relationship betwixt the Supreme Being, divine beings, humanity, animals in addition to plants. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 human relationship based on the dependency of each course of study of beings within the hierarchy, to promote peace in addition to harmony within the universe.
Furthermore, this explains the Ga belief that all creations depend on the Supreme Being (Taolọ naanọ nyoongmọ/Ataa Naa Nyongmọ) for their existence, sustenance in addition to security. Hence, the Ga axioms, Nyongmọ gbeọ ni wọ yeọ (God slaughters in addition to nosotros eat), Nyongmọ dzi wala tśε (God is the possessor of life), Nyongmọ dzi wọ hiε nọ kamọ(God is our hope), etc.
TAXONOMY AND FORM IN KPELE RITUALS
Having said that, I wishing to province categorically that with regard to all religious faiths the world over at that spot are some basic principles in addition to practices which are fundamental; in addition to therefore, such rites or rituals are obligatory to their followers or adherents. Hence, African Indigenous Religion, which is an integral component inward the lives of the people is no exception to this rule. Rather, such practices are the main features found inward the religious observations of most African communities throughout the continent.
Indeed, since the fundamental aim of the Ga faith is to harmonize the human relationship betwixt the Supreme Being in addition to humanity through the intercession of divine beings in addition to ancestral shades, Kpele rituals are performed past times cult groups, each of which is responsible for the performance of the rituals associated with a specific dzemànwọdzi(deity).
Of course, cognatic kin units (we kui) associated with the dzemànwọŋ (deity) of a particular Kpele cult determines membership into the group. However, these are restricted to the Gamεi kroŋ (true Ga) families of the Ga society who are the custodians of these dzemànwọdzi, in addition to whose prerogative is to perform, as good as discovery all rituals in addition to worships associated with the cult as for example, inward the illustration of Kpakpatsewe Royal Family in addition to the Gua deity.
According to Kilson (1970), although theoretically, all members of such cognatic groups are automatic members of these Kpele cults, responsibilities for the performance of rituals are entrusted to ii categories of ritual specialists: a Wọlọmọ(high priest) in addition to a wọŋ yoo (female medium). Indeed, inward the Ga customs in addition to traditions just similar the Hebrews, the priesthood is a hereditary business office where a individual is selected past times the elders of a particular household (We) or inward some cases past times thedzemànwọdzi themselves.
Besides, since the business office of a Wọlọmọ is a lifetime occupation, due diligence is done past times these elders inward selecting a chaste in addition to an single immature adult man after a thorough vetting in addition to exam of the proposed candidate. As already discussed inward the taxonomy of the hierarchy of beings, at the apex of Kpele doctrine is the Supreme Being who is creative, immortal, rational in addition to mobile: the source of life in addition to controller of the natural processes inward the universe of his creations.
In view of these attributes in addition to other reasons, the Ga believe that contact cannot straight live made with Him. Rather, human relationship betwixt Him in addition to humanity must live channeled through the mediation of the dzemànwọdzi and ancestral shades. Consequently, humanity may appeal straight to the dzemànwọdzi and thereby to the Supreme Being through libation during prayers.
While at the same time, ancestral shades may deed or serve as intermediaries betwixt their living descendants in addition to the dzemànwọdzi in the fourth dimension of crisis or calamities. Although, animals in addition to plants formed component of the taxonomical hierarchy of beings inward the Kpele doctrine, non much exegetical commentaries have got been made almost them. Except for the anthropomorphic utilization of these non-human classes of beings as analogues of human existence inward some of the Kpele songs, as for illustration stated inward 1 of the songs “wuọ nuu looflọ shishi” meaning, a domestic fowl does non sympathise a wild bird.
LIBATION IN KPELE RITUALS
The deed of offering prayer through libation has been an integral component of the African culture, in addition to since faith as already stated is the way of life of African, libation play an of import role inward the daily activities of the people. As a result, libation forms the marrow of Kpele rituals since it is the vehicle through which both the dzemànwọdzi and ancestral shades are summoned during prayers in addition to worship, to serve as mediums for the supplications offered to the Supreme Being.
Kilson inward her analysis of the ritual deed of libation amidst the Ga stated that “Libation involves ii actions: 1 verbal, the other non-verbal. These actions according to her are performed sequentially; a priest prays before he libates. Sometimes a number of such sequences of ritual actions may comprise a single deed of libation.” She farther posited that, libation prayer consisted of 3 successive elements which are the invocation of divine beings in addition to ancestral shades; explanation for the summons; in addition to supplications to the divine beings.
Even though, the shape in addition to approach to libation prayer is constant, the length, content in addition to context may vary depending on the intentions or reasons for the invocations in addition to supplications as good as the ritual knowledge of the supplicant. Consequently, the performance of sure rituals in addition to prayers are the prerogative of ritual specialists who are conversant with the rules of these acts.
Libation prayers amidst the Ga, therefore, elucidate sure ideas almost the Kpeledoctrine, which recur inward every prayer irrespective of the supplicant or occasion. This is reflected inward the summons in addition to invocations of the 3 categories of immortal beings past times the supplicant to come upwards to the assistance of the community or individual; amidst whom are, Ataa Naanọ Nyongmọ, dzemànwọdzi and sisai/nsamantanŋi. This inward my view is based on the taxonomical construction of the hierarchy of beings as discussed before on.
An assertion corroborated past times Kilson inward her differentiation of the method in addition to approach adopted past times ritual officiants (Wọlọmεi, Mantsεmεi, Wekuu Nkpai, etc), when gods in addition to ancestors are invoked; as against when the Supreme Being in addition to other major deities are summoned during libation prayer in addition to worship.Thus, in Kpele religious thought, libation prayers contained 3 formal elements namely: invocation, prayer or supplication in addition to libation.
VERBAL FORM OF LIBATION PRAYER
The firstly component of the libation prayer which is verbal, comprise of the invocation of the Supreme Being through the appellations of His various attributes such as His bisexuality (Ataa, Naa i.e. Father, Mother). His role as Creator of the universe, Provider for the needs of His creations, Sustainer of life in addition to the only One who gives Divine guidance to humanity through His messengers (dzemànwọdzi). These ideas are explicitly expressed inward the following Kpele prayer text:
Ofe Nyongmọ nibọ ngwei kε shikpong kε shikpong nọ tśei kε tεi, fai kε godzii, nudzii kε nibii krokomεi. Sεε mliŋ ni ebọ adesai, ni eto adsai adeng kε tsọ nonọ ni eha Ga hu bọfo…………..
Tśε Nyongmọ Mãwu, nọni ogblenaa lε no dzi nọni wọbaa nye wọtsu. Nọni ofèè ko daŋ lε, wọ nyeng he noko wọ fè, ni nọni otshiko taŋ lε, wọnye henii wọtsu.
This translates as follows:
Almighty God who created the heaven in addition to globe in addition to on globe trees in addition to stones, rivers in addition to mountains, valleys in addition to other things. Afterwards He created human beings in addition to He pose all things into the hands of men in addition to through this He also gave Ga a messenger (i.e. Sakumọ)………..
Father God, what you lot have got opened that is what nosotros testament live able to perform. What you lot have got non done before, nosotros cannot do anything almost it, in addition to what you lot have got non mentioned, nosotros cannot perform.
The 2nd category of beings invoked inward the course of study of the prayer are thedzemànwọdzi (divine beings) which is illustrated inward the 2nd component of the prayer as tin live observed inward the next supplication:
Nii/Nuumo Sakumọ; Grandfather/old adult man Sakumọ;
Klọọte kotobridza akotobri; Great, groovy Sakumọ;
Odai wọmu oye; Sakumọ, it is goodness you lot are present;
Afite osaa; They destroy in addition to you lot repair;
Abuo Tete ke tśei; when Sakumọ is called, he answers;
Ọnyanku afle; one whom 1 calls when inward danger;
Oku ama Nkran. you kill for Ga;
Tete yee, tete yee; Sakumọ senior, yes; Sakumọ junior, yes;
Angula sro, Ashanti sro. Ewe fearfulness you, Ashanti fearfulness you.
These appellations showed the awe in addition to reverence that the Ga take hold for the immortal beings i.e. the deities. While believing that Ataa Naanọ Nyongmọ assists humanity, especially the Ga, through the dzemànwọdzi when the demand arise. Indeed, the maintenance in addition to restoration of harmonious human relationship betwixt immortal beings in addition to humanity depend to some extent on the performance of rituals whereby the latter reaffirm their subordinate status inward the taxonomical construction of the hierarchy of beings as good as acknowledge their dependence on the super-ordinate beings.
DZRANO -YEE. WOMEN SPIRITUAL ADMINISTRATORS OF THE LA-ASAFO. GA-ADANGBE
NON-VERBAL FORM OF LIBATION PRAYER
In the non-verbal aspect of the libation prayer, water, corn vino (nŋmaa daa) or alcoholic beverages play an of import role inward summoning the dzemànwọdzi andsisai/nsamantanŋi as a way of establishing contractual human relationship betwixt mortal men in addition to immortals spirits. Through this act, the Ga believe that immortal spirits tin live manipulated to perform the tasks that has been addressed to them, for the onward transmission to the Supreme Being.
While at the same time, it is believed that past times accepting the offering of the to a higher spot named items, immortal spirits non only sanction the actions of the Ga, but also acknowledge their responsibilities towards them. Libation, therefore, in Kpele rituals is a sacrificial deed in addition to communion, which seeks to emphasize the taxonomy of the hierarchy of beings inward monastic enjoin to validate in addition to ensure the success of the rites, which are performed.
KPA-SOLEMO DANCE, ( SACRED TESTIMONIAL PROCESS )
Here, instead of sacrificial animals in addition to inward some cases human beings that are immolated for the propitiation of immortal beings, the offering of water, nŋmaa daaand liquor are symbolically annihilated past times beingness poured on the ground. Thus, libation emphasizes the communion betwixt the taxonomical structures of the hierarchy of beings; both mortal in addition to immortal, whose cooperation is essential for the existence in addition to prosperity of humanity.
TWIN CULTS AND WORSHIP AMONG THE GA
Furtherance to the taxonomical construction of the hierarchy of beings inward the Kpeledoctrine, Kilson inward researching into the phenomenon of twin births amidst the Ga, was of the view that the Ga believe twins (haadzii) are human beings associated with sure heaven abode spirits. In monastic enjoin to fully comprehend in addition to appreciate the Ga belief almost twin births, 1 needs to analyse the Kpele doctrine to grasp its fundamental teachings: the taxonomical conception of the hierarchy of beings.
Ga festival of the twins Accra,Ghana
A doctrine, which teaches that both mortal in addition to immortal beings, depends on 1 some other for the harmonization of the universe, in addition to the prosperity of humankind. In this regard, twin births amidst the Ga are seen as desirable anomalies, which resulted from the parents’ unusual reproductive powers in addition to at the same time; a gift from the Supreme Being.
Expatiating farther on this phenomenon, Kilson averred, “the Ga believed that for every duo of human twins born on earth, at that spot are corresponding duo of spirits inward sky, which are the bush moo-cow (wuo) spirits.” This belief may live attributed to the conception of the hierarchy of beings inward the Kpele doctrine, due to the fact that side past times side to human beings, animals play an of import role inward the survival of humankind on globe since they serve as nutrient in addition to beasts of burden.
Man carrying all the things/garbage emanated from a grooming of special
sacrifice to the god`s that delivered twins to the sea at Ga festival for Twins inward Accra
To the Ga, therefore, although the bush moo-cow spirits are heaven abode beings they sometimes descend to the globe in addition to go localized inward human beings, other animals in addition to plants; either past times their ain testament or through human intention. Indeed, the belief of the existential nature of the bush moo-cow spirit explains inward large measures the rituals surrounding twin births inward Ga culture. The bush cow, a ferocious in addition to wild woods abode fauna that onset other creatures in addition to objects with its horns.
This fauna is believed to live gregarious, move inward groups in addition to relish bathing inward ponds. Above all, its spirits is believed to cleanse the yam (yεlε) crops, of whatever inherent mystical dangers. Thus, the nascency of human twins or multiple births are a source of joy amidst the Ga who believe that at that spot is strength inward numbers.
Moreover, such births are believed to live gifts from the Supreme Being, which must live handled with all the tending that it deserves. For these, in addition to other reasons as explained before on, elders of the patriarchal theatre unit of measurement consult a medium of a Kpele cult who invoke the twins spirits to determine whether they wished to live worshipped or not.
When the latter is determined, arrangements are made for the construction of a twins’ shrine (kodziŋ) which are kept inward their home. This shrine consists of a little manus woven raffia purse (flọtọ), a duo of bush moo-cow horns (kodziŋ), a bottle of Schnapps, a little ceramic plate in addition to a slice of kaolin (ayεlọ), which are all kept inward a tray or wooden bowl (tsese) in addition to covered with white cloth. The most of import objects inward the shrine according to Kilson, is the duo of bush moo-cow horns that are procured for the twins. Since as human beings, they lack the natural horns of their counterparts: the bush moo-cow spirits.
Furthermore, it is belief of the Ga that since the spiritual powers of the terrestrial twin spirits are localized inward the bush moo-cow horns, mortal twins every bit derive in addition to exert their powers (hewalε) through the replicated horns. Consequently, twins are feared amidst the Ga because, when angry, they may crunch their horns to invoke in addition to thereby localize the twin spirits inward the horns in addition to through these spirits to stimulate sickness; if non death, to those who have got incurred their wrath.
On the contrary, Field (1937) having researched into the rites performed during childhood of special children amidst the Ga before on, held an exclusively different view from that of Kilson. In analyzing her findings she posited that, the cult of twins which is 1 of the yam-eating cults are connected with fauna worship, in addition to that twins are supposed to have got ‘the same spirit’ as the wuo, a rattling savage form of wild cow.
She contended that, “When the twins are a calendar week old, inward add-on to their ordinary naming ceremony, each receives a trivial clay pot which is embedded inward a trivial clay platform exterior the house. Offerings of herbs, rum, cowries, money, are pose into these pots, in addition to chickens are killed in addition to the blood sprinkled on them…When the twins are a few months old, in addition to had evidently ‘come to stay’, the pots are exchanged for a duo of wuo horns.”
However, inward my opinion, fifty-fifty though at that spot may live variations inward the findings of both researchers, the performance of sure religio-cultural rites may vary depending on the locality as tin live seen inward the celebration of the annual Họmọwọ festival amidst the various Ga groups. For example, piece the Wọ Sagba of Ga Mashie in addition to Osu celebrate the Họmọwọ with the satirical Oshii dzo as a side attraction, the Wọ Doku of La in addition to Teshie have got the Kpã Shimọ or La Kpã Yo Kpèèmọ with śakamọ the ceremonial embracing of the opposite sexual activity as a special characteristic of the celebration.
On the other hand, piece the Wọ Krowor of Nungua performs the Obeneshimọ after the Họmọwọ celebration, the Wọ Kpele of Tema performs the Kpeledzo before the annual agricultural harvest festival of the Ga society. Again, nosotros do concord with Field on her assertion that twin cults are basically, yam-eating cults, associated with fauna worshipping tribes such as the Lε who were believed to live the shikwέbii of La, Tema, Nungua in addition to Kpone. These aboriginal tribes were worshippers of the snake, leopard in addition to hyena who were assimilated past times the Adangbe and Lashbii.
Consequently, it is non surprising that the Ga adopted the twin cult in addition to worship as component of their cultural heritage due to their consideration in addition to tolerance for other people’s religious beliefs in addition to practices that preserves human life in addition to dignity. Hence the Ga axiom, Ablé kuu aba kuma wọ: literally meaning, “let a goodness in addition to abundant harvest of corn live our lot.”
In other words, all style of persons are acceptable to, in addition to welcomed past times the Ga as neighbours, provided they live inward peace with them. Of course, the Ga consider themselves as affable people with opened upwards ticker that embraces everyone irrespective of race, colour, gender, faith or creed without whatever shape of discrimination.
This tin live seen from the composition of the various Ga communities inward the Greater Accra region. Hence, the twin worship ceremony formed the prelude to the celebration of the annual Họmọwọ festival after the lifting of the ban on drumming in addition to dissonance making inward all the major Ga towns, especially, Ga Mashie. Thus, though twins may live notoriously capricious in addition to hard to nurture, their parents are ever proud of them. Additionally, they are regarded as divine beings that never select misfortune to their families when treated with tender tending in addition to loving kindness, but rather, blessings in addition to prosperity.
GA CULTURAL PRACTICES (RITES OF PASSAGE)
The supposed Hebraic rootage of Ga religious beliefs in addition to cultural practices are illustrated past times some rites of passage practices amidst which are the kpojiemọ (naming ceremony) performed on the 8 twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia for all newly born babies irrespective of gender, in addition to the circumcision of the manful individual kid (hii aniŋ/ketia) after the kpojiemọrituals (Gen. 17: 9-14).
Amartey (1991) corroborated these assertions when he noted that the Ga group, who were exposed to the Israelites inward the ground of Goshen due to their mutual habitation in addition to social status, assimilated some aspects of their civilization through intermarriages in addition to acculturation. Moreover, he discussed the patriarchal naming of the Ga kroŋ and argued that this scheme is based on the theatre unit of measurement or clan names for slowly identification, inward add-on to the inheritance in addition to succession, as found inward the Ga social organizational structures.
However, Kilson (1974) inward analyzing the Ga customs in addition to traditional ceremonial rites of passage observed, “The aim of the cycle of life crisis ceremonies is based on the physiological evolution of the human organism……each ceremony defines an private as a fellow member of a bio-social category in addition to failure to discovery a ceremony entails mystical in addition to practical sanction.”
She farther argued that v major ritual ceremonies marked the social transitions during the life bridge of every Ga person, who live upwards to adulthood. These ceremonies, which comprise of kpodziemọ (naming rite) amidst others, transforms an eight-day-old kid from a biological fetal nonentity into a Ga person. Based on this, an baby who dies before the naming ceremony is performed is non considered a social beingand for this reason, its woman parent does non attain the respected social status of motherhood, which reflects inward the usage of a family/clan name: for example, Kpakpanye.
Another ceremony that she set much emphasis on is the hiianii (men’s thing) – the circumcision of all manful individual children, which has to live performed at whatever fourth dimension after thekpodziemọ, in addition to or before the historic catamenia ten. This ritual masculinizes the boys in addition to at the same time, differentiates the Ga from other ethnic groups on the West Coast of Africa.
Other rites of passage ceremonies inward her estimation are the physiological puberty rites (dzengniŋ) performed for both genders, in addition to which marked the transition from immaturity to maturity. The performance of which signify the purification in addition to grooming for the supposition of the adulthood role of marriage, parentage in addition to other social responsibilities.
Without which a individual may live branded ‘immoral in addition to stupid’ thereby beingness denied ancestral status after death. One other of import bio-social transition to Kilson is that of marriage, which constitutes a major alter inward the procedure of maturation for both men in addition to women inward the Ga customs in addition to traditional life cycle.
Indeed, the establishment of a firstly matrimony is contracted past times ii sets of ceremonies namely: shibimọ (betrothal) and yoo kpèèmọ (wedding) rites. On the number of betrothal, Kilson observed that “It involve the transfer of goods from the groom’s kin to the bride’s family, which establishes the groom’s exclusive rights to the bride’s sexuality in addition to his kindred’s right to her reproductive capacity.” Thus, the formal wedding, which entails a calendar week of merriment in addition to feasting, transfers the bride to the groom’s theatre unit of measurement in addition to ends with a approbation at the shrine of Nai: the senior Kpele deity inward Accra, at the Nai We.
However, as it is with all human existence in addition to life transitions, the funerary rites marked the goal of all rites of passage. In the Ga customs in addition to traditions, sure conceptions of humanity are relevant inward the life of every person. In accordance with that, the Ga believes that a individual has ii aspects of humanity namely: a trunk in addition to a soul.
In view of this, piece the trunk is believed to have got only temporary existence; thesusuma (soul) has eternal life, though its association with the trunk is limited. Thus, it is believed that every soul has a predetermined length of human existence, in addition to when it leaves the body, it wanders almost ‘nobody knows where’ until the performance of the terminal funeral rites (faafo) has been completed.
This aspect of the Ga funerary observation according to Henderson-Quartey has the semblance to that of the Hebrews practices. He observed that at decease in addition to mourning, burial rituals such as kotśa gbamọ (separation of sponge) which signifies the separation of the dead from the living as against that performed past times the Jewish special group; the Hevra Kaddishah (Sacred Society), formed component of the Ga cultural practices.
These rituals are strong indications of the belief inward the after-life. For, to both the Ga in addition to the Jews, decease is the separation of the trunk from its life giving force: the soul, in addition to the continuation of life inward the hereafter. Thus, the after-death handling of the trunk is a strong indication non only inward the belief of the sanctity of life, but also inward the equality of all humanity in addition to the mutual responsibleness entrusted to all families in addition to friends inward times of bereavements.
KPELE AGRICULTURAL RITES AND FESTIVALS
One of the major occupations amidst the Ga is agriculture, since it plays an of import role inward their livelihood, as no theatre unit of measurement is without agricultural or fishing involvement inward 1 or whatever of the villages of the half dozen Ga coastal towns stretching from Langma to Tema. Again, as component of the Ga religious scheme as tin live seen from the analysis of the Kpeledoctrine of the taxonomy of the hierarchy of beings, fifty-fifty though animals in addition to plants formed component of the subordinate beings, their role inward the harmonization of the universe cannot live overemphasized.
On these bases, periodic, occasional, in addition to calendrical rites as good as festivals are performed on behalf of the entire Ga community past times the various Kpele cults as a way of harmonizing the human relationship betwixt the super-ordinate beings in addition to humanity. Among these rites are the weekly rituals performed past times the various Wọlọmεi on the days of the calendar week that are sacred to their theatre unit of measurement deities.
In add-on to these, are other annual rituals such as the nŋmaa yeli (eating of millet) festivities to celebrate each deity, annual nshor bulemọ (purification of the sea) past times theWọlọmεi of the various Ga coastal towns assisted past times the Wolεiatśεi (chief fishermen). Again, rituals to unopen the Sakumọ, Tśεmu and Korle lagoons to fishing inward monastic enjoin to replenish the fish stock as good as protect the fish fingerlings from extinction, thereby preventing the depletion of marine life inward these H2O bodies.
While on the other hand, the opening of these H2O bodies to fishing ensure that at that spot is plenty fish for the celebration of the Họmọwọ festival. However, all these activities serve as a prelude to the Nŋmaa dumọ (cultivation of millet) by the various quarters inward both Ga Mashie in addition to Tema communities prior to the celebration of both Kpeledzoand Họmọwọ festivals.
GA HỌMỌWỌ FESTIVAL
The establishment of the Jewish Passover according to Henderson-Quartey has some similarities with the Ga Họmọwọ festival. These are manifested inward the way in addition to style inward which both the Jews in addition to the Ga count the yearly calendar of twelve moons for the commencement of religious rituals in addition to festivals.
For example, the counting of the number of nyanyara garlands used inward purification rites from the firstly Mon after the Họmọwọ celebration, in addition to subsequent Mondays throughout the year by the Dantu Wọlọmọ of Lante-Djan We clan. Hence, the method through which the Wọlọmọ announce the days of the Kpele religious rites; in addition to most importantly, the commencement of the Ga Họmọwọ festival.
He farther argued that dissimilar other festivals inward Ghana, the Ga Họmọwọ portray the sense in addition to significance inward which the celebration of the Roshanah and the Yom Kippurby the Jews does. The significance of which is meant to fulfill the commandments of God past times bringing all the people into the experiences of their ancestors in addition to the gathering of kith in addition to kin together. Moreover, the demand to human face upwards to past times mistakes in addition to to allow go of resentments against 1 another, in addition to a fourth dimension for reconciliation past times giving a genuine peril of a fresh start inward theatre unit of measurement relationships in addition to neighbourliness.
Finally, to appreciate each other’s demand as good as role inward the harmonization, progress, in addition to evolution of the theatre unit of measurement inward particular, in addition to the Ga community inward general; through the ŋgọwala greetings offered to the theatre unit of measurement in addition to members of the Ga community, a twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia after the Họmọwọ celebration (Ex.12:19).
However, Amartey on the other manus has argued that, the only festival, which the Ga-speaking immigrants do so celebrate, is yihoo gbi (the twenty-four 60 minutes catamenia of Passover). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 festival that they adopted from their encounter with the Israelites. This, he strongly believes have got been substituted with an agricultural harvest festival – the Họmọwọ. The celebration of which the Ga groups may have got instituted due to hunger they suffered from famine, during their long journeying from their spot of rootage to their nowadays locations inward the so Gold Coast.
Besides, Field also alluded to the fact that the Kpeledzo festival is some other annual agricultural harvest celebration of the Kpele cult assimilated past times the Ga of Teshie, Nungua in addition to Tema into their cultural practices. While, inward places similar Ga Mashie, Osu in addition to La, elements of Kpeledzo such as Kpele ha manbii ŋgọwala greetings (Kpeleoffering of life to the people) have got also been incorporated into the annual Họmọwọfestival celebration.
Although these religio-cultural practices vary inward both scale in addition to magnitude inward honor to the number of participants in addition to complexities of the rituals, they are system-maintaining or redressive acts, which are considered essential for maintaining harmonious human relationship betwixt the super-ordinate in addition to subordinate beings as already stated.
Thus, the success of Kpele rituals in addition to worship depends on a number of dramatic forms which include songs, dance, music, prayers, libation in addition to sacrifice all aimed at achieving orderly in addition to harmonious human relationship betwixt the taxonomical construction of the hierarchy of beings inward the universe.
In conclusion, the faith of the Ga people just similar its linguistic communication have got undergone a lot of changes fifty-fifty though originally, its was supposed to live monotheistic inward nature; as per their association in addition to intermarriages with the Israelites inward the ground of Goshen inward Egypt. And although they may have got acquired the cultural traits of other ethnic groups, they have got still retained their belief inward the Supreme Being as tin live seen inward most of their cultural practices in addition to rites of passage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Field, M. J. Religion in addition to Medicine of the Ga People, 1937
Field, M. J. Social Organization of the Ga People, 1940.
Greenburg, The Languages of Africa, 1966.
Henderson-Quartey, David K. The Ga of Ghana, London: 2001.
Kilson, M. African Urban Kinsman, 1974.
Kilson, M. “Taxonomy in addition to Form inward Ga Rituals” Journal of Religion inward Africa, Vol. 3, Fasc. 1, 1970.
Kilson, M. Kpele Lala: Ga Religious Songs in addition to Symbols, 1971.
Kilson, M.“Libation inward Ga Rituals”, Journal of Religion inward Africa, Vol. 2, Fasc.3. 1969.
Kilson, M.“Twin Belief in addition to Ceremony inward Ga Culture”, Journal of Religion inward Africa, Vol. 5, Fasc. 3, 1973.
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