Info For Y'all Xhosa People:South Africa`S Ancient People Alongside Unique Traditional Together With Cultural Heritage
“If yous utter to a homo inward a linguistic communication he understands, that goes to his head. If yous utter to him inward his language, that goes to his heart.”
― Nelson Mandela from Xhosa tribe,South Africa.
Xhosa people
The Xhosa often called the "Red Blanket People," are speakers of Bantu languages living inward south-east South Africa, as well as inward the finally 2 centuries throughout the southern as well as central-southern parts of the country. They were originally known equally the Aba-nguni after a really early on ruler past times the call of Mnguni. Very picayune is known virtually Mnguni except that he was the ancestor of a homo named Xosa as well as equally a termination they became the Xhosa people.
Xhosa people: Sangoma with accordian inward traditional Xhosa ceremony
The Xhosa speaking people are of Nguni stock similar the Zulu and are divided into several tribes with related but distinct heritages. The main tribes are the Mpondo, Mpondomise, Bomvana ("the crimson ones'), Xesibe, as well as Thembu. In addition, the Bhaca as well as Mfengu have got adopted the Xhosa language. The call "Xhosa" comes from that of a legendary leader called uXhosa. There is also a theory that the word xhosa derives from a word inward some Khoi-khoi or San linguistic communication pregnant "fierce" or "angry", the amaXhosa beingness the vehement people. The Xhosa refer to themselves equally the amaXhosa as well as to their linguistic communication equally isiXhosa.
Xhosa main triumphant after slaughtering ox
Many famous South Africans are from the Xhosa nation, notably Oliver Tambo, Stephen Biko,Nelson Mandela, Thabo Mbeki, Bishop Desmond Tutu,Mariam Makeba as well as good known cricketer Makhaya Ntini.
International song-bird Mariam Makeba aka Mama Africa is from Xhosa tribe
Xhosa people of Transkei,South Africa performining their traditional dance
Presently to a greater extent than or less 10 i G m Xhosa people are distributed across the country, as well as Xhosa is South Africa's 2d most mutual habitation language, after Zulu, to which Xhosa is closely related. The pre-1994 apartheid scheme of Bantustans denied Xhosas South African citizenship, but enabled them to have got self-governing "homelands" namely; Transkei as well as Ciskei, at nowadays both a portion of the Eastern Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa alive inward Cape Town (iKapa inward Xhosa), East London (iMonti), as well as Port Elizabeth (iBhayi).
As of 2003 the bulk of Xhosa speakers, to a greater extent than or less 5.3 million, lived inward the Eastern Cape, followed past times the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), as well as Limpopo (14,225).
Xhosa people at the countryside
HISTORY
According to Pinnock, the earliest reports past times Portuguese survivors of shipwrecks along the south-east coast during the sixteen as well as 17th centuries depict the amaXhosa equally cattle herders who hunted game as well as cultivated sorghum. They lived inward beehive –shaped huts inward scattered homesteads which were ruled past times chiefs.
Chief Zwelivelile Mandlasizwe Dalibhunga Mandela of the Thembu at Mvezo
Tshawe founded the Xhosa kingdom past times defeating the Cirha as well as Jwarha groups. His descendants expanded the kingdom past times settling inward novel territory as well as bringing people living in that location nether the command of the amaTshawe. Generally, the grouping would pick out on the call of the main nether whom they had united. There are so distinct varieties of the Xhosa language, the most distinct beingness isiMpondo (isiNdrondroza). Other dialects include: Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondimise, Rharhabe, Gcaleka, Xesibe, Bhaca, Cele, Hlubi, Ntlangwini, Ngqika, Mfengu.
Xhosa people
According to oral tradition, the ancestors of the amaXhosa lived inward the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains before moving piece of cake to the coast. "The firstly grouping of Nguni immigrants to migrate to South Africa about 13th century from East Africa ahead of the Zulus consisted of Xhosa, (made upwards of Gcaleka,Nggika,Ndlambe as well as Dushane clans), the Thembu as well as Pondo. However, the 2d grouping of Nguni-speakers joined these tribes later. historical evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have got inhabited the eastern Cape expanse equally long equally 1593 as well as belike fifty-fifty before that. some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have got lived inward the expanse since 7th AD."
By the mid 17th century, the Thembu tribe was settled about Mbashi River [meaning “dark river” or “dangerous ravine”] with the original Xhosa tribe inward the vicinity of Kei River as well as beyond. The senior Xhosa chiefdom was given honour as well as tribute but was non much feared.The senior main did non have got plenty armed forces powerfulness to brand himself Rex of a larger centralized state.
1840 SCHINZ/HONEGGER LITHOGRAPH Xhosa People
The chiefdom was farther weakened when Rarabe,brother of the chief, Gcaleka challenged his brother`s dominion as well as was driven off with his followers. He was succeeded equally a western Xhosa main past times his boy Ndlambe as well as after Nggika,his grandson, who took the chieftaincy away from his uncle inward 1796. During the 1820`s as well as 30`s southern Africa was torn apart past times violent wars betwixt differrent indigenous peoples, inward what is often termed Mfecane/Difeqane ("The Crushing").
Two Nguni chiefs started these wars,Zwide of Ndwandwe kingdom inward the northward of present-day Zulu terra firma (the expanse of Kwa-Zulu Natal lying northward of the Tugela River) as well as Dingiswayo of the Mthethwe kingdom inward the south.Refugees from both regular army became mfecane tribe "on the march" as well as swept across the countrycushing anyone that crossed their path.
Xhosa people
When the British came to eastern Cape, they tried to preclude armed forces conception past times adopting a treat-state system. Treaties of friendship tied Independent African states such equally Ciskei as well as Pondoland to the British. However the treaty-state scheme did non finally really long as well as state of war broke out betwixt the white settlers as well as the Xhosa tribes. An allied regular army of Nggika-Xhosa, Gcaleka-Xhosa as well as Thembu defeated the British.
Drawing of King Faku of the Pondo-Xhosa People.Circa 1830
However,this did non deter the British from annexing Keiskamma territory, thus setting the scene for some other state of war which volition eventually escalate to a civil state of war betwixt Gcaleka, the Xhosa main as well as the local Mfengu tribe that lives amid them. In the wars against the British as well as colonial troops, 2 Xhosa chiefs Sandile as well as Maqoma, emerged potent leaders. After both had been defeated, Xhosa resistance crumbled as well as past times early on 1800`s, the finally of Nguni chiefs has been brought nether colonial rule. however, what genuinely broke the Nguni nation`s resolve was the disaster that occurred inward mid 1850`s (The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857). In all the Xhosa fought for i hundred years to save their independence, heritage as well as land, as well as today this expanse is still referred to past times many equally Frontier Country.
The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857
A immature young adult woman past times call Nongqause, had a vision of warriors of the old rising upwards from the reeds surrounding the puddle into which she was gazing.They had been purified of witchcraft as well as they encouraged her to tell the Xhosa people purify themselves past times killing their cattle, destroying all their grains as well as non planting whatsoever crops.
This activity would also aid acquire rid of the White settlers, since the old warriors would come upwards as well as drive the White settlers away. News of Nongqause prophecy, spurred on past times the preaching of her uncle Mlakaza, spread amid the people similar wild fire.In the aftermath, to a greater extent than or less 20,000 people died of starvation patch some other 30,000 were scattered amid the white farmers inward the outlying areas where they sought function for food.
Xhosa men wearing their traditional Mfengu headband
Despite,this disaster as well as havoc,it wrought on Xhosa people,Xhosa civilisation has remained strong.Although their lifestyle has been adapted to western traditions, they have got still retained many of their traditions as well as culture. They were the firstly African people to acquire widely known to Europeans as well as this is belike why, according to historians, the call ‘Xhosa’ became the call for all Africans inward the Eastern Cape.
Xhosa women. circa 1910
LANGUAGE
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal linguistic communication of the Bantu family. While the Xhosas telephone telephone their linguistic communication "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to equally "Xhosa" inward English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken past times virtually 18% of the South African population, as well as has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken inward urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, especially those living inward urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.
Xhosa woman
Among its features, the Xhosa linguistic communication famously has 15 click sounds, originally borrowed from at nowadays extinct Khoisan languages of the region. Xhosa has iii basic click consonants: a dental click, written with the alphabetic quality "c"; a palatal click, written with the alphabetic quality "q"; as well as a lateral click, written with the alphabetic quality "x". There is also a elementary inventory of 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u). Some vowels still may live silent. In other words, they tin privy live nowadays inward written linguistic communication but hardly audible inward spoken language. This happens especially at the goal of the word. This is because the musical note of most Xhosa words is lowest at the end.
Xhosa circumcised initiates (umkheta)
Former SA prez Thabo Mbeki is from Xhosa tribe
The Xhosa are a South African cultural grouping who emphasize traditional practices as well as customs inherited from their forefathers. Each soul within the Xhosa civilisation has his or her identify which is recognized past times the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa soul goes through graduation stages which recognize his growth as well as assign him a recognized identify inward the community.
Young bare breasted Xhosa girls inward traditional procession
Each phase is marked past times a specific ritual aimed at introducing the private to their counterparts as well as hence to the ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to innovate a novel born to the ancestors, to umphumo, from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals as well as ceremonies are still practiced today, but many urbanized Xhosa people do non follow them rigidly. The ulwaluko as well as intonjane are also traditions which separated this tribe from the ease of the Nguni tribes.
Xhosa women inward their traditional attire smoking their trademark pipes
All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the private spends fourth dimension with community elders to prepare for the side past times side stage. The elders' teachings are non written, but transmitted from generation to generation past times oral tradition. The Iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even to a greater extent than than names as well as surnames) are transferred from i to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your “Isiduko” is vital to the Xhosas as well as it is considered a shame as well as “Uburhanuka” (lack-of-identity) if i doesn’t know one's clan.
Newly circumcised initiates (Umkhweta) of Xhosa tribe inward South Africa
This is considered so of import that when 2 strangers run across for the firstly time, the firstly identity that gets shared is “Isiduko”. It is so of import that 2 people with the same surname but unlike clan are considered total strangers but the same 2 people from the same clan but unlike surnames are regarded equally unopen relatives. This forms the roots of "Ubuntu" (neighbouring) - a behaviour synonymous to this tribe equally extending a helping mitt to a consummate stranger when inward need. Ubuntu goes farther than just helping i some other - it is so deep that it fifty-fifty extends to looking after as well as reprimanding your neighbour's kid when inward the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a hamlet to enhance a child".
Intonjane (girl's initiation, puberty rite)
Thembu-Xhosa Female intonjane Initiation at Qutubeni inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1965
Intonjane is a rite of passage for immature adult woman to welcome them into womanhood. During intonjane, a immature adult woman is secluded at her homestead, where she is taught womanhood values as well as norms, as well as prepared for marriage. Girls are taught the responsibilities as well as rights of beingness a wife, a woman parent as well as a leader. The initiate’s elderberry relatives are chosen to preside over the intonjane as well as when the wintertime Sun sets, the physical care for begins.
Thembu Female Initiation:
A grouping of women sing a traditional vocal equally the immature adult woman as well as her 2 amakhankatha (orderlies or attendants), who are covered inward blankets from caput to human foot are led from the veld to the homestead past times elders.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 hateful solar daytime after she enters seclusion, a caprine animal is slaughtered, which teaches the immature adult woman to discovery the crucial custom of ukushwama. The slaughtered caprine animal is known equally umngena-ndlini, pregnant a caprine animal slaughtered when a maiden enters seclusion. Seven sheep are also slaughtered on the day. On the 7th hateful solar daytime of seclusion, an ox is slaughtered for ukutshatela intonjane. At midday on the same day, inward accordance with the custom, the immature adult woman must run naked about the yard banging a pot equally she goes.
Intonjane initiation ceremony
Every eve local boys as well as girls come upwards to the hut to perform Xhosa dances as well as songs, showcasing their skills. On the tenth day, the immature adult woman is dressed inward imibhaco. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 dark doek covers her caput equally the flooring is cleaned as well as smeared with moo-cow dung. Outside the grass is burnt. In the evening, novel grass is placed on the flooring as well as she removes the clothes equally she returns to seclusion. On her finally day, her elders pick out her to the main theatre as well as study dorsum to her parents as well as other identify unit of measurement members
However, the heavy expense involving vii killings of cow, plus beer as well as other nutrient for the feasting as well as feeding of attendants over several weeks, meant that, inward practice, it was oft postponed, fifty-fifty until after marriage.
Women dressed for intonjane, inward accuse of the beer at Nkondlo. 1957.
Thus, fifty-fifty without intonjane, a immature adult woman became an intombi at puberty as well as could live married. More importantly, the rite was regarded equally of import grooming for child-bearing. Without it, a immature adult woman was liable to autumn sick after marriage, live barren, or have got sickly children.
Any problem inward the immature bride was probable to live diagnosed past times the diviner equally having been sent past times her father's ancestors, who were aggrieved that the custom had been omitted, as well as that she should render to her parental homestead as well as undergo the rite.
Xhosa wedding:Inspection of the bride as well as bridesmaids at Ngqokotho . 1975.
Among the southern Nguni, the custom did non involve teaching inward sexual matters as well as techniques, or fifty-fifty inward the duties of married adult woman as well as mother.
Intonjane initaites
Sacred Xhosa Birth Rituals- SIFUDU
In Xhosa culture, cattle as well as goats are sacred because they provide meat, milk, hides for clothes as well as symbolise the unity betwixt the human stuff world as well as the spiritual world of universal gods as well as the ancestors. When a babe is born, she slips through the 2 worlds equally it were into the nowadays social community, bringing gifts of grapheme as well as recent connections with the spirit world as well as fifty-fifty ancestors that will, over time, differentiate her from whatsoever other human being.
Umtuma ingredient grooming for the child`s umbilical cord
Birth inward the Xhosa culture, is an of import rite of passage as well as is so treated with due respect, honour as well as celebration. Traditionally, the birthing woman parent is attended to past times ‘grand-mothers’ inward her ‘rondavel’, who have got experience inward birthing babies. The rondavel is made with mud or a cob-like mixture, as well as the roof is usually thatched, so the room is dark as well as circular. After the nascence the woman parent as well as novel babe are secluded until the cord falls off as well as the grandmother aids this physical care for past times mixing ash, saccharide as well as a poisonous works life called ‘Umtuma’ together as well as rubbing the glue onto the newly severed cord, which is believed to assist the drying out process.
Cutting the child`s umbilical cord. After birth, a length of dry out grass taken from the roof of the hut, is split inward half, its border is razor sharp, as well as with this the umbilical cord is severed leaving a length of 7 to 10 cm of cord on baby. Approximately as well as hr later, this length is reduced to to a greater extent than or less 5 cm past times over again severing with the grass equally seen, maintaining that the 2d cutting issue all unnecessary blood from the cord.
Once the cord has fallen off, the novel babe is introduced to unopen woman soul identify unit of measurement members equally good equally to women of the wider community. The ritual of “Sifudu” is as well as then performed. Pungent leaves of the Sifudu tree are burnt inward a fire, about which the women gather, to make a really pungent smoke. The babe is as well as then floated over the fume (upside-down) iii times, which causes a severe reaction of coughing as well as sometimes screaming.
Traditional medicine beingness applied to ensure that the residual of the cord rots
Then the babe is given to the woman parent who passes the babe nether her left genu as well as then her correct knee. This ceremony is believed to brand the babe stronger inward spirit as well as protect her from time to come evil. The babe is as well as then washed as well as smeared with a white chalk called “Ingceke” mixed with basis “Mtomboti” wood, a sweetness smelling amount that lasts for many weeks.
A adult woman holding a baby`s caput downward into the smoke, which gives it such a daze it tin privy hardly cry
The babe is as well as then breastfed past times the “Umdlezana”, the mother.
“Inkaba” is the ritual of burying the cord as well as the placenta as well as this has keen significance to the clan as well as seals the attachment of the babe to her ancestral lands. “Inkaba” as well as then comes to hateful one’s ancestral habitation as well as symbolizes the human relationship betwixt the individual, his/her clan, the terra firma as well as the spiritual world.
Mother swiftly passing the kid nether i of her legs, as well as then nether the other. All this, plus the fume shock, assures beyond doubt, that when the kid grows upwards it volition never live dependent to fright, nor live timid, shy or easily ridiculed past times pocket-size or adult, equally it volition stand upwards it's ground.
The burial identify of an ‘Inkaba’ is a identify where i must go as well as dream as well as communicate with ancestors.
The ritual of “Imbeleko” is the ceremony welcoming the kid into the greater community, when a caprine animal is slaughtered as well as the clan is invited to attend the feast. The pare of the caprine animal as well as then becomes a sacred item for the novel clan member, the baby, who volition slumber on it inward the time to come inward times of trouble, signifying a want for connexion with the ancestors.
Child beingness thoroughly washed after it's ordeal.
The babe volition live named with a identify unit of measurement prefix, or suffix as well as may live named to signify events, similar a thunderstorm or lightening, or wishes the identify unit of measurement may have got similar “Hope” or “Themba”.
Baby is painted with white amount INGCEKE from river bank. Substance is prepared on a apartment rock into which a little quantity of basis MTOMBOTI forest is mixed. This forest has a potent pleasant odour, which they maintain clings to the babe holding off all evil spirits from attacking the child.
A clan “Praise-Singer”, who is comparative to a Bard inward celtic culture, volition telephone telephone upon the ancestors as well as vocally elaborate on all the ancestors’ feats of excellence as well as praiseworthy qualities, so equally to imbue the novel fellow member of the clan with a sense of her responsibleness to the grouping at an early on age.
Baby feeding after its ordeal. Note how white it's human face has acquire at nowadays that the pigment has dried.
The Abakwetha Circumcision Ceremony
A man child amid the Xhosa is a 'thing' as well as non a soul until he has been through the Tribe's circumcision rite. This rite is known equally the UKWALUSA (circumcision) or the ABAKWETHA ritual as well as it is the most of import lawsuit inward whatsoever male's life. The total ritual is spread over a period of time of virtually 3 months.
Before circumcision immature men apparel “Gourds” (calabashes) over private parts. Like this considered fully dressed fifty-fifty inward forepart of women.
Among the southern Nguni, the ordeal (ukwaluka/abakwetha) was seen equally a necessary demonstration that the youth was worthy of beingness considered a 'man'. If a manlike soul did non undergo this rite, he would ever live referred to equally inkwenkwe (boy) no thing how old he became. He was excluded from all manlike soul activities, prohibited from participation inward councils, as well as was unable to inherit.
The initiates to live circumcised, heads shaved, have got finally repast inward sheep kraal before operation.
The uncircumcised manlike soul was subjected to the intense ridicule of women equally good equally men; no adult woman would have got anything to do with him, as well as no identify unit of measurement would concur to adjust a marriage. Overt religious overtones, inward the cast of directly invocations to ancestors, were few as well as the participation of a religious specialist (igqira-diviner) was limited to i ceremony during the entire process. Nevertheless, the religious significance was important.
The newly thatched hut, Sutu, which volition acquire their habitation for iii months.
This custom initiated the immature homo into total membership inward the family, which included non solely the living adults but also its guiding spirits--the ancestors who would never have got an uncircumcised man. However, this religious aspect was largely inherent rather than explicit as well as overt.
Xhosa traditional circumcission surgeon ready with pike before operation.
To acquire men through circumcision. Five youths at a fourth dimension are circumcised, ages 17 to twenty years The grouping of 5 alive together inward a specially constructed hut (sutu), which becomes their habitation for iii months patch they undergo the transformation from youth to manhood.
The start of actual operation, 500 yards from newly constructed hut. (Sutu).The severing of the foreskin. No modern medicine used.
The lawsuit usually takes identify inward the boy's belatedly teens but sometimes, when they are especially wild as well as cannot live controlled past times their parents, boys are spot inward before to sober them upwards as well as to instill responsibleness into them.
Completely severed. At this 2d the man child shouts NDIYINDODA (I am a man).
The interesting portion virtually the rite is that it indisputably does have got this effect. The argue is non because of whatsoever penalisation or acre of study that is exercised over the initiate inward the schoolhouse itself but purely, it seems, because of the psychological powerfulness the rite has.
The bandaging. Goat pare strip about waist becomes bandage. The herbs used. Left mitt ‘swadi” stops bleeding. Right mitt “isichwe” antiseptic.
There have got been cases of widows whose sons, without a father's restraint, were quite out of command and
spent their fourth dimension thieving as well as getting upwards to all the mischief imaginable, who inward the goal were physically caught past times the men of a kraal as well as taken struggling as well as shouting to the "ngcibi" (surgeon) with his sharpened assegai. They were inward each illustration completely reformed equally a termination of the ceremony.
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
The "ngcibi" or surgeon arrives at sunrise as well as equally he passes the identify unit of measurement huts, the women start wailing. Those whom he passes have got to live careful because he flails his arms as well as his assegai around, non worried virtually injuring anyone.
As he comes inward sight of the initiates he screams viciously referring to them equally 'dogs' as well as 'things'.
Xhosa circumcised initiate
The functioning is done with a sharpened blade as well as the man child must non outcry out or fifty-fifty flinch inward pain.
As he operates the "ngcibi" (doctor) says, 'You are a man!' as well as throws the excised portion on the basis inward forepart of the man child who has to repeat,"'Ndiyindoda!'" ('I am a man!') equally he picks upwards the portion as well as holds it inward his clenched hand.
Xhosa adolescent Initiate (umkhweta). After ritual circumcision the initiates
live inward isolation for upwards to several weeks painted inward white clay.
After this, the initiates or "Umkhweta" have got to go inward unlike directions as well as bury the portions inward an pismire heap where the ants volition swallow them upwards so that a magician cannot discovery them as well as brand medicine from them. If the portions were used for such a purpose as well as then the initiates' wounds would never heal.
The injure is outpouring with special leaves supposedly having healing properties as well as mud is as well as then packed over it.
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The surgeon as well as then smears a mixture of pismire heap as well as H2O on the human face as well as pectus of the initiates as well as makes them imbibe a mouthful of the mixture. This makes their hearts hard similar an pismire heap, so that they won't live cowards inward their time to come lives equally men. It also prevents them from beingness dizzy.
The initiates are looked after past times an amakhankatha, or guardian, who explained the rules they had to follow if they want to acquire inward manhood properly. The firstly chore of the amakhankatha is to pigment their naked as well as shaved bodies from caput to human foot inward white ochre, turning the initiates into ghosts. The white chalk symbolized purity. The initiates as well as then twine themselves upwards inward their novel blankets so that they volition non pick out handle of cold. They are as well as then lectured on beingness honourable Xhosa's as well as the manlike soul parent of each initiate pays the surgeon 50 cents.
Young Xhosa Abakwetha. © James Nachtwey, National Geographic.The circumcision rituals, known as Ulwaluko, are traditional within the Xhosa civilisation (and many other African cultures). The ceremonies signify the passage from man child to manhood.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
Lobola
Labola was a fundamental chemical constituent of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth inward cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. Except inward the illustration of chiefs as well as really rich men, the number of cattle demanded was usually fewer than ten. The number of cattle as well as the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation. In many cases, the finally total was non decided, nor inward most cases were all of the cattle delivered prior to the completion of the marriage. As a result, the woman's relatives would demand additional cattle from fourth dimension to time. In monastic tell to increase the pressure level if it was felt in that location was unnecessary dilatoriness, the adult woman mightiness live called habitation as well as detained until additional cattle were forthcoming.
Xhosa woman parent as well as her immature adult woman (bride)
Much has been written virtually lobola as well as its significance. African matrimony was primarily a joining of 2 families rather than a thing betwixt 2 individuals. As a result, negotiations as well as decision-making regarding whatsoever proposed matrimony were inward the hands of the identify unit of measurement heads. In theory (except inward the illustration of older heads of their ain homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' as well as the wishes of immature people were non regarded equally crucial. Obedience to one's parents as well as the economical as well as legal dependence of the immature people caused most to have got the arrangements made for them.
Xhosa mothers
In practice, immature men were often consulted as well as their wishes respected; if a immature homo wanted to get married a item girl, his identify unit of measurement most probable would endeavour to adjust the match, as well as rarely would they endeavour to override a potent dislike or objection. Girls were consulted much less, as well as families would resort to potent pressure, including thrashings, if they thought the matrimony a goodness i as well as were anxious to conclude it. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature adult woman was expected to submit to the wishes of her father. However, fathers were constrained non solely past times their fondness for their daughters as well as the demand to acquire the consent of the girl's mother, but also past times the fact that if the married adult woman were responsible for a breakdown inward the marriage, the lobola mightiness have got to live returned. Thus, if a immature adult woman were determined, she could usually number a veto over a proposed marriage.
Xhosa wedding
Lobola was the foundation of African marriage. Although in that location were a number of ceremonies, rituals as well as reciprocal entertainments past times the families, solely lobola was indispensable inward legitimizing a marriage. Without the payment of cattle, the manlike soul parent or his identify unit of measurement could non claim parental rights to the children. Without the payment of lobola, a boy did non have got a claim to inherit. Perpetuation of the lineage was a source of keen anxiety to African families, as well as the main incentive as well as purpose of African matrimony was the want to provide children. Also, equally an active producer in agriculture, a adult woman made of import contributions to the economic scheme of a homestead. Thus, lobola was a compensation from the identify unit of measurement of the groom to that of the bride for the loss of her productive as well as reproductive contributions Moreover, lobola cemented the alliance betwixt the families, as well as the substantial transfer of wealth created really of import vested interests inward the marriage.
Xhosa immature man
The payment of lobola was an indication to the bride's identify unit of measurement that the proposed married adult man was capable of providing for the bride as well as that he as well as his identify unit of measurement were people of substance. Also, it was a safety bond posted past times or on behalf of the bridegroom equally a pledge of goodness treatment; a homo was non probable to abandon such a substantial investment, as well as inward most societies, if a divorce resulted because of abuse as well as ill-treatment, all or most of the lobola was forfeited.
Xhosa courting couple
On the other hand, past times the receipt of lobola, the bride's identify unit of measurement incurred a keen many obligations. The bride had to carry to her novel home, a wardrobe, a make of presents for her novel 'in-laws', as well as a goodness furnish of household articles; also, from fourth dimension to time, she would render habitation to replenish these past times demanding more. Her identify unit of measurement had incentives to encourage the immature wife's goodness behaviour.
Mandla Mandela,grandson of Madiba (Nelson mandela) as well as his French married adult woman Anais Grimand who married finally twelvemonth inward a traditional ceremony
If she were at error inward a divorce, the lobola would have got to live returned. If she created problem or violated the ukuhlonipa (to present respect) restrictions, she would live sent habitation to acquire a fine to restore harmonious relations inward the husband's homestead. Beneficiaries of lobola acquired lifelong obligations; if widowed or divorced, a adult woman could go to them as well as claim protection as well as maintenance.Also, it seems that inward the lawsuit of disaster or hard times, a married adult man could inquire for as well as appear some assistance from his wife's family.
XHOSA TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE/WEDDING- IDULI (Nguwa Nguwa Umtshato)
Xhosa homo as well as his wife
Before the Missionaries acquire inward to alter the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a homo with his wives, married sons with their wives as well as children, as well as single daughters. Marriage was polygamous as well as patriarchal. Each adult woman inward the household who has been married a twelvemonth or to a greater extent than had her ain hut, as well as also a store-hut.
Uduli - the bridal political party - consisting of bridesmaids, immature men, an old homo as well as old adult woman escort the bride-to-be to the prospective bridegroom's identify unit of measurement umzi (the kraal).
Huts were arranged inward a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The opened upwards segment of
the circle was filled past times a cattle kraal. The senior manlike soul of the household was the possessor of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, as well as that of his firstly wife(the 'great wife') are built reverse the gate of the cattle kraal.
Xhosa married adult man as well as wife
The traditional physical care for of Xhosa matrimony begins with "Ukutwala," which agency "the taking," or "carry away/abduction" which occurs after the grooms identify unit of measurement has chosen a suitable bride for himself. It is of import to Federal Reserve notation that "Ukutwala" is non kidnapping because the prospective bride is non harmed as well as may render to the family. It is rather a formal method signifying the intention to get married as well as this marks the firstly of the betrothal process.
Bride as well as maids within hut icon up. Bodies smeared with crimson ochre glue as well as ears painted white.
After "Ukutwala" has taken place, the groom`s identify unit of measurement volition kicking start the negotiation for matrimony as well as lobola with the bride`s family. It is of import to appreciate that lobola is non a" bride price," but a agency of establishing links betwixt the 2 families. the size of lobola varies considerably depending on the relative wealth as well as condition of the families involved, the wages to gain from the matrimony link, as well as the desirablility of the bride.
Painting complete, they are adorned inward their beadwork, taking keen pains just equally a white bride does on her keen day.
Traditionally lobola usually amounted to 8 heads of cattle, as well as today the value of each caput of cattle forms portion of the overall negotiation. However,there is a Xhosa saying 'one never stops paying lobola," which agency the identify unit of measurement link is an of import portion of lobola, a union that must live constantly kept renewed past times visiting one`s in-laws, inviting them around, as well as inward general, maintaining goodness familial relationships.
Xhosa couple
Once lobola is finalized matrimony tin privy pick out place. On the appointed day, the bride`s identify unit of measurement brings the bride to the groom`s house, amidst celebration inward which animals (chickens,goat or cattle) are slaughtered equally sacrifice to the ancestors, inviting them to the occasion as well as introducing the bride to them. There are no formal invitation to this event, rather whoever wishes to attend, tin privy participate inward the celebrations, as well as this often leads to a really large gatherings
Xhosa wedding ceremony ceremony
The lawsuit is joyous as well as really communal inward spirit and the celebration goes on at to the lowest degree 2 days at both the bride`s habitation as well as the groom`s (especially at the groom`s).
The finally phase of the matrimony occurs when the bride as well as the groom present themselves to the community past times walking along the main route together. This is known equally "ukucanda ibala."
Umakoti (Daughter in-law/wife)
A bride has to present honour towards her husband's family. The firstly virtue demanded of a bride is that she should live hardworking, respectful as well as eager. She must attention for her husband's comfort as well as that of his identify unit of measurement especially the parents inward law. Part of her responsibilities include fetching the wood, H2O as well as wild spinach from distant places. She also takes attention of the habitation garden as well as of course of teaching the cooking.
Customary police requires that a bride must present honour towards all senior relatives of her husband, especially his manlike soul relatives.
The bride must never go nigh the cattle kraal inward which her husbands manlike soul parent or granddad are buried or where the ancestors of the identify unit of measurement are believed to reign. However, if she opens her ain homestead with her husband, she may go nigh the kraal of that homestead; she is solely forbidden to go to that of the senior homestead. She must avoid the inkundla (courtyard betwixt huts as well as kraal) inward which men sit. When entering a hut of a senior relative of her husband, manlike soul as well as female, she must turn sharply to left advertizement circle about the dorsum so equally to avoid the men's side (Ukuceza). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 daughter-in-law disdains her husband's umzi if she does non avoid every identify bout where her fathers sit.
Xhosa ladies.It is of import for women to appear dignified at all times especially if in that location is a cultural ritual. Women must screen their caput at all times as well as have got a scarf about their waist as well as have got something to spot on their shoulders. This is a sign of respect.
The avoidance of the correct of huts, the inkundla, as well as the cattle kraal is extended to those imizi (homesteads) of her husband's seniors into which a adult woman mightiness have got married. In her husband's mother's hut a bride is expected to pick out a retired position. She may approach the hearth to mend the dismiss or reckon to the pots, but cannot sit down upwards to the fire. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride avoids the name, as well as words, of which a principal syllable is similar to the regulation syllable of the call of her husband's father, his brothers, her husband's elderberry brothers, as well as his father's father, whether they are living or dead. She also avoids personal names of her husband's mother, paternal aunts, as well as elderberry sisters, but does non avoid words similar to them.
At ibhasi (the trip the low-cal fantastic of the married men) at Qebe,Transkei Province,SA.Circa 1973.
When she arrives, she is told (by her husband's sister, or an elderberry co-wifey) what words are avoided inward the homestead. So long equally she lives inward her mother-in-law's homestead, a wife, no thing how long she has been married, is responsible to her other-in-law, fifty-fifty to a greater extent than than her husband. If she want to see her homestead, the married adult woman must acquire permission from her woman parent inward police as well as and then she tin privy tell her married adult man that his woman parent has given her permission to go see with her people. Impoliteness to her mother in law may termination inward a bride beingness sent dorsum to her people. Nevertheless, a mother in law is expected to live "Bush shelter" to her daughter-in-law against her husband. If a married adult man beats upwards his wife, she run to her mother in law to seek refuge there, as well as the son, because he respects his mother, volition non pursue her there.(https://haftshappenings.blogspot.com/search?q=south-africa-2010-11-05-at-05-29-29.jpg?w=950&h=633" width="640" />
Xhosa people of Transkei,South Africa performining their traditional dance
Presently to a greater extent than or less 10 i G m Xhosa people are distributed across the country, as well as Xhosa is South Africa's 2d most mutual habitation language, after Zulu, to which Xhosa is closely related. The pre-1994 apartheid scheme of Bantustans denied Xhosas South African citizenship, but enabled them to have got self-governing "homelands" namely; Transkei as well as Ciskei, at nowadays both a portion of the Eastern Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa alive inward Cape Town (iKapa inward Xhosa), East London (iMonti), as well as Port Elizabeth (iBhayi).
As of 2003 the bulk of Xhosa speakers, to a greater extent than or less 5.3 million, lived inward the Eastern Cape, followed past times the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), as well as Limpopo (14,225).
Xhosa people at the countryside
HISTORY
According to Pinnock, the earliest reports past times Portuguese survivors of shipwrecks along the south-east coast during the sixteen as well as 17th centuries depict the amaXhosa equally cattle herders who hunted game as well as cultivated sorghum. They lived inward beehive –shaped huts inward scattered homesteads which were ruled past times chiefs.
Chief Zwelivelile Mandlasizwe Dalibhunga Mandela of the Thembu at Mvezo
Tshawe founded the Xhosa kingdom past times defeating the Cirha as well as Jwarha groups. His descendants expanded the kingdom past times settling inward novel territory as well as bringing people living in that location nether the command of the amaTshawe. Generally, the grouping would pick out on the call of the main nether whom they had united. There are so distinct varieties of the Xhosa language, the most distinct beingness isiMpondo (isiNdrondroza). Other dialects include: Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondimise, Rharhabe, Gcaleka, Xesibe, Bhaca, Cele, Hlubi, Ntlangwini, Ngqika, Mfengu.
Xhosa people
According to oral tradition, the ancestors of the amaXhosa lived inward the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains before moving piece of cake to the coast. "The firstly grouping of Nguni immigrants to migrate to South Africa about 13th century from East Africa ahead of the Zulus consisted of Xhosa, (made upwards of Gcaleka,Nggika,Ndlambe as well as Dushane clans), the Thembu as well as Pondo. However, the 2d grouping of Nguni-speakers joined these tribes later. historical evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have got inhabited the eastern Cape expanse equally long equally 1593 as well as belike fifty-fifty before that. some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have got lived inward the expanse since 7th AD."
By the mid 17th century, the Thembu tribe was settled about Mbashi River [meaning “dark river” or “dangerous ravine”] with the original Xhosa tribe inward the vicinity of Kei River as well as beyond. The senior Xhosa chiefdom was given honour as well as tribute but was non much feared.The senior main did non have got plenty armed forces powerfulness to brand himself Rex of a larger centralized state.
1840 SCHINZ/HONEGGER LITHOGRAPH Xhosa People
The chiefdom was farther weakened when Rarabe,brother of the chief, Gcaleka challenged his brother`s dominion as well as was driven off with his followers. He was succeeded equally a western Xhosa main past times his boy Ndlambe as well as after Nggika,his grandson, who took the chieftaincy away from his uncle inward 1796. During the 1820`s as well as 30`s southern Africa was torn apart past times violent wars betwixt differrent indigenous peoples, inward what is often termed Mfecane/Difeqane ("The Crushing").
Two Nguni chiefs started these wars,Zwide of Ndwandwe kingdom inward the northward of present-day Zulu terra firma (the expanse of Kwa-Zulu Natal lying northward of the Tugela River) as well as Dingiswayo of the Mthethwe kingdom inward the south.Refugees from both regular army became mfecane tribe "on the march" as well as swept across the countrycushing anyone that crossed their path.
Xhosa people
When the British came to eastern Cape, they tried to preclude armed forces conception past times adopting a treat-state system. Treaties of friendship tied Independent African states such equally Ciskei as well as Pondoland to the British. However the treaty-state scheme did non finally really long as well as state of war broke out betwixt the white settlers as well as the Xhosa tribes. An allied regular army of Nggika-Xhosa, Gcaleka-Xhosa as well as Thembu defeated the British.
Drawing of King Faku of the Pondo-Xhosa People.Circa 1830
However,this did non deter the British from annexing Keiskamma territory, thus setting the scene for some other state of war which volition eventually escalate to a civil state of war betwixt Gcaleka, the Xhosa main as well as the local Mfengu tribe that lives amid them. In the wars against the British as well as colonial troops, 2 Xhosa chiefs Sandile as well as Maqoma, emerged potent leaders. After both had been defeated, Xhosa resistance crumbled as well as past times early on 1800`s, the finally of Nguni chiefs has been brought nether colonial rule. however, what genuinely broke the Nguni nation`s resolve was the disaster that occurred inward mid 1850`s (The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857). In all the Xhosa fought for i hundred years to save their independence, heritage as well as land, as well as today this expanse is still referred to past times many equally Frontier Country.
The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857
A immature young adult woman past times call Nongqause, had a vision of warriors of the old rising upwards from the reeds surrounding the puddle into which she was gazing.They had been purified of witchcraft as well as they encouraged her to tell the Xhosa people purify themselves past times killing their cattle, destroying all their grains as well as non planting whatsoever crops.
This activity would also aid acquire rid of the White settlers, since the old warriors would come upwards as well as drive the White settlers away. News of Nongqause prophecy, spurred on past times the preaching of her uncle Mlakaza, spread amid the people similar wild fire.In the aftermath, to a greater extent than or less 20,000 people died of starvation patch some other 30,000 were scattered amid the white farmers inward the outlying areas where they sought function for food.
Xhosa men wearing their traditional Mfengu headband
Despite,this disaster as well as havoc,it wrought on Xhosa people,Xhosa civilisation has remained strong.Although their lifestyle has been adapted to western traditions, they have got still retained many of their traditions as well as culture. They were the firstly African people to acquire widely known to Europeans as well as this is belike why, according to historians, the call ‘Xhosa’ became the call for all Africans inward the Eastern Cape.
Xhosa women. circa 1910
LANGUAGE
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal linguistic communication of the Bantu family. While the Xhosas telephone telephone their linguistic communication "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to equally "Xhosa" inward English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken past times virtually 18% of the South African population, as well as has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken inward urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, especially those living inward urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.
Xhosa woman
Among its features, the Xhosa linguistic communication famously has 15 click sounds, originally borrowed from at nowadays extinct Khoisan languages of the region. Xhosa has iii basic click consonants: a dental click, written with the alphabetic quality "c"; a palatal click, written with the alphabetic quality "q"; as well as a lateral click, written with the alphabetic quality "x". There is also a elementary inventory of 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u). Some vowels still may live silent. In other words, they tin privy live nowadays inward written linguistic communication but hardly audible inward spoken language. This happens especially at the goal of the word. This is because the musical note of most Xhosa words is lowest at the end.
Xhosa circumcised initiates (umkheta)
Former SA prez Thabo Mbeki is from Xhosa tribe
The Xhosa are a South African cultural grouping who emphasize traditional practices as well as customs inherited from their forefathers. Each soul within the Xhosa civilisation has his or her identify which is recognized past times the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa soul goes through graduation stages which recognize his growth as well as assign him a recognized identify inward the community.
Young bare breasted Xhosa girls inward traditional procession
Each phase is marked past times a specific ritual aimed at introducing the private to their counterparts as well as hence to the ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to innovate a novel born to the ancestors, to umphumo, from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals as well as ceremonies are still practiced today, but many urbanized Xhosa people do non follow them rigidly. The ulwaluko as well as intonjane are also traditions which separated this tribe from the ease of the Nguni tribes.
Xhosa women inward their traditional attire smoking their trademark pipes
All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the private spends fourth dimension with community elders to prepare for the side past times side stage. The elders' teachings are non written, but transmitted from generation to generation past times oral tradition. The Iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even to a greater extent than than names as well as surnames) are transferred from i to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your “Isiduko” is vital to the Xhosas as well as it is considered a shame as well as “Uburhanuka” (lack-of-identity) if i doesn’t know one's clan.
Newly circumcised initiates (Umkhweta) of Xhosa tribe inward South Africa
This is considered so of import that when 2 strangers run across for the firstly time, the firstly identity that gets shared is “Isiduko”. It is so of import that 2 people with the same surname but unlike clan are considered total strangers but the same 2 people from the same clan but unlike surnames are regarded equally unopen relatives. This forms the roots of "Ubuntu" (neighbouring) - a behaviour synonymous to this tribe equally extending a helping mitt to a consummate stranger when inward need. Ubuntu goes farther than just helping i some other - it is so deep that it fifty-fifty extends to looking after as well as reprimanding your neighbour's kid when inward the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a hamlet to enhance a child".
Intonjane (girl's initiation, puberty rite)
Thembu-Xhosa Female intonjane Initiation at Qutubeni inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1965
Intonjane is a rite of passage for immature adult woman to welcome them into womanhood. During intonjane, a immature adult woman is secluded at her homestead, where she is taught womanhood values as well as norms, as well as prepared for marriage. Girls are taught the responsibilities as well as rights of beingness a wife, a woman parent as well as a leader. The initiate’s elderberry relatives are chosen to preside over the intonjane as well as when the wintertime Sun sets, the physical care for begins.
Thembu Female Initiation:
A grouping of women sing a traditional vocal equally the immature adult woman as well as her 2 amakhankatha (orderlies or attendants), who are covered inward blankets from caput to human foot are led from the veld to the homestead past times elders.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 hateful solar daytime after she enters seclusion, a caprine animal is slaughtered, which teaches the immature adult woman to discovery the crucial custom of ukushwama. The slaughtered caprine animal is known equally umngena-ndlini, pregnant a caprine animal slaughtered when a maiden enters seclusion. Seven sheep are also slaughtered on the day. On the 7th hateful solar daytime of seclusion, an ox is slaughtered for ukutshatela intonjane. At midday on the same day, inward accordance with the custom, the immature adult woman must run naked about the yard banging a pot equally she goes.
Intonjane initiation ceremony
Every eve local boys as well as girls come upwards to the hut to perform Xhosa dances as well as songs, showcasing their skills. On the tenth day, the immature adult woman is dressed inward imibhaco. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 dark doek covers her caput equally the flooring is cleaned as well as smeared with moo-cow dung. Outside the grass is burnt. In the evening, novel grass is placed on the flooring as well as she removes the clothes equally she returns to seclusion. On her finally day, her elders pick out her to the main theatre as well as study dorsum to her parents as well as other identify unit of measurement members
However, the heavy expense involving vii killings of cow, plus beer as well as other nutrient for the feasting as well as feeding of attendants over several weeks, meant that, inward practice, it was oft postponed, fifty-fifty until after marriage.
Women dressed for intonjane, inward accuse of the beer at Nkondlo. 1957.
Thus, fifty-fifty without intonjane, a immature adult woman became an intombi at puberty as well as could live married. More importantly, the rite was regarded equally of import grooming for child-bearing. Without it, a immature adult woman was liable to autumn sick after marriage, live barren, or have got sickly children.
Any problem inward the immature bride was probable to live diagnosed past times the diviner equally having been sent past times her father's ancestors, who were aggrieved that the custom had been omitted, as well as that she should render to her parental homestead as well as undergo the rite.
Xhosa wedding:Inspection of the bride as well as bridesmaids at Ngqokotho . 1975.
Among the southern Nguni, the custom did non involve teaching inward sexual matters as well as techniques, or fifty-fifty inward the duties of married adult woman as well as mother.
Intonjane initaites
Sacred Xhosa Birth Rituals- SIFUDU
In Xhosa culture, cattle as well as goats are sacred because they provide meat, milk, hides for clothes as well as symbolise the unity betwixt the human stuff world as well as the spiritual world of universal gods as well as the ancestors. When a babe is born, she slips through the 2 worlds equally it were into the nowadays social community, bringing gifts of grapheme as well as recent connections with the spirit world as well as fifty-fifty ancestors that will, over time, differentiate her from whatsoever other human being.
Umtuma ingredient grooming for the child`s umbilical cord
Birth inward the Xhosa culture, is an of import rite of passage as well as is so treated with due respect, honour as well as celebration. Traditionally, the birthing woman parent is attended to past times ‘grand-mothers’ inward her ‘rondavel’, who have got experience inward birthing babies. The rondavel is made with mud or a cob-like mixture, as well as the roof is usually thatched, so the room is dark as well as circular. After the nascence the woman parent as well as novel babe are secluded until the cord falls off as well as the grandmother aids this physical care for past times mixing ash, saccharide as well as a poisonous works life called ‘Umtuma’ together as well as rubbing the glue onto the newly severed cord, which is believed to assist the drying out process.
Cutting the child`s umbilical cord. After birth, a length of dry out grass taken from the roof of the hut, is split inward half, its border is razor sharp, as well as with this the umbilical cord is severed leaving a length of 7 to 10 cm of cord on baby. Approximately as well as hr later, this length is reduced to to a greater extent than or less 5 cm past times over again severing with the grass equally seen, maintaining that the 2d cutting issue all unnecessary blood from the cord.
Once the cord has fallen off, the novel babe is introduced to unopen woman soul identify unit of measurement members equally good equally to women of the wider community. The ritual of “Sifudu” is as well as then performed. Pungent leaves of the Sifudu tree are burnt inward a fire, about which the women gather, to make a really pungent smoke. The babe is as well as then floated over the fume (upside-down) iii times, which causes a severe reaction of coughing as well as sometimes screaming.
Traditional medicine beingness applied to ensure that the residual of the cord rots
Then the babe is given to the woman parent who passes the babe nether her left genu as well as then her correct knee. This ceremony is believed to brand the babe stronger inward spirit as well as protect her from time to come evil. The babe is as well as then washed as well as smeared with a white chalk called “Ingceke” mixed with basis “Mtomboti” wood, a sweetness smelling amount that lasts for many weeks.
A adult woman holding a baby`s caput downward into the smoke, which gives it such a daze it tin privy hardly cry
The babe is as well as then breastfed past times the “Umdlezana”, the mother.
“Inkaba” is the ritual of burying the cord as well as the placenta as well as this has keen significance to the clan as well as seals the attachment of the babe to her ancestral lands. “Inkaba” as well as then comes to hateful one’s ancestral habitation as well as symbolizes the human relationship betwixt the individual, his/her clan, the terra firma as well as the spiritual world.
Mother swiftly passing the kid nether i of her legs, as well as then nether the other. All this, plus the fume shock, assures beyond doubt, that when the kid grows upwards it volition never live dependent to fright, nor live timid, shy or easily ridiculed past times pocket-size or adult, equally it volition stand upwards it's ground.
The burial identify of an ‘Inkaba’ is a identify where i must go as well as dream as well as communicate with ancestors.
The ritual of “Imbeleko” is the ceremony welcoming the kid into the greater community, when a caprine animal is slaughtered as well as the clan is invited to attend the feast. The pare of the caprine animal as well as then becomes a sacred item for the novel clan member, the baby, who volition slumber on it inward the time to come inward times of trouble, signifying a want for connexion with the ancestors.
Child beingness thoroughly washed after it's ordeal.
The babe volition live named with a identify unit of measurement prefix, or suffix as well as may live named to signify events, similar a thunderstorm or lightening, or wishes the identify unit of measurement may have got similar “Hope” or “Themba”.
Baby is painted with white amount INGCEKE from river bank. Substance is prepared on a apartment rock into which a little quantity of basis MTOMBOTI forest is mixed. This forest has a potent pleasant odour, which they maintain clings to the babe holding off all evil spirits from attacking the child.
A clan “Praise-Singer”, who is comparative to a Bard inward celtic culture, volition telephone telephone upon the ancestors as well as vocally elaborate on all the ancestors’ feats of excellence as well as praiseworthy qualities, so equally to imbue the novel fellow member of the clan with a sense of her responsibleness to the grouping at an early on age.
Baby feeding after its ordeal. Note how white it's human face has acquire at nowadays that the pigment has dried.
The Abakwetha Circumcision Ceremony
A man child amid the Xhosa is a 'thing' as well as non a soul until he has been through the Tribe's circumcision rite. This rite is known equally the UKWALUSA (circumcision) or the ABAKWETHA ritual as well as it is the most of import lawsuit inward whatsoever male's life. The total ritual is spread over a period of time of virtually 3 months.
Before circumcision immature men apparel “Gourds” (calabashes) over private parts. Like this considered fully dressed fifty-fifty inward forepart of women.
Among the southern Nguni, the ordeal (ukwaluka/abakwetha) was seen equally a necessary demonstration that the youth was worthy of beingness considered a 'man'. If a manlike soul did non undergo this rite, he would ever live referred to equally inkwenkwe (boy) no thing how old he became. He was excluded from all manlike soul activities, prohibited from participation inward councils, as well as was unable to inherit.
The initiates to live circumcised, heads shaved, have got finally repast inward sheep kraal before operation.
The uncircumcised manlike soul was subjected to the intense ridicule of women equally good equally men; no adult woman would have got anything to do with him, as well as no identify unit of measurement would concur to adjust a marriage. Overt religious overtones, inward the cast of directly invocations to ancestors, were few as well as the participation of a religious specialist (igqira-diviner) was limited to i ceremony during the entire process. Nevertheless, the religious significance was important.
The newly thatched hut, Sutu, which volition acquire their habitation for iii months.
This custom initiated the immature homo into total membership inward the family, which included non solely the living adults but also its guiding spirits--the ancestors who would never have got an uncircumcised man. However, this religious aspect was largely inherent rather than explicit as well as overt.
Xhosa traditional circumcission surgeon ready with pike before operation.
To acquire men through circumcision. Five youths at a fourth dimension are circumcised, ages 17 to twenty years The grouping of 5 alive together inward a specially constructed hut (sutu), which becomes their habitation for iii months patch they undergo the transformation from youth to manhood.
The start of actual operation, 500 yards from newly constructed hut. (Sutu).The severing of the foreskin. No modern medicine used.
The lawsuit usually takes identify inward the boy's belatedly teens but sometimes, when they are especially wild as well as cannot live controlled past times their parents, boys are spot inward before to sober them upwards as well as to instill responsibleness into them.
Completely severed. At this 2d the man child shouts NDIYINDODA (I am a man).
The interesting portion virtually the rite is that it indisputably does have got this effect. The argue is non because of whatsoever penalisation or acre of study that is exercised over the initiate inward the schoolhouse itself but purely, it seems, because of the psychological powerfulness the rite has.
The bandaging. Goat pare strip about waist becomes bandage. The herbs used. Left mitt ‘swadi” stops bleeding. Right mitt “isichwe” antiseptic.
There have got been cases of widows whose sons, without a father's restraint, were quite out of command and
spent their fourth dimension thieving as well as getting upwards to all the mischief imaginable, who inward the goal were physically caught past times the men of a kraal as well as taken struggling as well as shouting to the "ngcibi" (surgeon) with his sharpened assegai. They were inward each illustration completely reformed equally a termination of the ceremony.
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
The "ngcibi" or surgeon arrives at sunrise as well as equally he passes the identify unit of measurement huts, the women start wailing. Those whom he passes have got to live careful because he flails his arms as well as his assegai around, non worried virtually injuring anyone.
As he comes inward sight of the initiates he screams viciously referring to them equally 'dogs' as well as 'things'.
Xhosa circumcised initiate
The functioning is done with a sharpened blade as well as the man child must non outcry out or fifty-fifty flinch inward pain.
As he operates the "ngcibi" (doctor) says, 'You are a man!' as well as throws the excised portion on the basis inward forepart of the man child who has to repeat,"'Ndiyindoda!'" ('I am a man!') equally he picks upwards the portion as well as holds it inward his clenched hand.
Xhosa adolescent Initiate (umkhweta). After ritual circumcision the initiates
live inward isolation for upwards to several weeks painted inward white clay.
After this, the initiates or "Umkhweta" have got to go inward unlike directions as well as bury the portions inward an pismire heap where the ants volition swallow them upwards so that a magician cannot discovery them as well as brand medicine from them. If the portions were used for such a purpose as well as then the initiates' wounds would never heal.
The injure is outpouring with special leaves supposedly having healing properties as well as mud is as well as then packed over it.
The surgeon as well as then smears a mixture of pismire heap as well as H2O on the human face as well as pectus of the initiates as well as makes them imbibe a mouthful of the mixture. This makes their hearts hard similar an pismire heap, so that they won't live cowards inward their time to come lives equally men. It also prevents them from beingness dizzy.
The initiates are looked after past times an amakhankatha, or guardian, who explained the rules they had to follow if they want to acquire inward manhood properly. The firstly chore of the amakhankatha is to pigment their naked as well as shaved bodies from caput to human foot inward white ochre, turning the initiates into ghosts. The white chalk symbolized purity. The initiates as well as then twine themselves upwards inward their novel blankets so that they volition non pick out handle of cold. They are as well as then lectured on beingness honourable Xhosa's as well as the manlike soul parent of each initiate pays the surgeon 50 cents.
Young Xhosa Abakwetha. © James Nachtwey, National Geographic.The circumcision rituals, known as Ulwaluko, are traditional within the Xhosa civilisation (and many other African cultures). The ceremonies signify the passage from man child to manhood.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
Lobola
Labola was a fundamental chemical constituent of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth inward cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. Except inward the illustration of chiefs as well as really rich men, the number of cattle demanded was usually fewer than ten. The number of cattle as well as the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation. In many cases, the finally total was non decided, nor inward most cases were all of the cattle delivered prior to the completion of the marriage. As a result, the woman's relatives would demand additional cattle from fourth dimension to time. In monastic tell to increase the pressure level if it was felt in that location was unnecessary dilatoriness, the adult woman mightiness live called habitation as well as detained until additional cattle were forthcoming.
Xhosa woman parent as well as her immature adult woman (bride)
Much has been written virtually lobola as well as its significance. African matrimony was primarily a joining of 2 families rather than a thing betwixt 2 individuals. As a result, negotiations as well as decision-making regarding whatsoever proposed matrimony were inward the hands of the identify unit of measurement heads. In theory (except inward the illustration of older heads of their ain homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' as well as the wishes of immature people were non regarded equally crucial. Obedience to one's parents as well as the economical as well as legal dependence of the immature people caused most to have got the arrangements made for them.
Xhosa mothers
In practice, immature men were often consulted as well as their wishes respected; if a immature homo wanted to get married a item girl, his identify unit of measurement most probable would endeavour to adjust the match, as well as rarely would they endeavour to override a potent dislike or objection. Girls were consulted much less, as well as families would resort to potent pressure, including thrashings, if they thought the matrimony a goodness i as well as were anxious to conclude it. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature adult woman was expected to submit to the wishes of her father. However, fathers were constrained non solely past times their fondness for their daughters as well as the demand to acquire the consent of the girl's mother, but also past times the fact that if the married adult woman were responsible for a breakdown inward the marriage, the lobola mightiness have got to live returned. Thus, if a immature adult woman were determined, she could usually number a veto over a proposed marriage.
Xhosa wedding
Lobola was the foundation of African marriage. Although in that location were a number of ceremonies, rituals as well as reciprocal entertainments past times the families, solely lobola was indispensable inward legitimizing a marriage. Without the payment of cattle, the manlike soul parent or his identify unit of measurement could non claim parental rights to the children. Without the payment of lobola, a boy did non have got a claim to inherit. Perpetuation of the lineage was a source of keen anxiety to African families, as well as the main incentive as well as purpose of African matrimony was the want to provide children. Also, equally an active producer in agriculture, a adult woman made of import contributions to the economic scheme of a homestead. Thus, lobola was a compensation from the identify unit of measurement of the groom to that of the bride for the loss of her productive as well as reproductive contributions Moreover, lobola cemented the alliance betwixt the families, as well as the substantial transfer of wealth created really of import vested interests inward the marriage.
Xhosa immature man
The payment of lobola was an indication to the bride's identify unit of measurement that the proposed married adult man was capable of providing for the bride as well as that he as well as his identify unit of measurement were people of substance. Also, it was a safety bond posted past times or on behalf of the bridegroom equally a pledge of goodness treatment; a homo was non probable to abandon such a substantial investment, as well as inward most societies, if a divorce resulted because of abuse as well as ill-treatment, all or most of the lobola was forfeited.
Xhosa courting couple
On the other hand, past times the receipt of lobola, the bride's identify unit of measurement incurred a keen many obligations. The bride had to carry to her novel home, a wardrobe, a make of presents for her novel 'in-laws', as well as a goodness furnish of household articles; also, from fourth dimension to time, she would render habitation to replenish these past times demanding more. Her identify unit of measurement had incentives to encourage the immature wife's goodness behaviour.
Mandla Mandela,grandson of Madiba (Nelson mandela) as well as his French married adult woman Anais Grimand who married finally twelvemonth inward a traditional ceremony
If she were at error inward a divorce, the lobola would have got to live returned. If she created problem or violated the ukuhlonipa (to present respect) restrictions, she would live sent habitation to acquire a fine to restore harmonious relations inward the husband's homestead. Beneficiaries of lobola acquired lifelong obligations; if widowed or divorced, a adult woman could go to them as well as claim protection as well as maintenance.Also, it seems that inward the lawsuit of disaster or hard times, a married adult man could inquire for as well as appear some assistance from his wife's family.
XHOSA TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE/WEDDING- IDULI (Nguwa Nguwa Umtshato)
Xhosa homo as well as his wife
Before the Missionaries acquire inward to alter the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a homo with his wives, married sons with their wives as well as children, as well as single daughters. Marriage was polygamous as well as patriarchal. Each adult woman inward the household who has been married a twelvemonth or to a greater extent than had her ain hut, as well as also a store-hut.
Uduli - the bridal political party - consisting of bridesmaids, immature men, an old homo as well as old adult woman escort the bride-to-be to the prospective bridegroom's identify unit of measurement umzi (the kraal).
Huts were arranged inward a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The opened upwards segment of
the circle was filled past times a cattle kraal. The senior manlike soul of the household was the possessor of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, as well as that of his firstly wife(the 'great wife') are built reverse the gate of the cattle kraal.
Xhosa married adult man as well as wife
The traditional physical care for of Xhosa matrimony begins with "Ukutwala," which agency "the taking," or "carry away/abduction" which occurs after the grooms identify unit of measurement has chosen a suitable bride for himself. It is of import to Federal Reserve notation that "Ukutwala" is non kidnapping because the prospective bride is non harmed as well as may render to the family. It is rather a formal method signifying the intention to get married as well as this marks the firstly of the betrothal process.
Bride as well as maids within hut icon up. Bodies smeared with crimson ochre glue as well as ears painted white.
After "Ukutwala" has taken place, the groom`s identify unit of measurement volition kicking start the negotiation for matrimony as well as lobola with the bride`s family. It is of import to appreciate that lobola is non a" bride price," but a agency of establishing links betwixt the 2 families. the size of lobola varies considerably depending on the relative wealth as well as condition of the families involved, the wages to gain from the matrimony link, as well as the desirablility of the bride.
Painting complete, they are adorned inward their beadwork, taking keen pains just equally a white bride does on her keen day.
Traditionally lobola usually amounted to 8 heads of cattle, as well as today the value of each caput of cattle forms portion of the overall negotiation. However,there is a Xhosa saying 'one never stops paying lobola," which agency the identify unit of measurement link is an of import portion of lobola, a union that must live constantly kept renewed past times visiting one`s in-laws, inviting them around, as well as inward general, maintaining goodness familial relationships.
Xhosa couple
Once lobola is finalized matrimony tin privy pick out place. On the appointed day, the bride`s identify unit of measurement brings the bride to the groom`s house, amidst celebration inward which animals (chickens,goat or cattle) are slaughtered equally sacrifice to the ancestors, inviting them to the occasion as well as introducing the bride to them. There are no formal invitation to this event, rather whoever wishes to attend, tin privy participate inward the celebrations, as well as this often leads to a really large gatherings
Xhosa wedding ceremony ceremony
The lawsuit is joyous as well as really communal inward spirit and the celebration goes on at to the lowest degree 2 days at both the bride`s habitation as well as the groom`s (especially at the groom`s).
The finally phase of the matrimony occurs when the bride as well as the groom present themselves to the community past times walking along the main route together. This is known equally "ukucanda ibala."
Umakoti (Daughter in-law/wife)
A bride has to present honour towards her husband's family. The firstly virtue demanded of a bride is that she should live hardworking, respectful as well as eager. She must attention for her husband's comfort as well as that of his identify unit of measurement especially the parents inward law. Part of her responsibilities include fetching the wood, H2O as well as wild spinach from distant places. She also takes attention of the habitation garden as well as of course of teaching the cooking.
Customary police requires that a bride must present honour towards all senior relatives of her husband, especially his manlike soul relatives.
The bride must never go nigh the cattle kraal inward which her husbands manlike soul parent or granddad are buried or where the ancestors of the identify unit of measurement are believed to reign. However, if she opens her ain homestead with her husband, she may go nigh the kraal of that homestead; she is solely forbidden to go to that of the senior homestead. She must avoid the inkundla (courtyard betwixt huts as well as kraal) inward which men sit. When entering a hut of a senior relative of her husband, manlike soul as well as female, she must turn sharply to left advertizement circle about the dorsum so equally to avoid the men's side (Ukuceza). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 daughter-in-law disdains her husband's umzi if she does non avoid every identify bout where her fathers sit.
Xhosa ladies.It is of import for women to appear dignified at all times especially if in that location is a cultural ritual. Women must screen their caput at all times as well as have got a scarf about their waist as well as have got something to spot on their shoulders. This is a sign of respect.
The avoidance of the correct of huts, the inkundla, as well as the cattle kraal is extended to those imizi (homesteads) of her husband's seniors into which a adult woman mightiness have got married. In her husband's mother's hut a bride is expected to pick out a retired position. She may approach the hearth to mend the dismiss or reckon to the pots, but cannot sit down upwards to the fire. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride avoids the name, as well as words, of which a principal syllable is similar to the regulation syllable of the call of her husband's father, his brothers, her husband's elderberry brothers, as well as his father's father, whether they are living or dead. She also avoids personal names of her husband's mother, paternal aunts, as well as elderberry sisters, but does non avoid words similar to them.
At ibhasi (the trip the low-cal fantastic of the married men) at Qebe,Transkei Province,SA.Circa 1973.
When she arrives, she is told (by her husband's sister, or an elderberry co-wifey) what words are avoided inward the homestead. So long equally she lives inward her mother-in-law's homestead, a wife, no thing how long she has been married, is responsible to her other-in-law, fifty-fifty to a greater extent than than her husband. If she want to see her homestead, the married adult woman must acquire permission from her woman parent inward police as well as and then she tin privy tell her married adult man that his woman parent has given her permission to go see with her people. Impoliteness to her mother in law may termination inward a bride beingness sent dorsum to her people. Nevertheless, a mother in law is expected to live "Bush shelter" to her daughter-in-law against her husband. If a married adult man beats upwards his wife, she run to her mother in law to seek refuge there, as well as the son, because he respects his mother, volition non pursue her there.(
Xhosa traditional wedding
Domestic Unit.
Households are defined past times sharing a cooking expanse as well as eating together. The ideal is that married sons volition rest with their parents inward patrilineal extended families. However, equally a termination of a shortage of terra firma as well as restrictions on the size of residential plots, the vogue is away from extended families as well as toward nuclear families.
Documentary photography Older Xhosa women Healers inward traditional dress
A married homo volition rest for some fourth dimension with his parents as well as and then attempt to secure his ain residential plot. In the illustration of polygyny a homo tin privy settle all his wives on i residential plot or acquire a separate residential plot for each one.
Xhosa traditional marriage
Households inward urban areas consist of nuclear families extended past times married and/or single relatives as well as tenants. There is a fairly high incidence of matrifocal families, often extending over 4 generations.
Inheritance.
According to customary law, a man's oldest boy or, inward cases of polygyny, the oldest boy of the main married adult woman is his main heir as well as successor. The correct to terra firma ordinarily is transferred to the call of the main heir inward the illustration of quitrent as well as permission to occupy.
Xhosa men inward their traditional dress
Land inward freehold tin privy follow the customary pattern or live inherited inward accordance with a will. The main heir also inherits the livestock, plows, tractor, car, houses, household utensils, as well as furniture, as well as these items are regarded equally theatre property. The widow has the correct to usage the belongings if the main heir is still a minor. The main heir also inherits his father's debts. Each boy inherits something from his manlike soul parent because during his lifetime the manlike soul parent earmarks livestock for each of his sons as well as that livestock volition live handed over to them when they get married as well as start their ain households. His clothes are distributed amid his sons, as well as his pipage as well as accessories are given to i of his brothers.
Xhosa warrior
In cases of polygyny, the wives are assigned to unlike houses as well as the oldest boy from each theatre is the main heir inward that house. As a dominion daughters do non inherit anything from their fathers. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 homo tin privy push clitoris upwards a volition as well as dissever his belongings amid all his children. When a adult woman dies, the household utensils that she brought to the matrimony remain portion of the belongings of her house. Her married adult man may determine the distribution of her clothes as well as ornaments amid her daughters, as well as her pipage as well as accessories are given to the husband's oldest sister.
Xhosa people
Socialization.
Depending on their age, children are raised past times their fathers, mothers, older sisters, grandparents, as well as other unopen relatives. From the historic period of time of virtually 8 years boys inward rural areas are assigned tasks such equally herding little animals, as well as their fathers instruct them the tasks assigned to men. Girls are drawn into the realm of household chores, as well as their mothers instruct them the tasks assigned to women. Obedience to both parents is expected as well as tin privy live enforced through corporal punishment. Respect must live shown to all older people. Nine years of compulsory schooling forms an of import portion of the socialization physical care for inward both rural as well as urban areas.
Xhosa circumcised initiates
Boys are initiated at the historic period of time of to a greater extent than or less xviii years. This involves circumcision as well as seclusion for at to the lowest degree iii weeks, depending on how long the wounds pick out to heal. During this fourth dimension they are dependent to restrictions regarding their movements as well as nutrient as well as are taught the proper way to comport equally adult men. This custom is practiced inward urban areas equally well, although increasingly males are circumcised inward hospitals.
The corresponding ceremony for women (the intonjane) takes identify during a girl's firstly menstruation. This custom has fallen into disuse inward many rural areas as well as has acquired the grapheme of a fertility rite equally married women who have got difficulty becoming pregnant are sent dorsum to their fathers' homes to undergo this rite.
Sociopolitical Organization
Social Organization
Status is determined past times historic period of time as well as gender. Men have got a higher condition than women according to indigenous law. This is changing because of the impact of the Bill of Rights included inward the Constitution of South Africa. Although no formal historic period of time groups or historic period of time sets exist, men as well as women occupy unlike condition positions during their life cycles that are determined past times their historic period of time phase and/or marriage. These groups get together separately during ceremonies as well as are served unlike portions of meat from sacrificial animals, as well as beverages are served to them inward unlike containers. Succession to political purpose inward rural areas is determined past times manlike soul primogeniture. Important visitors as well as dignitaries such equally chief's, headmen, ministers, priests, as well as authorities officials occupy a identify of accolade during festivities as well as ceremonies.
Xhosa people of Transkei,South Africa performining their traditional dance
Presently to a greater extent than or less 10 i G m Xhosa people are distributed across the country, as well as Xhosa is South Africa's 2d most mutual habitation language, after Zulu, to which Xhosa is closely related. The pre-1994 apartheid scheme of Bantustans denied Xhosas South African citizenship, but enabled them to have got self-governing "homelands" namely; Transkei as well as Ciskei, at nowadays both a portion of the Eastern Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa alive inward Cape Town (iKapa inward Xhosa), East London (iMonti), as well as Port Elizabeth (iBhayi).
As of 2003 the bulk of Xhosa speakers, to a greater extent than or less 5.3 million, lived inward the Eastern Cape, followed past times the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), as well as Limpopo (14,225).
Xhosa people at the countryside
HISTORY
According to Pinnock, the earliest reports past times Portuguese survivors of shipwrecks along the south-east coast during the sixteen as well as 17th centuries depict the amaXhosa equally cattle herders who hunted game as well as cultivated sorghum. They lived inward beehive –shaped huts inward scattered homesteads which were ruled past times chiefs.
Chief Zwelivelile Mandlasizwe Dalibhunga Mandela of the Thembu at Mvezo
Tshawe founded the Xhosa kingdom past times defeating the Cirha as well as Jwarha groups. His descendants expanded the kingdom past times settling inward novel territory as well as bringing people living in that location nether the command of the amaTshawe. Generally, the grouping would pick out on the call of the main nether whom they had united. There are so distinct varieties of the Xhosa language, the most distinct beingness isiMpondo (isiNdrondroza). Other dialects include: Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondimise, Rharhabe, Gcaleka, Xesibe, Bhaca, Cele, Hlubi, Ntlangwini, Ngqika, Mfengu.
Xhosa people
According to oral tradition, the ancestors of the amaXhosa lived inward the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains before moving piece of cake to the coast. "The firstly grouping of Nguni immigrants to migrate to South Africa about 13th century from East Africa ahead of the Zulus consisted of Xhosa, (made upwards of Gcaleka,Nggika,Ndlambe as well as Dushane clans), the Thembu as well as Pondo. However, the 2d grouping of Nguni-speakers joined these tribes later. historical evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have got inhabited the eastern Cape expanse equally long equally 1593 as well as belike fifty-fifty before that. some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have got lived inward the expanse since 7th AD."
By the mid 17th century, the Thembu tribe was settled about Mbashi River [meaning “dark river” or “dangerous ravine”] with the original Xhosa tribe inward the vicinity of Kei River as well as beyond. The senior Xhosa chiefdom was given honour as well as tribute but was non much feared.The senior main did non have got plenty armed forces powerfulness to brand himself Rex of a larger centralized state.
1840 SCHINZ/HONEGGER LITHOGRAPH Xhosa People
The chiefdom was farther weakened when Rarabe,brother of the chief, Gcaleka challenged his brother`s dominion as well as was driven off with his followers. He was succeeded equally a western Xhosa main past times his boy Ndlambe as well as after Nggika,his grandson, who took the chieftaincy away from his uncle inward 1796. During the 1820`s as well as 30`s southern Africa was torn apart past times violent wars betwixt differrent indigenous peoples, inward what is often termed Mfecane/Difeqane ("The Crushing").
Two Nguni chiefs started these wars,Zwide of Ndwandwe kingdom inward the northward of present-day Zulu terra firma (the expanse of Kwa-Zulu Natal lying northward of the Tugela River) as well as Dingiswayo of the Mthethwe kingdom inward the south.Refugees from both regular army became mfecane tribe "on the march" as well as swept across the countrycushing anyone that crossed their path.
Xhosa people
When the British came to eastern Cape, they tried to preclude armed forces conception past times adopting a treat-state system. Treaties of friendship tied Independent African states such equally Ciskei as well as Pondoland to the British. However the treaty-state scheme did non finally really long as well as state of war broke out betwixt the white settlers as well as the Xhosa tribes. An allied regular army of Nggika-Xhosa, Gcaleka-Xhosa as well as Thembu defeated the British.
Drawing of King Faku of the Pondo-Xhosa People.Circa 1830
However,this did non deter the British from annexing Keiskamma territory, thus setting the scene for some other state of war which volition eventually escalate to a civil state of war betwixt Gcaleka, the Xhosa main as well as the local Mfengu tribe that lives amid them. In the wars against the British as well as colonial troops, 2 Xhosa chiefs Sandile as well as Maqoma, emerged potent leaders. After both had been defeated, Xhosa resistance crumbled as well as past times early on 1800`s, the finally of Nguni chiefs has been brought nether colonial rule. however, what genuinely broke the Nguni nation`s resolve was the disaster that occurred inward mid 1850`s (The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857). In all the Xhosa fought for i hundred years to save their independence, heritage as well as land, as well as today this expanse is still referred to past times many equally Frontier Country.
The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857
A immature young adult woman past times call Nongqause, had a vision of warriors of the old rising upwards from the reeds surrounding the puddle into which she was gazing.They had been purified of witchcraft as well as they encouraged her to tell the Xhosa people purify themselves past times killing their cattle, destroying all their grains as well as non planting whatsoever crops.
This activity would also aid acquire rid of the White settlers, since the old warriors would come upwards as well as drive the White settlers away. News of Nongqause prophecy, spurred on past times the preaching of her uncle Mlakaza, spread amid the people similar wild fire.In the aftermath, to a greater extent than or less 20,000 people died of starvation patch some other 30,000 were scattered amid the white farmers inward the outlying areas where they sought function for food.
Xhosa men wearing their traditional Mfengu headband
Despite,this disaster as well as havoc,it wrought on Xhosa people,Xhosa civilisation has remained strong.Although their lifestyle has been adapted to western traditions, they have got still retained many of their traditions as well as culture. They were the firstly African people to acquire widely known to Europeans as well as this is belike why, according to historians, the call ‘Xhosa’ became the call for all Africans inward the Eastern Cape.
Xhosa women. circa 1910
LANGUAGE
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal linguistic communication of the Bantu family. While the Xhosas telephone telephone their linguistic communication "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to equally "Xhosa" inward English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken past times virtually 18% of the South African population, as well as has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken inward urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, especially those living inward urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.
Xhosa woman
Among its features, the Xhosa linguistic communication famously has 15 click sounds, originally borrowed from at nowadays extinct Khoisan languages of the region. Xhosa has iii basic click consonants: a dental click, written with the alphabetic quality "c"; a palatal click, written with the alphabetic quality "q"; as well as a lateral click, written with the alphabetic quality "x". There is also a elementary inventory of 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u). Some vowels still may live silent. In other words, they tin privy live nowadays inward written linguistic communication but hardly audible inward spoken language. This happens especially at the goal of the word. This is because the musical note of most Xhosa words is lowest at the end.
Xhosa circumcised initiates (umkheta)
Former SA prez Thabo Mbeki is from Xhosa tribe
The Xhosa are a South African cultural grouping who emphasize traditional practices as well as customs inherited from their forefathers. Each soul within the Xhosa civilisation has his or her identify which is recognized past times the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa soul goes through graduation stages which recognize his growth as well as assign him a recognized identify inward the community.
Young bare breasted Xhosa girls inward traditional procession
Each phase is marked past times a specific ritual aimed at introducing the private to their counterparts as well as hence to the ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to innovate a novel born to the ancestors, to umphumo, from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals as well as ceremonies are still practiced today, but many urbanized Xhosa people do non follow them rigidly. The ulwaluko as well as intonjane are also traditions which separated this tribe from the ease of the Nguni tribes.
Xhosa women inward their traditional attire smoking their trademark pipes
All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the private spends fourth dimension with community elders to prepare for the side past times side stage. The elders' teachings are non written, but transmitted from generation to generation past times oral tradition. The Iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even to a greater extent than than names as well as surnames) are transferred from i to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your “Isiduko” is vital to the Xhosas as well as it is considered a shame as well as “Uburhanuka” (lack-of-identity) if i doesn’t know one's clan.
Newly circumcised initiates (Umkhweta) of Xhosa tribe inward South Africa
This is considered so of import that when 2 strangers run across for the firstly time, the firstly identity that gets shared is “Isiduko”. It is so of import that 2 people with the same surname but unlike clan are considered total strangers but the same 2 people from the same clan but unlike surnames are regarded equally unopen relatives. This forms the roots of "Ubuntu" (neighbouring) - a behaviour synonymous to this tribe equally extending a helping mitt to a consummate stranger when inward need. Ubuntu goes farther than just helping i some other - it is so deep that it fifty-fifty extends to looking after as well as reprimanding your neighbour's kid when inward the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a hamlet to enhance a child".
Intonjane (girl's initiation, puberty rite)
Thembu-Xhosa Female intonjane Initiation at Qutubeni inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1965
Intonjane is a rite of passage for immature adult woman to welcome them into womanhood. During intonjane, a immature adult woman is secluded at her homestead, where she is taught womanhood values as well as norms, as well as prepared for marriage. Girls are taught the responsibilities as well as rights of beingness a wife, a woman parent as well as a leader. The initiate’s elderberry relatives are chosen to preside over the intonjane as well as when the wintertime Sun sets, the physical care for begins.
Thembu Female Initiation:
A grouping of women sing a traditional vocal equally the immature adult woman as well as her 2 amakhankatha (orderlies or attendants), who are covered inward blankets from caput to human foot are led from the veld to the homestead past times elders.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 hateful solar daytime after she enters seclusion, a caprine animal is slaughtered, which teaches the immature adult woman to discovery the crucial custom of ukushwama. The slaughtered caprine animal is known equally umngena-ndlini, pregnant a caprine animal slaughtered when a maiden enters seclusion. Seven sheep are also slaughtered on the day. On the 7th hateful solar daytime of seclusion, an ox is slaughtered for ukutshatela intonjane. At midday on the same day, inward accordance with the custom, the immature adult woman must run naked about the yard banging a pot equally she goes.
Intonjane initiation ceremony
Every eve local boys as well as girls come upwards to the hut to perform Xhosa dances as well as songs, showcasing their skills. On the tenth day, the immature adult woman is dressed inward imibhaco. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 dark doek covers her caput equally the flooring is cleaned as well as smeared with moo-cow dung. Outside the grass is burnt. In the evening, novel grass is placed on the flooring as well as she removes the clothes equally she returns to seclusion. On her finally day, her elders pick out her to the main theatre as well as study dorsum to her parents as well as other identify unit of measurement members
However, the heavy expense involving vii killings of cow, plus beer as well as other nutrient for the feasting as well as feeding of attendants over several weeks, meant that, inward practice, it was oft postponed, fifty-fifty until after marriage.
Women dressed for intonjane, inward accuse of the beer at Nkondlo. 1957.
Thus, fifty-fifty without intonjane, a immature adult woman became an intombi at puberty as well as could live married. More importantly, the rite was regarded equally of import grooming for child-bearing. Without it, a immature adult woman was liable to autumn sick after marriage, live barren, or have got sickly children.
Any problem inward the immature bride was probable to live diagnosed past times the diviner equally having been sent past times her father's ancestors, who were aggrieved that the custom had been omitted, as well as that she should render to her parental homestead as well as undergo the rite.
Xhosa wedding:Inspection of the bride as well as bridesmaids at Ngqokotho . 1975.
Among the southern Nguni, the custom did non involve teaching inward sexual matters as well as techniques, or fifty-fifty inward the duties of married adult woman as well as mother.
Intonjane initaites
Sacred Xhosa Birth Rituals- SIFUDU
In Xhosa culture, cattle as well as goats are sacred because they provide meat, milk, hides for clothes as well as symbolise the unity betwixt the human stuff world as well as the spiritual world of universal gods as well as the ancestors. When a babe is born, she slips through the 2 worlds equally it were into the nowadays social community, bringing gifts of grapheme as well as recent connections with the spirit world as well as fifty-fifty ancestors that will, over time, differentiate her from whatsoever other human being.
Umtuma ingredient grooming for the child`s umbilical cord
Birth inward the Xhosa culture, is an of import rite of passage as well as is so treated with due respect, honour as well as celebration. Traditionally, the birthing woman parent is attended to past times ‘grand-mothers’ inward her ‘rondavel’, who have got experience inward birthing babies. The rondavel is made with mud or a cob-like mixture, as well as the roof is usually thatched, so the room is dark as well as circular. After the nascence the woman parent as well as novel babe are secluded until the cord falls off as well as the grandmother aids this physical care for past times mixing ash, saccharide as well as a poisonous works life called ‘Umtuma’ together as well as rubbing the glue onto the newly severed cord, which is believed to assist the drying out process.
Cutting the child`s umbilical cord. After birth, a length of dry out grass taken from the roof of the hut, is split inward half, its border is razor sharp, as well as with this the umbilical cord is severed leaving a length of 7 to 10 cm of cord on baby. Approximately as well as hr later, this length is reduced to to a greater extent than or less 5 cm past times over again severing with the grass equally seen, maintaining that the 2d cutting issue all unnecessary blood from the cord.
Once the cord has fallen off, the novel babe is introduced to unopen woman soul identify unit of measurement members equally good equally to women of the wider community. The ritual of “Sifudu” is as well as then performed. Pungent leaves of the Sifudu tree are burnt inward a fire, about which the women gather, to make a really pungent smoke. The babe is as well as then floated over the fume (upside-down) iii times, which causes a severe reaction of coughing as well as sometimes screaming.
Traditional medicine beingness applied to ensure that the residual of the cord rots
Then the babe is given to the woman parent who passes the babe nether her left genu as well as then her correct knee. This ceremony is believed to brand the babe stronger inward spirit as well as protect her from time to come evil. The babe is as well as then washed as well as smeared with a white chalk called “Ingceke” mixed with basis “Mtomboti” wood, a sweetness smelling amount that lasts for many weeks.
A adult woman holding a baby`s caput downward into the smoke, which gives it such a daze it tin privy hardly cry
The babe is as well as then breastfed past times the “Umdlezana”, the mother.
“Inkaba” is the ritual of burying the cord as well as the placenta as well as this has keen significance to the clan as well as seals the attachment of the babe to her ancestral lands. “Inkaba” as well as then comes to hateful one’s ancestral habitation as well as symbolizes the human relationship betwixt the individual, his/her clan, the terra firma as well as the spiritual world.
Mother swiftly passing the kid nether i of her legs, as well as then nether the other. All this, plus the fume shock, assures beyond doubt, that when the kid grows upwards it volition never live dependent to fright, nor live timid, shy or easily ridiculed past times pocket-size or adult, equally it volition stand upwards it's ground.
The burial identify of an ‘Inkaba’ is a identify where i must go as well as dream as well as communicate with ancestors.
The ritual of “Imbeleko” is the ceremony welcoming the kid into the greater community, when a caprine animal is slaughtered as well as the clan is invited to attend the feast. The pare of the caprine animal as well as then becomes a sacred item for the novel clan member, the baby, who volition slumber on it inward the time to come inward times of trouble, signifying a want for connexion with the ancestors.
Child beingness thoroughly washed after it's ordeal.
The babe volition live named with a identify unit of measurement prefix, or suffix as well as may live named to signify events, similar a thunderstorm or lightening, or wishes the identify unit of measurement may have got similar “Hope” or “Themba”.
Baby is painted with white amount INGCEKE from river bank. Substance is prepared on a apartment rock into which a little quantity of basis MTOMBOTI forest is mixed. This forest has a potent pleasant odour, which they maintain clings to the babe holding off all evil spirits from attacking the child.
A clan “Praise-Singer”, who is comparative to a Bard inward celtic culture, volition telephone telephone upon the ancestors as well as vocally elaborate on all the ancestors’ feats of excellence as well as praiseworthy qualities, so equally to imbue the novel fellow member of the clan with a sense of her responsibleness to the grouping at an early on age.
Baby feeding after its ordeal. Note how white it's human face has acquire at nowadays that the pigment has dried.
The Abakwetha Circumcision Ceremony
A man child amid the Xhosa is a 'thing' as well as non a soul until he has been through the Tribe's circumcision rite. This rite is known equally the UKWALUSA (circumcision) or the ABAKWETHA ritual as well as it is the most of import lawsuit inward whatsoever male's life. The total ritual is spread over a period of time of virtually 3 months.
Before circumcision immature men apparel “Gourds” (calabashes) over private parts. Like this considered fully dressed fifty-fifty inward forepart of women.
Among the southern Nguni, the ordeal (ukwaluka/abakwetha) was seen equally a necessary demonstration that the youth was worthy of beingness considered a 'man'. If a manlike soul did non undergo this rite, he would ever live referred to equally inkwenkwe (boy) no thing how old he became. He was excluded from all manlike soul activities, prohibited from participation inward councils, as well as was unable to inherit.
The initiates to live circumcised, heads shaved, have got finally repast inward sheep kraal before operation.
The uncircumcised manlike soul was subjected to the intense ridicule of women equally good equally men; no adult woman would have got anything to do with him, as well as no identify unit of measurement would concur to adjust a marriage. Overt religious overtones, inward the cast of directly invocations to ancestors, were few as well as the participation of a religious specialist (igqira-diviner) was limited to i ceremony during the entire process. Nevertheless, the religious significance was important.
The newly thatched hut, Sutu, which volition acquire their habitation for iii months.
This custom initiated the immature homo into total membership inward the family, which included non solely the living adults but also its guiding spirits--the ancestors who would never have got an uncircumcised man. However, this religious aspect was largely inherent rather than explicit as well as overt.
Xhosa traditional circumcission surgeon ready with pike before operation.
To acquire men through circumcision. Five youths at a fourth dimension are circumcised, ages 17 to twenty years The grouping of 5 alive together inward a specially constructed hut (sutu), which becomes their habitation for iii months patch they undergo the transformation from youth to manhood.
The start of actual operation, 500 yards from newly constructed hut. (Sutu).The severing of the foreskin. No modern medicine used.
The lawsuit usually takes identify inward the boy's belatedly teens but sometimes, when they are especially wild as well as cannot live controlled past times their parents, boys are spot inward before to sober them upwards as well as to instill responsibleness into them.
Completely severed. At this 2d the man child shouts NDIYINDODA (I am a man).
The interesting portion virtually the rite is that it indisputably does have got this effect. The argue is non because of whatsoever penalisation or acre of study that is exercised over the initiate inward the schoolhouse itself but purely, it seems, because of the psychological powerfulness the rite has.
The bandaging. Goat pare strip about waist becomes bandage. The herbs used. Left mitt ‘swadi” stops bleeding. Right mitt “isichwe” antiseptic.
There have got been cases of widows whose sons, without a father's restraint, were quite out of command and
spent their fourth dimension thieving as well as getting upwards to all the mischief imaginable, who inward the goal were physically caught past times the men of a kraal as well as taken struggling as well as shouting to the "ngcibi" (surgeon) with his sharpened assegai. They were inward each illustration completely reformed equally a termination of the ceremony.
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
The "ngcibi" or surgeon arrives at sunrise as well as equally he passes the identify unit of measurement huts, the women start wailing. Those whom he passes have got to live careful because he flails his arms as well as his assegai around, non worried virtually injuring anyone.
As he comes inward sight of the initiates he screams viciously referring to them equally 'dogs' as well as 'things'.
Xhosa circumcised initiate
The functioning is done with a sharpened blade as well as the man child must non outcry out or fifty-fifty flinch inward pain.
As he operates the "ngcibi" (doctor) says, 'You are a man!' as well as throws the excised portion on the basis inward forepart of the man child who has to repeat,"'Ndiyindoda!'" ('I am a man!') equally he picks upwards the portion as well as holds it inward his clenched hand.
Xhosa adolescent Initiate (umkhweta). After ritual circumcision the initiates
live inward isolation for upwards to several weeks painted inward white clay.
After this, the initiates or "Umkhweta" have got to go inward unlike directions as well as bury the portions inward an pismire heap where the ants volition swallow them upwards so that a magician cannot discovery them as well as brand medicine from them. If the portions were used for such a purpose as well as then the initiates' wounds would never heal.
The injure is outpouring with special leaves supposedly having healing properties as well as mud is as well as then packed over it.
The surgeon as well as then smears a mixture of pismire heap as well as H2O on the human face as well as pectus of the initiates as well as makes them imbibe a mouthful of the mixture. This makes their hearts hard similar an pismire heap, so that they won't live cowards inward their time to come lives equally men. It also prevents them from beingness dizzy.
The initiates are looked after past times an amakhankatha, or guardian, who explained the rules they had to follow if they want to acquire inward manhood properly. The firstly chore of the amakhankatha is to pigment their naked as well as shaved bodies from caput to human foot inward white ochre, turning the initiates into ghosts. The white chalk symbolized purity. The initiates as well as then twine themselves upwards inward their novel blankets so that they volition non pick out handle of cold. They are as well as then lectured on beingness honourable Xhosa's as well as the manlike soul parent of each initiate pays the surgeon 50 cents.
Young Xhosa Abakwetha. © James Nachtwey, National Geographic.The circumcision rituals, known as Ulwaluko, are traditional within the Xhosa civilisation (and many other African cultures). The ceremonies signify the passage from man child to manhood.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
Lobola
Labola was a fundamental chemical constituent of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth inward cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. Except inward the illustration of chiefs as well as really rich men, the number of cattle demanded was usually fewer than ten. The number of cattle as well as the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation. In many cases, the finally total was non decided, nor inward most cases were all of the cattle delivered prior to the completion of the marriage. As a result, the woman's relatives would demand additional cattle from fourth dimension to time. In monastic tell to increase the pressure level if it was felt in that location was unnecessary dilatoriness, the adult woman mightiness live called habitation as well as detained until additional cattle were forthcoming.
Xhosa woman parent as well as her immature adult woman (bride)
Much has been written virtually lobola as well as its significance. African matrimony was primarily a joining of 2 families rather than a thing betwixt 2 individuals. As a result, negotiations as well as decision-making regarding whatsoever proposed matrimony were inward the hands of the identify unit of measurement heads. In theory (except inward the illustration of older heads of their ain homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' as well as the wishes of immature people were non regarded equally crucial. Obedience to one's parents as well as the economical as well as legal dependence of the immature people caused most to have got the arrangements made for them.
Xhosa mothers
In practice, immature men were often consulted as well as their wishes respected; if a immature homo wanted to get married a item girl, his identify unit of measurement most probable would endeavour to adjust the match, as well as rarely would they endeavour to override a potent dislike or objection. Girls were consulted much less, as well as families would resort to potent pressure, including thrashings, if they thought the matrimony a goodness i as well as were anxious to conclude it. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature adult woman was expected to submit to the wishes of her father. However, fathers were constrained non solely past times their fondness for their daughters as well as the demand to acquire the consent of the girl's mother, but also past times the fact that if the married adult woman were responsible for a breakdown inward the marriage, the lobola mightiness have got to live returned. Thus, if a immature adult woman were determined, she could usually number a veto over a proposed marriage.
Xhosa wedding
Lobola was the foundation of African marriage. Although in that location were a number of ceremonies, rituals as well as reciprocal entertainments past times the families, solely lobola was indispensable inward legitimizing a marriage. Without the payment of cattle, the manlike soul parent or his identify unit of measurement could non claim parental rights to the children. Without the payment of lobola, a boy did non have got a claim to inherit. Perpetuation of the lineage was a source of keen anxiety to African families, as well as the main incentive as well as purpose of African matrimony was the want to provide children. Also, equally an active producer in agriculture, a adult woman made of import contributions to the economic scheme of a homestead. Thus, lobola was a compensation from the identify unit of measurement of the groom to that of the bride for the loss of her productive as well as reproductive contributions Moreover, lobola cemented the alliance betwixt the families, as well as the substantial transfer of wealth created really of import vested interests inward the marriage.
Xhosa immature man
The payment of lobola was an indication to the bride's identify unit of measurement that the proposed married adult man was capable of providing for the bride as well as that he as well as his identify unit of measurement were people of substance. Also, it was a safety bond posted past times or on behalf of the bridegroom equally a pledge of goodness treatment; a homo was non probable to abandon such a substantial investment, as well as inward most societies, if a divorce resulted because of abuse as well as ill-treatment, all or most of the lobola was forfeited.
Xhosa courting couple
On the other hand, past times the receipt of lobola, the bride's identify unit of measurement incurred a keen many obligations. The bride had to carry to her novel home, a wardrobe, a make of presents for her novel 'in-laws', as well as a goodness furnish of household articles; also, from fourth dimension to time, she would render habitation to replenish these past times demanding more. Her identify unit of measurement had incentives to encourage the immature wife's goodness behaviour.
Mandla Mandela,grandson of Madiba (Nelson mandela) as well as his French married adult woman Anais Grimand who married finally twelvemonth inward a traditional ceremony
If she were at error inward a divorce, the lobola would have got to live returned. If she created problem or violated the ukuhlonipa (to present respect) restrictions, she would live sent habitation to acquire a fine to restore harmonious relations inward the husband's homestead. Beneficiaries of lobola acquired lifelong obligations; if widowed or divorced, a adult woman could go to them as well as claim protection as well as maintenance.Also, it seems that inward the lawsuit of disaster or hard times, a married adult man could inquire for as well as appear some assistance from his wife's family.
XHOSA TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE/WEDDING- IDULI (Nguwa Nguwa Umtshato)
Xhosa homo as well as his wife
Before the Missionaries acquire inward to alter the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a homo with his wives, married sons with their wives as well as children, as well as single daughters. Marriage was polygamous as well as patriarchal. Each adult woman inward the household who has been married a twelvemonth or to a greater extent than had her ain hut, as well as also a store-hut.
Uduli - the bridal political party - consisting of bridesmaids, immature men, an old homo as well as old adult woman escort the bride-to-be to the prospective bridegroom's identify unit of measurement umzi (the kraal).
Huts were arranged inward a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The opened upwards segment of
the circle was filled past times a cattle kraal. The senior manlike soul of the household was the possessor of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, as well as that of his firstly wife(the 'great wife') are built reverse the gate of the cattle kraal.
Xhosa married adult man as well as wife
The traditional physical care for of Xhosa matrimony begins with "Ukutwala," which agency "the taking," or "carry away/abduction" which occurs after the grooms identify unit of measurement has chosen a suitable bride for himself. It is of import to Federal Reserve notation that "Ukutwala" is non kidnapping because the prospective bride is non harmed as well as may render to the family. It is rather a formal method signifying the intention to get married as well as this marks the firstly of the betrothal process.
Bride as well as maids within hut icon up. Bodies smeared with crimson ochre glue as well as ears painted white.
After "Ukutwala" has taken place, the groom`s identify unit of measurement volition kicking start the negotiation for matrimony as well as lobola with the bride`s family. It is of import to appreciate that lobola is non a" bride price," but a agency of establishing links betwixt the 2 families. the size of lobola varies considerably depending on the relative wealth as well as condition of the families involved, the wages to gain from the matrimony link, as well as the desirablility of the bride.
Painting complete, they are adorned inward their beadwork, taking keen pains just equally a white bride does on her keen day.
Traditionally lobola usually amounted to 8 heads of cattle, as well as today the value of each caput of cattle forms portion of the overall negotiation. However,there is a Xhosa saying 'one never stops paying lobola," which agency the identify unit of measurement link is an of import portion of lobola, a union that must live constantly kept renewed past times visiting one`s in-laws, inviting them around, as well as inward general, maintaining goodness familial relationships.
Xhosa couple
Once lobola is finalized matrimony tin privy pick out place. On the appointed day, the bride`s identify unit of measurement brings the bride to the groom`s house, amidst celebration inward which animals (chickens,goat or cattle) are slaughtered equally sacrifice to the ancestors, inviting them to the occasion as well as introducing the bride to them. There are no formal invitation to this event, rather whoever wishes to attend, tin privy participate inward the celebrations, as well as this often leads to a really large gatherings
Xhosa wedding ceremony ceremony
The lawsuit is joyous as well as really communal inward spirit and the celebration goes on at to the lowest degree 2 days at both the bride`s habitation as well as the groom`s (especially at the groom`s).
The finally phase of the matrimony occurs when the bride as well as the groom present themselves to the community past times walking along the main route together. This is known equally "ukucanda ibala."
Umakoti (Daughter in-law/wife)
A bride has to present honour towards her husband's family. The firstly virtue demanded of a bride is that she should live hardworking, respectful as well as eager. She must attention for her husband's comfort as well as that of his identify unit of measurement especially the parents inward law. Part of her responsibilities include fetching the wood, H2O as well as wild spinach from distant places. She also takes attention of the habitation garden as well as of course of teaching the cooking.
Customary police requires that a bride must present honour towards all senior relatives of her husband, especially his manlike soul relatives.
The bride must never go nigh the cattle kraal inward which her husbands manlike soul parent or granddad are buried or where the ancestors of the identify unit of measurement are believed to reign. However, if she opens her ain homestead with her husband, she may go nigh the kraal of that homestead; she is solely forbidden to go to that of the senior homestead. She must avoid the inkundla (courtyard betwixt huts as well as kraal) inward which men sit. When entering a hut of a senior relative of her husband, manlike soul as well as female, she must turn sharply to left advertizement circle about the dorsum so equally to avoid the men's side (Ukuceza). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 daughter-in-law disdains her husband's umzi if she does non avoid every identify bout where her fathers sit.
Xhosa ladies.It is of import for women to appear dignified at all times especially if in that location is a cultural ritual. Women must screen their caput at all times as well as have got a scarf about their waist as well as have got something to spot on their shoulders. This is a sign of respect.
The avoidance of the correct of huts, the inkundla, as well as the cattle kraal is extended to those imizi (homesteads) of her husband's seniors into which a adult woman mightiness have got married. In her husband's mother's hut a bride is expected to pick out a retired position. She may approach the hearth to mend the dismiss or reckon to the pots, but cannot sit down upwards to the fire. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride avoids the name, as well as words, of which a principal syllable is similar to the regulation syllable of the call of her husband's father, his brothers, her husband's elderberry brothers, as well as his father's father, whether they are living or dead. She also avoids personal names of her husband's mother, paternal aunts, as well as elderberry sisters, but does non avoid words similar to them.
At ibhasi (the trip the low-cal fantastic of the married men) at Qebe,Transkei Province,SA.Circa 1973.
When she arrives, she is told (by her husband's sister, or an elderberry co-wifey) what words are avoided inward the homestead. So long equally she lives inward her mother-in-law's homestead, a wife, no thing how long she has been married, is responsible to her other-in-law, fifty-fifty to a greater extent than than her husband. If she want to see her homestead, the married adult woman must acquire permission from her woman parent inward police as well as and then she tin privy tell her married adult man that his woman parent has given her permission to go see with her people. Impoliteness to her mother in law may termination inward a bride beingness sent dorsum to her people. Nevertheless, a mother in law is expected to live "Bush shelter" to her daughter-in-law against her husband. If a married adult man beats upwards his wife, she run to her mother in law to seek refuge there, as well as the son, because he respects his mother, volition non pursue her there.(Table Mountain
The Battle of Qamata as well as the Sea Dragons: According to the ancient legend of the Xhosa people,
Qamata was the creator of the world. As he was creating the earth, he wanted to cast dry out land. The dragons beneath the sea were furious with Qamata inward his quest to create dry out terra firma as well as began an epic battle. Qamata’s mother, world Goddess, Djobela, helped Qamata past times creating 4 powerful giants that would protect the world from the dragons. The giants were defeated past times the dragons but wished Djobela to turn them into mountains so that they could go on to protect the land. According to traditional Xhosa beliefs, i of these 4 giants was turned into Table Mountain.
Jika - drum as well as marimba/traditional Troupe of the Pondo People
‘AmaXhosa History'
The oldest boy of the manlike soul parent of all was a Hottentot; the 2d a
Kafir [African or Xhosa]; the 3rd a white man. No creature
could have got been to a greater extent than happily situated than the Hottentot. He
reveled inward the abundance of his father's riches as well as luxuries. At
length, past times argue of the abundance inward which he moved, he
grew careless, indolent, as well as utterly regardless. His great
amusement was to follow the honey-bird from hateful solar daytime to hateful solar daytime in
search of bee-hives. One hateful solar daytime he went out equally usual, as well as never
returned to his father, leaving everything behind him. That is
the argue given why the Hottentots are such an improvident
people.
The 2d son, the Kafir, took a special liking to cattle, and
the herding of them. Cattle ultimately became his inheritance;
and when he came of age, he left his father, as well as laid upwards for
himself. That is why the Kafirs are to this hateful solar daytime so fond of cattle.
The other thing, received from his father, to retain for ever as
his inalienable property, was Kafir corn, for which he has a
special liking.
While the oldest son, the Hottentot, was pursuing his
wandering chase after the honey-bird, as well as the 2d son,
the Kafir, was next his flocks inward the fields, the youngest
son, the white man, was ever at habitation with the old man, his
father. As the youngest, he was a keen favourite. He was
constantly inward his father's company, waiting upon him, and
hearing his wise talk. In this way he became a precocious
child. His manlike soul parent poured into his ‘ soft caput ' all the treasures of
wisdom as well as knowledge. He told him everything; showed him
how to do all things; as well as thus the white homo was inward advance
of the other races.
“The Cattle-Killing”
And so catastrophe crippled this land,
for Mhlakaza's immature adult woman emerged from the pool,
came dorsum habitation noising the problem,
made her demented study to men,
who never pay whatsoever attending to females.
That inward itself of course of teaching was suspect,
a veritable curse to this terra firma of Xhosa,
for a adult woman to claim that the shades had addressed her,
that she'd met as well as conversed with them human face to face.
Where were this country's thinking people?
Where were the keen men?
Where were the dignitaries?
Where were the senior men of experience,
who danced to the vanquish established past times others,
dancing besotted on cattle?
--------------------
So then, my swain countrymen,
It so happened that when this immature adult woman made her announcement
the Xhosa were inward virtual command of the land,
a nation custom-sustained.
So they made preparations to have what was coming
and began to slaughter their innocent cattle.
-------
All of our problems began with conversion:
conversion entailed the credence of God,
yet this God nosotros said nosotros accepted,
this Bible---is pregnant with evil incarnate,
it's held past times a homo who faces westward,
his clerical neckband primly folded inward front
is secured past times a butterfly stud at the back,
and concealed at his dorsum a cannon is lodged
which looms into sentiment when he opens his mouth
and shatters the sinews of those he confronts.
And when confusion afflicted the land
the Christian missionaries cutting correct through,
they cutting correct through urging peace as well as calm.
Xhosa bodily marks (scarifications)
Travelling through the Transkei inward South Africa, i really often sees a immature maiden with her tum total of scars of equal size, which run from betwixt her breasts downwardly to the navel, as well as horizontally across the sides of her tummy, patch many bear the scars on their backs equally well.
Investigation proved beyond incertitude that this custom is carried out past times most immature Tembu girls for the sake of beautifying the body. The operators, elderly women, are experts at the job, performing the functioning whenever a immature maiden requests it equally described inward the next manner:
Tribal amaxhosa beautification marks
Medicine.
Therapeutic practices include cutting, sucking, massage, purgatives, as well as the provision of amulets made from brute as well as works life parts as well as beads. Medicines are made from dried bark, leaves, roots, as well as bulbs basis into a fine powder. Medicine is mixed with H2O as well as drunkard or smeared onto the affected portion of the body; it also tin privy live carried on the body inward a little container. Some herbalists have got divining spirits that aid them execute their duties as well as brand the presence of those spirits known to the ancestral spirits. Many "Muti shops" that sell indigenous medicines be inward urban areas. Clinics as well as hospitals inward rural as well as urban areas provide scientific medicine to patients. Often i type of medicine is reverted to after the other type has been used if the soul is non satisfied with the outcome of the firstly treatment.
Death as well as Afterlife.
Death is ascribed to witchcraft as well as sorcery, natural causes, as well as the volition of God. The spirit of a deceased household caput is believed to go on to alive equally an ancestral spirit. By law, all corpses must live buried inward a cemetery, as well as this has had an influence on the belief that a household caput should live buried inward his cattle corral, a soul who was struck past times lightning or who drowned should live buried where the corpse was found, as well as babies should live buried nether the forest pile.
A expiry causes impurity, as well as whatsoever soul who has come upwards into contact with a corpse must live purified through the washing of his or her hands.
Funerals are of import occasions, as well as relatives as well as friends brand an elbow grease to attend. Graves are covered with branches from thorn trees to preclude animals from damaging the grave as well as to preclude sorcerers from earthworks upwards the body as well as changing it into a familiar. There are unlike types of tombstones inward both rural as well as urban areas, as well as they are ceremonially unveiled. Burial societies play an of import role inward rural as well as urban areas, as well as their members provide i some other with stuff as well as moral support.
Xhosa girl, Eastern Cape, Kwazulu Natal, South Africa
Khaya la bantu dancers of Xhosa tribe
Xhosa girls
Cultural observances inward this situation 
Khaya La Bantu Dancers Performing Traditional Xhosa Dance.Khaya La Bantu
Other cultural observances pertaining to the greeting 
Xhosa tradition
Source:http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Xhosa.aspx
http://www.spiritualbirth.net/sacred-xhosa-birth-rituals-south-africa
Khaya La Bantu Dancers posing
Xhosa Circumcision
Khaya La Bantu Dancer as well as her brother
Khaya La Bantu Dancers
Thembu Traditional healers at Ibhasi,Dance for Married men
A unique picture. Married Xhosa twin sisters.
Xhosa immature adult woman assiting her pal to dress
Mama Africa
Little Xhosa tribe girl
Xhosa kids
Chief Mandla Mandela
Below are the total pictorial representation of the Xhosa tribal beautification marks (scarification), Abakwetha,Intonjane as well as Wedding (Induli) initiation/ceremonies of Xhosa people of South Africa. All the articles as well as photos were culled from:http://www.ezakwantu.com/' as well as authored by Lister Haig Hunter
(THMBU GIRLS)
VAMBA UMZIMBA
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
Beer from tin privy offered to initiate. First mouthful he must spit out, equally seen. Second mouthful he may swallow.
― Nelson Mandela from Xhosa tribe,South Africa.
Xhosa people
The Xhosa often called the "Red Blanket People," are speakers of Bantu languages living inward south-east South Africa, as well as inward the finally 2 centuries throughout the southern as well as central-southern parts of the country. They were originally known equally the Aba-nguni after a really early on ruler past times the call of Mnguni. Very picayune is known virtually Mnguni except that he was the ancestor of a homo named Xosa as well as equally a termination they became the Xhosa people.
The Xhosa speaking people are of Nguni stock similar the Zulu and are divided into several tribes with related but distinct heritages. The main tribes are the Mpondo, Mpondomise, Bomvana ("the crimson ones'), Xesibe, as well as Thembu. In addition, the Bhaca as well as Mfengu have got adopted the Xhosa language. The call "Xhosa" comes from that of a legendary leader called uXhosa. There is also a theory that the word xhosa derives from a word inward some Khoi-khoi or San linguistic communication pregnant "fierce" or "angry", the amaXhosa beingness the vehement people. The Xhosa refer to themselves equally the amaXhosa as well as to their linguistic communication equally isiXhosa.
Many famous South Africans are from the Xhosa nation, notably Oliver Tambo, Stephen Biko,Nelson Mandela, Thabo Mbeki, Bishop Desmond Tutu,Mariam Makeba as well as good known cricketer Makhaya Ntini.
International song-bird Mariam Makeba aka Mama Africa is from Xhosa tribe
Orientation
Identification as well as Location. Xhosa-speaking people alive to a greater extent than often than non inward the rural as well as urban areas of the Eastern Cape Province inward the Republic of South Africa. The rural expanse covers the part stretching from the Umtamvuna River inward the E to the Great Fish River inward the west, the Indian Ocean in the south, as well as Kingdom of Lesotho as well as the Gariep River to the north. Xhosa regions exterior the Eastern Cape Province include the rural areas of southern KwaZulu-Natal as well as urban centers such as Johannesburg (Gauteng Province) and Cape Town (Western Cape Province).
Xhosa people of Transkei,South Africa performining their traditional dance
Presently to a greater extent than or less 10 i G m Xhosa people are distributed across the country, as well as Xhosa is South Africa's 2d most mutual habitation language, after Zulu, to which Xhosa is closely related. The pre-1994 apartheid scheme of Bantustans denied Xhosas South African citizenship, but enabled them to have got self-governing "homelands" namely; Transkei as well as Ciskei, at nowadays both a portion of the Eastern Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa alive inward Cape Town (iKapa inward Xhosa), East London (iMonti), as well as Port Elizabeth (iBhayi).
As of 2003 the bulk of Xhosa speakers, to a greater extent than or less 5.3 million, lived inward the Eastern Cape, followed past times the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), as well as Limpopo (14,225).
Xhosa people at the countryside
HISTORY
According to Pinnock, the earliest reports past times Portuguese survivors of shipwrecks along the south-east coast during the sixteen as well as 17th centuries depict the amaXhosa equally cattle herders who hunted game as well as cultivated sorghum. They lived inward beehive –shaped huts inward scattered homesteads which were ruled past times chiefs.
Tshawe founded the Xhosa kingdom past times defeating the Cirha as well as Jwarha groups. His descendants expanded the kingdom past times settling inward novel territory as well as bringing people living in that location nether the command of the amaTshawe. Generally, the grouping would pick out on the call of the main nether whom they had united. There are so distinct varieties of the Xhosa language, the most distinct beingness isiMpondo (isiNdrondroza). Other dialects include: Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondimise, Rharhabe, Gcaleka, Xesibe, Bhaca, Cele, Hlubi, Ntlangwini, Ngqika, Mfengu.
Xhosa people
According to oral tradition, the ancestors of the amaXhosa lived inward the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains before moving piece of cake to the coast. "The firstly grouping of Nguni immigrants to migrate to South Africa about 13th century from East Africa ahead of the Zulus consisted of Xhosa, (made upwards of Gcaleka,Nggika,Ndlambe as well as Dushane clans), the Thembu as well as Pondo. However, the 2d grouping of Nguni-speakers joined these tribes later. historical evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have got inhabited the eastern Cape expanse equally long equally 1593 as well as belike fifty-fifty before that. some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have got lived inward the expanse since 7th AD."
By the mid 17th century, the Thembu tribe was settled about Mbashi River [meaning “dark river” or “dangerous ravine”] with the original Xhosa tribe inward the vicinity of Kei River as well as beyond. The senior Xhosa chiefdom was given honour as well as tribute but was non much feared.The senior main did non have got plenty armed forces powerfulness to brand himself Rex of a larger centralized state.
1840 SCHINZ/HONEGGER LITHOGRAPH Xhosa People
The chiefdom was farther weakened when Rarabe,brother of the chief, Gcaleka challenged his brother`s dominion as well as was driven off with his followers. He was succeeded equally a western Xhosa main past times his boy Ndlambe as well as after Nggika,his grandson, who took the chieftaincy away from his uncle inward 1796. During the 1820`s as well as 30`s southern Africa was torn apart past times violent wars betwixt differrent indigenous peoples, inward what is often termed Mfecane/Difeqane ("The Crushing").
Two Nguni chiefs started these wars,Zwide of Ndwandwe kingdom inward the northward of present-day Zulu terra firma (the expanse of Kwa-Zulu Natal lying northward of the Tugela River) as well as Dingiswayo of the Mthethwe kingdom inward the south.Refugees from both regular army became mfecane tribe "on the march" as well as swept across the countrycushing anyone that crossed their path.
Xhosa people
When the British came to eastern Cape, they tried to preclude armed forces conception past times adopting a treat-state system. Treaties of friendship tied Independent African states such equally Ciskei as well as Pondoland to the British. However the treaty-state scheme did non finally really long as well as state of war broke out betwixt the white settlers as well as the Xhosa tribes. An allied regular army of Nggika-Xhosa, Gcaleka-Xhosa as well as Thembu defeated the British.
However,this did non deter the British from annexing Keiskamma territory, thus setting the scene for some other state of war which volition eventually escalate to a civil state of war betwixt Gcaleka, the Xhosa main as well as the local Mfengu tribe that lives amid them. In the wars against the British as well as colonial troops, 2 Xhosa chiefs Sandile as well as Maqoma, emerged potent leaders. After both had been defeated, Xhosa resistance crumbled as well as past times early on 1800`s, the finally of Nguni chiefs has been brought nether colonial rule. however, what genuinely broke the Nguni nation`s resolve was the disaster that occurred inward mid 1850`s (The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857). In all the Xhosa fought for i hundred years to save their independence, heritage as well as land, as well as today this expanse is still referred to past times many equally Frontier Country.
The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857
A immature young adult woman past times call Nongqause, had a vision of warriors of the old rising upwards from the reeds surrounding the puddle into which she was gazing.They had been purified of witchcraft as well as they encouraged her to tell the Xhosa people purify themselves past times killing their cattle, destroying all their grains as well as non planting whatsoever crops.
The Photo of Nonkosi(left) as well as Nonqause(right), the niece of a prohet who allegedly misled her people to commit national suicide past times killing 25,000 cows as well as convinced them to dismiss their crops about 1857
This activity would also aid acquire rid of the White settlers, since the old warriors would come upwards as well as drive the White settlers away. News of Nongqause prophecy, spurred on past times the preaching of her uncle Mlakaza, spread amid the people similar wild fire.In the aftermath, to a greater extent than or less 20,000 people died of starvation patch some other 30,000 were scattered amid the white farmers inward the outlying areas where they sought function for food.
Despite,this disaster as well as havoc,it wrought on Xhosa people,Xhosa civilisation has remained strong.Although their lifestyle has been adapted to western traditions, they have got still retained many of their traditions as well as culture. They were the firstly African people to acquire widely known to Europeans as well as this is belike why, according to historians, the call ‘Xhosa’ became the call for all Africans inward the Eastern Cape.
Xhosa women. circa 1910
LANGUAGE
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal linguistic communication of the Bantu family. While the Xhosas telephone telephone their linguistic communication "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to equally "Xhosa" inward English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken past times virtually 18% of the South African population, as well as has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken inward urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, especially those living inward urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.
Among its features, the Xhosa linguistic communication famously has 15 click sounds, originally borrowed from at nowadays extinct Khoisan languages of the region. Xhosa has iii basic click consonants: a dental click, written with the alphabetic quality "c"; a palatal click, written with the alphabetic quality "q"; as well as a lateral click, written with the alphabetic quality "x". There is also a elementary inventory of 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u). Some vowels still may live silent. In other words, they tin privy live nowadays inward written linguistic communication but hardly audible inward spoken language. This happens especially at the goal of the word. This is because the musical note of most Xhosa words is lowest at the end.
Xhosa circumcised initiates (umkheta)
Economy
Subsistence.
The amaXhosa were pastoralists [people who herded livestock, often equally nomadic wanderers without a laid farm area], as well as their tedious motility was to a greater extent than of an expansion of territory rather than migration. One of the main reasons for this motility of expansion was only the splintering off of the sons of chiefs to found novel chiefdoms of their own. Over centuries diverse chiefdoms formed equally a termination of inner turmoils as well as division, through unions with the Khoisan groups [more virtually this later] whose territories were overrun as well as conquered past times the amaXhosa as well as through the arrival of refugees from wars inward Natal, having been expelled from this expanse past times the legendary Rex uShaka.
Xhosa people on their land.circa 1963
Xhosa people on their land.circa 1963
In the rural areas mixed farming consisting of horticulture as well as brute husbandry is practiced. Depending on the availability of arable land, each household has access to a acre ranging from 2.1 acres (0.86 hectare) to 8.5 acres (3.43 hectares) or a little garden equally portion of the residential plot. Chief's as well as headmen usually have larger tracts of terra firma that make betwixt 15 acres (6 hectares) as well as 32 acres (13 hectares). Maize (the staple), sorghum, wheat, barley, beans, peas, potatoes, pumpkins, precious rock squash, cabbage, carrots, tomatoes, as well as tobacco are grown.
Xhosa man child inward traditional attire
The soil varies from sandy to sandy loam, as well as a few areas have got clay as well as alluvial soils. Soil depth ranges from vi inches (15 centimeters) to 6.6 feet (2 meters) (alluvial soils side past times side to riverbeds). The main implements are ox-drawn plows as well as metal-bladed hoes. Cows as well as goats are eaten on special occasions related to the life bicycle as well as religious ceremonies, as well as sheep, pigs, as well as chickens provide meat for household consumption. Commodities non produced locally, such equally coffee, tea, sugar, canned food, cloth, clothes, utensils, as well as furniture, are bought with the earnings from migrant labor inward urban areas or the proceeds from the sale of skins as well as wool to local traders or at shops inward nearby towns.
caJ. Barnett as well as Co.: Young Xosa [Xhosa] Woman inward Costume; Wood Bowls and Gourd Container Nearby, n.d. [late nineteenth century].
People living nigh the sea or rivers eat the fish as well as crustaceans as well as mollusks. Roots, bulbs, berries, wild fruit, as well as herbal plants are gathered to supplement the diet. Occasionally little game may live hunted.
Former SA prez Thabo Mbeki is from Xhosa tribe
Commercial Activities. As a termination of evolution efforts a number of irrigation schemes were initiated inward which little farmers were resettled to make pineapples, citrus fruit, coffee, as well as tea for commercial purposes. Government policy regarding terra firma redistribution favors commercial dairy farming, wool production, as well as agriculture on a larger scale. In some areas handicrafts are manufactured for the tourist market.
Steve Bantu Biko,the hreat liberty fighter is from Xhosa tribe
Industrial Arts. Mats, baskets, beer strainers, brooms, utensils made from calabash, beadwork, pipes, knobkerries, walking sticks, wooden yokes, whips, as well as leather harnesses are made to a greater extent than often than non for personal use.
Thembu women wore highly decorated leather purses hanging from the hip over
leather skirts.Circa 1960
Some people are regarded equally specialists inward these crafts as well as may industry these items for others. In areas nigh major roads some of those items may live sold to tourists. Sleds are made from forked tree trunks to carry goods. Wooden mortars as well as pestles as well as grinding stones are made for the grinding of grain.
Xhosa adult woman wearing traditional attire with native wooden violin inward her hand
leather skirts.Circa 1960
Some people are regarded equally specialists inward these crafts as well as may industry these items for others. In areas nigh major roads some of those items may live sold to tourists. Sleds are made from forked tree trunks to carry goods. Wooden mortars as well as pestles as well as grinding stones are made for the grinding of grain.
Division of Labor. In general, men tend to the livestock as well as clear virgin terra firma for horticulture as well as women do the household chores (cleaning, preparing as well as serving food, washing clothes, fetching H2O as well as firewood, as well as caring for children) as well as function inward the fields or gardens. After the introduction of ox-drawn plows, men became to a greater extent than involved inward horticulture past times tilling the soil as well as planting the crops as well as women did the weeding.
Nelson Mandela is from Xhosa tribe
The whole identify unit of measurement is involved inward harvesting. Boys who do non attend schoolhouse herd the livestock as well as chase birds when the crops ripen. Girls attention for younger siblings as well as aid their mothers with their chores. In areas unopen to the sea men, women, as well as children harvest marine resources. In urban areas the segmentation of labor is less prescriptive, but women still do the household chores.
Nelson Mandela is from Xhosa tribe
The whole identify unit of measurement is involved inward harvesting. Boys who do non attend schoolhouse herd the livestock as well as chase birds when the crops ripen. Girls attention for younger siblings as well as aid their mothers with their chores. In areas unopen to the sea men, women, as well as children harvest marine resources. In urban areas the segmentation of labor is less prescriptive, but women still do the household chores.
Land Tenure. There are iii systems of terra firma tenure—permission to occupy, quitrent, as well as freehold—in the rural areas. Land is regarded equally the belongings of the tribal grouping as well as is held inward trust past times the chief.
Xhosa settlement
A soul who wants residential and/or arable terra firma must apply through his or her local headman, as well as depending on availability, terra firma is allocated. After payment of the required fees, the terra firma is registered at the local magistrate's purpose inward the call of the soul to whom it is allocated for that soul to usage inward accordance with the rules applicable to the item type of terra firma tenure system.
Xhosa land
Xhosa settlement
A soul who wants residential and/or arable terra firma must apply through his or her local headman, as well as depending on availability, terra firma is allocated. After payment of the required fees, the terra firma is registered at the local magistrate's purpose inward the call of the soul to whom it is allocated for that soul to usage inward accordance with the rules applicable to the item type of terra firma tenure system.
Xhosa land
Kinship
Kin Groups as well as Descent. Descent is patrilineal. Exogamous patriclans (iziduko) are the most of import kin groups. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 multifariousness of clan names are derived from the names of founder members, animals, as well as plants. The clans are noncorporate groups, as well as private members may back upwards i some other inward times of crisis as well as during ceremonies related to the life bicycle as well as sacrifices to the ancestors.
Closer relatives who have got the same clan name (isiduko) are called imilowo (equated past times some researchers to lineages) as well as are to a greater extent than deeply involved inward the daily lives of private members. In before times a grouping of imilowo would cast a corporate grouping with a leader (intloko yemilowo). The father's sis ( udadobawo ) plays an of import role inward the lives of her brother's children. At ceremonial occasions the children of sisters (abatshana) are included equally imilowo. In urban areas neighbors often are included equally imilowo. Kinship does non have got the same importance inward urban areas that it does inward rural areas.
Closer relatives who have got the same clan name (isiduko) are called imilowo (equated past times some researchers to lineages) as well as are to a greater extent than deeply involved inward the daily lives of private members. In before times a grouping of imilowo would cast a corporate grouping with a leader (intloko yemilowo). The father's sis ( udadobawo ) plays an of import role inward the lives of her brother's children. At ceremonial occasions the children of sisters (abatshana) are included equally imilowo. In urban areas neighbors often are included equally imilowo. Kinship does non have got the same importance inward urban areas that it does inward rural areas.
Kinship Terminology. Kin terms are a variation of the Iroquois type. However, the woman parent as well as the mother's sis are non referred to with the same term, as well as the mother's sister's children are referred to past times unlike terms than are the father's brother's children.
Xhosa circumcission initiate (Umkhweta)
RITES OF PASSAGE
The Xhosa are a South African cultural grouping who emphasize traditional practices as well as customs inherited from their forefathers. Each soul within the Xhosa civilisation has his or her identify which is recognized past times the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa soul goes through graduation stages which recognize his growth as well as assign him a recognized identify inward the community.
Young bare breasted Xhosa girls inward traditional procession
Each phase is marked past times a specific ritual aimed at introducing the private to their counterparts as well as hence to the ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to innovate a novel born to the ancestors, to umphumo, from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals as well as ceremonies are still practiced today, but many urbanized Xhosa people do non follow them rigidly. The ulwaluko as well as intonjane are also traditions which separated this tribe from the ease of the Nguni tribes.
Xhosa women inward their traditional attire smoking their trademark pipes
All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the private spends fourth dimension with community elders to prepare for the side past times side stage. The elders' teachings are non written, but transmitted from generation to generation past times oral tradition. The Iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even to a greater extent than than names as well as surnames) are transferred from i to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your “Isiduko” is vital to the Xhosas as well as it is considered a shame as well as “Uburhanuka” (lack-of-identity) if i doesn’t know one's clan.
This is considered so of import that when 2 strangers run across for the firstly time, the firstly identity that gets shared is “Isiduko”. It is so of import that 2 people with the same surname but unlike clan are considered total strangers but the same 2 people from the same clan but unlike surnames are regarded equally unopen relatives. This forms the roots of "Ubuntu" (neighbouring) - a behaviour synonymous to this tribe equally extending a helping mitt to a consummate stranger when inward need. Ubuntu goes farther than just helping i some other - it is so deep that it fifty-fifty extends to looking after as well as reprimanding your neighbour's kid when inward the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a hamlet to enhance a child".
Intonjane (girl's initiation, puberty rite)
Thembu-Xhosa Female intonjane Initiation at Qutubeni inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1965
Thembu Female Initiation:
Intonjane at Nkondlo inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1962
A grouping of women sing a traditional vocal equally the immature adult woman as well as her 2 amakhankatha (orderlies or attendants), who are covered inward blankets from caput to human foot are led from the veld to the homestead past times elders.
Women sing as well as trip the low-cal fantastic for the intonjane. They also taught her valuable womanhood life skills as well as develop her for the stage.
"‘When a immature adult woman arrives at the historic period of time of puberty she must live danced for. The trip the low-cal fantastic is to preclude evil inward after days, just equally when a adult woman is married, dancing at her kraal takes identify lest evil should arrive."
Amakhuko (grass mats) are used equally partitions to maintain the initiate inward seclusion for the duration of her intonjane.
She must slumber on grass covered solely past times blankets, naked a portion from a dark doek roofing her head. On her human face she wears white clay as well as inkciyo (traditional underwear), but her breasts as well as buttocks remain exposed. Her entire body – from her human face to her toes – is painted with soft white clay usually worn past times the abakhwetha (male circumcision initiates).
Mother as well as kid at intonjane at Nkondlo inward Transkei province,South Africa.Circa 1962.
Intonjane initiation ceremony
Every eve local boys as well as girls come upwards to the hut to perform Xhosa dances as well as songs, showcasing their skills. On the tenth day, the immature adult woman is dressed inward imibhaco. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 dark doek covers her caput equally the flooring is cleaned as well as smeared with moo-cow dung. Outside the grass is burnt. In the evening, novel grass is placed on the flooring as well as she removes the clothes equally she returns to seclusion. On her finally day, her elders pick out her to the main theatre as well as study dorsum to her parents as well as other identify unit of measurement members
Xhosa womenDressed, attending - as well as enjoying1 - intonjane. 1970.
Women dressed for intonjane, inward accuse of the beer at Nkondlo. 1957.
Thus, fifty-fifty without intonjane, a immature adult woman became an intombi at puberty as well as could live married. More importantly, the rite was regarded equally of import grooming for child-bearing. Without it, a immature adult woman was liable to autumn sick after marriage, live barren, or have got sickly children.
Any problem inward the immature bride was probable to live diagnosed past times the diviner equally having been sent past times her father's ancestors, who were aggrieved that the custom had been omitted, as well as that she should render to her parental homestead as well as undergo the rite.
Xhosa wedding:Inspection of the bride as well as bridesmaids at Ngqokotho . 1975.
Among the southern Nguni, the custom did non involve teaching inward sexual matters as well as techniques, or fifty-fifty inward the duties of married adult woman as well as mother.
Sacred Xhosa Birth Rituals- SIFUDU
In Xhosa culture, cattle as well as goats are sacred because they provide meat, milk, hides for clothes as well as symbolise the unity betwixt the human stuff world as well as the spiritual world of universal gods as well as the ancestors. When a babe is born, she slips through the 2 worlds equally it were into the nowadays social community, bringing gifts of grapheme as well as recent connections with the spirit world as well as fifty-fifty ancestors that will, over time, differentiate her from whatsoever other human being.
Umtuma ingredient grooming for the child`s umbilical cord
Birth inward the Xhosa culture, is an of import rite of passage as well as is so treated with due respect, honour as well as celebration. Traditionally, the birthing woman parent is attended to past times ‘grand-mothers’ inward her ‘rondavel’, who have got experience inward birthing babies. The rondavel is made with mud or a cob-like mixture, as well as the roof is usually thatched, so the room is dark as well as circular. After the nascence the woman parent as well as novel babe are secluded until the cord falls off as well as the grandmother aids this physical care for past times mixing ash, saccharide as well as a poisonous works life called ‘Umtuma’ together as well as rubbing the glue onto the newly severed cord, which is believed to assist the drying out process.
Cutting the child`s umbilical cord. After birth, a length of dry out grass taken from the roof of the hut, is split inward half, its border is razor sharp, as well as with this the umbilical cord is severed leaving a length of 7 to 10 cm of cord on baby. Approximately as well as hr later, this length is reduced to to a greater extent than or less 5 cm past times over again severing with the grass equally seen, maintaining that the 2d cutting issue all unnecessary blood from the cord.
Once the cord has fallen off, the novel babe is introduced to unopen woman soul identify unit of measurement members equally good equally to women of the wider community. The ritual of “Sifudu” is as well as then performed. Pungent leaves of the Sifudu tree are burnt inward a fire, about which the women gather, to make a really pungent smoke. The babe is as well as then floated over the fume (upside-down) iii times, which causes a severe reaction of coughing as well as sometimes screaming.
Traditional medicine beingness applied to ensure that the residual of the cord rots
Then the babe is given to the woman parent who passes the babe nether her left genu as well as then her correct knee. This ceremony is believed to brand the babe stronger inward spirit as well as protect her from time to come evil. The babe is as well as then washed as well as smeared with a white chalk called “Ingceke” mixed with basis “Mtomboti” wood, a sweetness smelling amount that lasts for many weeks.
A adult woman holding a baby`s caput downward into the smoke, which gives it such a daze it tin privy hardly cry
The babe is as well as then breastfed past times the “Umdlezana”, the mother.
“Inkaba” is the ritual of burying the cord as well as the placenta as well as this has keen significance to the clan as well as seals the attachment of the babe to her ancestral lands. “Inkaba” as well as then comes to hateful one’s ancestral habitation as well as symbolizes the human relationship betwixt the individual, his/her clan, the terra firma as well as the spiritual world.
Mother swiftly passing the kid nether i of her legs, as well as then nether the other. All this, plus the fume shock, assures beyond doubt, that when the kid grows upwards it volition never live dependent to fright, nor live timid, shy or easily ridiculed past times pocket-size or adult, equally it volition stand upwards it's ground.
The burial identify of an ‘Inkaba’ is a identify where i must go as well as dream as well as communicate with ancestors.
The ritual of “Imbeleko” is the ceremony welcoming the kid into the greater community, when a caprine animal is slaughtered as well as the clan is invited to attend the feast. The pare of the caprine animal as well as then becomes a sacred item for the novel clan member, the baby, who volition slumber on it inward the time to come inward times of trouble, signifying a want for connexion with the ancestors.
Child beingness thoroughly washed after it's ordeal.
The babe volition live named with a identify unit of measurement prefix, or suffix as well as may live named to signify events, similar a thunderstorm or lightening, or wishes the identify unit of measurement may have got similar “Hope” or “Themba”.
Baby is painted with white amount INGCEKE from river bank. Substance is prepared on a apartment rock into which a little quantity of basis MTOMBOTI forest is mixed. This forest has a potent pleasant odour, which they maintain clings to the babe holding off all evil spirits from attacking the child.
A clan “Praise-Singer”, who is comparative to a Bard inward celtic culture, volition telephone telephone upon the ancestors as well as vocally elaborate on all the ancestors’ feats of excellence as well as praiseworthy qualities, so equally to imbue the novel fellow member of the clan with a sense of her responsibleness to the grouping at an early on age.
Baby feeding after its ordeal. Note how white it's human face has acquire at nowadays that the pigment has dried.
The Abakwetha Circumcision Ceremony
A man child amid the Xhosa is a 'thing' as well as non a soul until he has been through the Tribe's circumcision rite. This rite is known equally the UKWALUSA (circumcision) or the ABAKWETHA ritual as well as it is the most of import lawsuit inward whatsoever male's life. The total ritual is spread over a period of time of virtually 3 months.
Before circumcision immature men apparel “Gourds” (calabashes) over private parts. Like this considered fully dressed fifty-fifty inward forepart of women.
Among the southern Nguni, the ordeal (ukwaluka/abakwetha) was seen equally a necessary demonstration that the youth was worthy of beingness considered a 'man'. If a manlike soul did non undergo this rite, he would ever live referred to equally inkwenkwe (boy) no thing how old he became. He was excluded from all manlike soul activities, prohibited from participation inward councils, as well as was unable to inherit.
The initiates to live circumcised, heads shaved, have got finally repast inward sheep kraal before operation.
The uncircumcised manlike soul was subjected to the intense ridicule of women equally good equally men; no adult woman would have got anything to do with him, as well as no identify unit of measurement would concur to adjust a marriage. Overt religious overtones, inward the cast of directly invocations to ancestors, were few as well as the participation of a religious specialist (igqira-diviner) was limited to i ceremony during the entire process. Nevertheless, the religious significance was important.
The newly thatched hut, Sutu, which volition acquire their habitation for iii months.
This custom initiated the immature homo into total membership inward the family, which included non solely the living adults but also its guiding spirits--the ancestors who would never have got an uncircumcised man. However, this religious aspect was largely inherent rather than explicit as well as overt.
Xhosa traditional circumcission surgeon ready with pike before operation.
To acquire men through circumcision. Five youths at a fourth dimension are circumcised, ages 17 to twenty years The grouping of 5 alive together inward a specially constructed hut (sutu), which becomes their habitation for iii months patch they undergo the transformation from youth to manhood.
The start of actual operation, 500 yards from newly constructed hut. (Sutu).The severing of the foreskin. No modern medicine used.
The lawsuit usually takes identify inward the boy's belatedly teens but sometimes, when they are especially wild as well as cannot live controlled past times their parents, boys are spot inward before to sober them upwards as well as to instill responsibleness into them.
Completely severed. At this 2d the man child shouts NDIYINDODA (I am a man).
The interesting portion virtually the rite is that it indisputably does have got this effect. The argue is non because of whatsoever penalisation or acre of study that is exercised over the initiate inward the schoolhouse itself but purely, it seems, because of the psychological powerfulness the rite has.
The bandaging. Goat pare strip about waist becomes bandage. The herbs used. Left mitt ‘swadi” stops bleeding. Right mitt “isichwe” antiseptic.
There have got been cases of widows whose sons, without a father's restraint, were quite out of command and
spent their fourth dimension thieving as well as getting upwards to all the mischief imaginable, who inward the goal were physically caught past times the men of a kraal as well as taken struggling as well as shouting to the "ngcibi" (surgeon) with his sharpened assegai. They were inward each illustration completely reformed equally a termination of the ceremony.
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
The "ngcibi" or surgeon arrives at sunrise as well as equally he passes the identify unit of measurement huts, the women start wailing. Those whom he passes have got to live careful because he flails his arms as well as his assegai around, non worried virtually injuring anyone.
As he comes inward sight of the initiates he screams viciously referring to them equally 'dogs' as well as 'things'.
The functioning is done with a sharpened blade as well as the man child must non outcry out or fifty-fifty flinch inward pain.
As he operates the "ngcibi" (doctor) says, 'You are a man!' as well as throws the excised portion on the basis inward forepart of the man child who has to repeat,"'Ndiyindoda!'" ('I am a man!') equally he picks upwards the portion as well as holds it inward his clenched hand.
live inward isolation for upwards to several weeks painted inward white clay.
After this, the initiates or "Umkhweta" have got to go inward unlike directions as well as bury the portions inward an pismire heap where the ants volition swallow them upwards so that a magician cannot discovery them as well as brand medicine from them. If the portions were used for such a purpose as well as then the initiates' wounds would never heal.
The injure is outpouring with special leaves supposedly having healing properties as well as mud is as well as then packed over it.
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The surgeon as well as then smears a mixture of pismire heap as well as H2O on the human face as well as pectus of the initiates as well as makes them imbibe a mouthful of the mixture. This makes their hearts hard similar an pismire heap, so that they won't live cowards inward their time to come lives equally men. It also prevents them from beingness dizzy.
The initiates are looked after past times an amakhankatha, or guardian, who explained the rules they had to follow if they want to acquire inward manhood properly. The firstly chore of the amakhankatha is to pigment their naked as well as shaved bodies from caput to human foot inward white ochre, turning the initiates into ghosts. The white chalk symbolized purity. The initiates as well as then twine themselves upwards inward their novel blankets so that they volition non pick out handle of cold. They are as well as then lectured on beingness honourable Xhosa's as well as the manlike soul parent of each initiate pays the surgeon 50 cents.
Young Xhosa Abakwetha. © James Nachtwey, National Geographic.The circumcision rituals, known as Ulwaluko, are traditional within the Xhosa civilisation (and many other African cultures). The ceremonies signify the passage from man child to manhood.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
Lobola
Labola was a fundamental chemical constituent of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth inward cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. Except inward the illustration of chiefs as well as really rich men, the number of cattle demanded was usually fewer than ten. The number of cattle as well as the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation. In many cases, the finally total was non decided, nor inward most cases were all of the cattle delivered prior to the completion of the marriage. As a result, the woman's relatives would demand additional cattle from fourth dimension to time. In monastic tell to increase the pressure level if it was felt in that location was unnecessary dilatoriness, the adult woman mightiness live called habitation as well as detained until additional cattle were forthcoming.
Much has been written virtually lobola as well as its significance. African matrimony was primarily a joining of 2 families rather than a thing betwixt 2 individuals. As a result, negotiations as well as decision-making regarding whatsoever proposed matrimony were inward the hands of the identify unit of measurement heads. In theory (except inward the illustration of older heads of their ain homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' as well as the wishes of immature people were non regarded equally crucial. Obedience to one's parents as well as the economical as well as legal dependence of the immature people caused most to have got the arrangements made for them.
Xhosa mothers
In practice, immature men were often consulted as well as their wishes respected; if a immature homo wanted to get married a item girl, his identify unit of measurement most probable would endeavour to adjust the match, as well as rarely would they endeavour to override a potent dislike or objection. Girls were consulted much less, as well as families would resort to potent pressure, including thrashings, if they thought the matrimony a goodness i as well as were anxious to conclude it. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature adult woman was expected to submit to the wishes of her father. However, fathers were constrained non solely past times their fondness for their daughters as well as the demand to acquire the consent of the girl's mother, but also past times the fact that if the married adult woman were responsible for a breakdown inward the marriage, the lobola mightiness have got to live returned. Thus, if a immature adult woman were determined, she could usually number a veto over a proposed marriage.
Xhosa wedding
Lobola was the foundation of African marriage. Although in that location were a number of ceremonies, rituals as well as reciprocal entertainments past times the families, solely lobola was indispensable inward legitimizing a marriage. Without the payment of cattle, the manlike soul parent or his identify unit of measurement could non claim parental rights to the children. Without the payment of lobola, a boy did non have got a claim to inherit. Perpetuation of the lineage was a source of keen anxiety to African families, as well as the main incentive as well as purpose of African matrimony was the want to provide children. Also, equally an active producer in agriculture, a adult woman made of import contributions to the economic scheme of a homestead. Thus, lobola was a compensation from the identify unit of measurement of the groom to that of the bride for the loss of her productive as well as reproductive contributions Moreover, lobola cemented the alliance betwixt the families, as well as the substantial transfer of wealth created really of import vested interests inward the marriage.
The payment of lobola was an indication to the bride's identify unit of measurement that the proposed married adult man was capable of providing for the bride as well as that he as well as his identify unit of measurement were people of substance. Also, it was a safety bond posted past times or on behalf of the bridegroom equally a pledge of goodness treatment; a homo was non probable to abandon such a substantial investment, as well as inward most societies, if a divorce resulted because of abuse as well as ill-treatment, all or most of the lobola was forfeited.
On the other hand, past times the receipt of lobola, the bride's identify unit of measurement incurred a keen many obligations. The bride had to carry to her novel home, a wardrobe, a make of presents for her novel 'in-laws', as well as a goodness furnish of household articles; also, from fourth dimension to time, she would render habitation to replenish these past times demanding more. Her identify unit of measurement had incentives to encourage the immature wife's goodness behaviour.
If she were at error inward a divorce, the lobola would have got to live returned. If she created problem or violated the ukuhlonipa (to present respect) restrictions, she would live sent habitation to acquire a fine to restore harmonious relations inward the husband's homestead. Beneficiaries of lobola acquired lifelong obligations; if widowed or divorced, a adult woman could go to them as well as claim protection as well as maintenance.Also, it seems that inward the lawsuit of disaster or hard times, a married adult man could inquire for as well as appear some assistance from his wife's family.
XHOSA TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE/WEDDING- IDULI (Nguwa Nguwa Umtshato)
Before the Missionaries acquire inward to alter the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a homo with his wives, married sons with their wives as well as children, as well as single daughters. Marriage was polygamous as well as patriarchal. Each adult woman inward the household who has been married a twelvemonth or to a greater extent than had her ain hut, as well as also a store-hut.
Uduli - the bridal political party - consisting of bridesmaids, immature men, an old homo as well as old adult woman escort the bride-to-be to the prospective bridegroom's identify unit of measurement umzi (the kraal).
Huts were arranged inward a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The opened upwards segment of
the circle was filled past times a cattle kraal. The senior manlike soul of the household was the possessor of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, as well as that of his firstly wife(the 'great wife') are built reverse the gate of the cattle kraal.
Xhosa married adult man as well as wife
The traditional physical care for of Xhosa matrimony begins with "Ukutwala," which agency "the taking," or "carry away/abduction" which occurs after the grooms identify unit of measurement has chosen a suitable bride for himself. It is of import to Federal Reserve notation that "Ukutwala" is non kidnapping because the prospective bride is non harmed as well as may render to the family. It is rather a formal method signifying the intention to get married as well as this marks the firstly of the betrothal process.
Bride as well as maids within hut icon up. Bodies smeared with crimson ochre glue as well as ears painted white.
After "Ukutwala" has taken place, the groom`s identify unit of measurement volition kicking start the negotiation for matrimony as well as lobola with the bride`s family. It is of import to appreciate that lobola is non a" bride price," but a agency of establishing links betwixt the 2 families. the size of lobola varies considerably depending on the relative wealth as well as condition of the families involved, the wages to gain from the matrimony link, as well as the desirablility of the bride.
Painting complete, they are adorned inward their beadwork, taking keen pains just equally a white bride does on her keen day.
Traditionally lobola usually amounted to 8 heads of cattle, as well as today the value of each caput of cattle forms portion of the overall negotiation. However,there is a Xhosa saying 'one never stops paying lobola," which agency the identify unit of measurement link is an of import portion of lobola, a union that must live constantly kept renewed past times visiting one`s in-laws, inviting them around, as well as inward general, maintaining goodness familial relationships.
Once lobola is finalized matrimony tin privy pick out place. On the appointed day, the bride`s identify unit of measurement brings the bride to the groom`s house, amidst celebration inward which animals (chickens,goat or cattle) are slaughtered equally sacrifice to the ancestors, inviting them to the occasion as well as introducing the bride to them. There are no formal invitation to this event, rather whoever wishes to attend, tin privy participate inward the celebrations, as well as this often leads to a really large gatherings
Xhosa wedding ceremony ceremony
The lawsuit is joyous as well as really communal inward spirit and the celebration goes on at to the lowest degree 2 days at both the bride`s habitation as well as the groom`s (especially at the groom`s).
The finally phase of the matrimony occurs when the bride as well as the groom present themselves to the community past times walking along the main route together. This is known equally "ukucanda ibala."
A Xhosa wedding ceremony which incorporates both African as well as Western ways of doing things.
A play on umtshato.
Umakoti (Daughter in-law/wife)
A bride has to present honour towards her husband's family. The firstly virtue demanded of a bride is that she should live hardworking, respectful as well as eager. She must attention for her husband's comfort as well as that of his identify unit of measurement especially the parents inward law. Part of her responsibilities include fetching the wood, H2O as well as wild spinach from distant places. She also takes attention of the habitation garden as well as of course of teaching the cooking.
Customary police requires that a bride must present honour towards all senior relatives of her husband, especially his manlike soul relatives.
The bride must never go nigh the cattle kraal inward which her husbands manlike soul parent or granddad are buried or where the ancestors of the identify unit of measurement are believed to reign. However, if she opens her ain homestead with her husband, she may go nigh the kraal of that homestead; she is solely forbidden to go to that of the senior homestead. She must avoid the inkundla (courtyard betwixt huts as well as kraal) inward which men sit. When entering a hut of a senior relative of her husband, manlike soul as well as female, she must turn sharply to left advertizement circle about the dorsum so equally to avoid the men's side (Ukuceza). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 daughter-in-law disdains her husband's umzi if she does non avoid every identify bout where her fathers sit.
The avoidance of the correct of huts, the inkundla, as well as the cattle kraal is extended to those imizi (homesteads) of her husband's seniors into which a adult woman mightiness have got married. In her husband's mother's hut a bride is expected to pick out a retired position. She may approach the hearth to mend the dismiss or reckon to the pots, but cannot sit down upwards to the fire. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride avoids the name, as well as words, of which a principal syllable is similar to the regulation syllable of the call of her husband's father, his brothers, her husband's elderberry brothers, as well as his father's father, whether they are living or dead. She also avoids personal names of her husband's mother, paternal aunts, as well as elderberry sisters, but does non avoid words similar to them.
At ibhasi (the trip the low-cal fantastic of the married men) at Qebe,Transkei Province,SA.Circa 1973.
When she arrives, she is told (by her husband's sister, or an elderberry co-wifey) what words are avoided inward the homestead. So long equally she lives inward her mother-in-law's homestead, a wife, no thing how long she has been married, is responsible to her other-in-law, fifty-fifty to a greater extent than than her husband. If she want to see her homestead, the married adult woman must acquire permission from her woman parent inward police as well as and then she tin privy tell her married adult man that his woman parent has given her permission to go see with her people. Impoliteness to her mother in law may termination inward a bride beingness sent dorsum to her people. Nevertheless, a mother in law is expected to live "Bush shelter" to her daughter-in-law against her husband. If a married adult man beats upwards his wife, she run to her mother in law to seek refuge there, as well as the son, because he respects his mother, volition non pursue her there.(https://haftshappenings.blogspot.com/search?q=south-africa-2010-11-05-at-05-29-29.jpg?w=950&h=633" width="640" />
Xhosa people of Transkei,South Africa performining their traditional dance
Presently to a greater extent than or less 10 i G m Xhosa people are distributed across the country, as well as Xhosa is South Africa's 2d most mutual habitation language, after Zulu, to which Xhosa is closely related. The pre-1994 apartheid scheme of Bantustans denied Xhosas South African citizenship, but enabled them to have got self-governing "homelands" namely; Transkei as well as Ciskei, at nowadays both a portion of the Eastern Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa alive inward Cape Town (iKapa inward Xhosa), East London (iMonti), as well as Port Elizabeth (iBhayi).
As of 2003 the bulk of Xhosa speakers, to a greater extent than or less 5.3 million, lived inward the Eastern Cape, followed past times the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), as well as Limpopo (14,225).
Xhosa people at the countryside
HISTORY
According to Pinnock, the earliest reports past times Portuguese survivors of shipwrecks along the south-east coast during the sixteen as well as 17th centuries depict the amaXhosa equally cattle herders who hunted game as well as cultivated sorghum. They lived inward beehive –shaped huts inward scattered homesteads which were ruled past times chiefs.
Tshawe founded the Xhosa kingdom past times defeating the Cirha as well as Jwarha groups. His descendants expanded the kingdom past times settling inward novel territory as well as bringing people living in that location nether the command of the amaTshawe. Generally, the grouping would pick out on the call of the main nether whom they had united. There are so distinct varieties of the Xhosa language, the most distinct beingness isiMpondo (isiNdrondroza). Other dialects include: Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondimise, Rharhabe, Gcaleka, Xesibe, Bhaca, Cele, Hlubi, Ntlangwini, Ngqika, Mfengu.
Xhosa people
According to oral tradition, the ancestors of the amaXhosa lived inward the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains before moving piece of cake to the coast. "The firstly grouping of Nguni immigrants to migrate to South Africa about 13th century from East Africa ahead of the Zulus consisted of Xhosa, (made upwards of Gcaleka,Nggika,Ndlambe as well as Dushane clans), the Thembu as well as Pondo. However, the 2d grouping of Nguni-speakers joined these tribes later. historical evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have got inhabited the eastern Cape expanse equally long equally 1593 as well as belike fifty-fifty before that. some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have got lived inward the expanse since 7th AD."
By the mid 17th century, the Thembu tribe was settled about Mbashi River [meaning “dark river” or “dangerous ravine”] with the original Xhosa tribe inward the vicinity of Kei River as well as beyond. The senior Xhosa chiefdom was given honour as well as tribute but was non much feared.The senior main did non have got plenty armed forces powerfulness to brand himself Rex of a larger centralized state.
1840 SCHINZ/HONEGGER LITHOGRAPH Xhosa People
The chiefdom was farther weakened when Rarabe,brother of the chief, Gcaleka challenged his brother`s dominion as well as was driven off with his followers. He was succeeded equally a western Xhosa main past times his boy Ndlambe as well as after Nggika,his grandson, who took the chieftaincy away from his uncle inward 1796. During the 1820`s as well as 30`s southern Africa was torn apart past times violent wars betwixt differrent indigenous peoples, inward what is often termed Mfecane/Difeqane ("The Crushing").
Two Nguni chiefs started these wars,Zwide of Ndwandwe kingdom inward the northward of present-day Zulu terra firma (the expanse of Kwa-Zulu Natal lying northward of the Tugela River) as well as Dingiswayo of the Mthethwe kingdom inward the south.Refugees from both regular army became mfecane tribe "on the march" as well as swept across the countrycushing anyone that crossed their path.
Xhosa people
When the British came to eastern Cape, they tried to preclude armed forces conception past times adopting a treat-state system. Treaties of friendship tied Independent African states such equally Ciskei as well as Pondoland to the British. However the treaty-state scheme did non finally really long as well as state of war broke out betwixt the white settlers as well as the Xhosa tribes. An allied regular army of Nggika-Xhosa, Gcaleka-Xhosa as well as Thembu defeated the British.
However,this did non deter the British from annexing Keiskamma territory, thus setting the scene for some other state of war which volition eventually escalate to a civil state of war betwixt Gcaleka, the Xhosa main as well as the local Mfengu tribe that lives amid them. In the wars against the British as well as colonial troops, 2 Xhosa chiefs Sandile as well as Maqoma, emerged potent leaders. After both had been defeated, Xhosa resistance crumbled as well as past times early on 1800`s, the finally of Nguni chiefs has been brought nether colonial rule. however, what genuinely broke the Nguni nation`s resolve was the disaster that occurred inward mid 1850`s (The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857). In all the Xhosa fought for i hundred years to save their independence, heritage as well as land, as well as today this expanse is still referred to past times many equally Frontier Country.
The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857
A immature young adult woman past times call Nongqause, had a vision of warriors of the old rising upwards from the reeds surrounding the puddle into which she was gazing.They had been purified of witchcraft as well as they encouraged her to tell the Xhosa people purify themselves past times killing their cattle, destroying all their grains as well as non planting whatsoever crops.
The Photo of Nonkosi(left) as well as Nonqause(right), the niece of a prohet who allegedly misled her people to commit national suicide past times killing 25,000 cows as well as convinced them to dismiss their crops about 1857
This activity would also aid acquire rid of the White settlers, since the old warriors would come upwards as well as drive the White settlers away. News of Nongqause prophecy, spurred on past times the preaching of her uncle Mlakaza, spread amid the people similar wild fire.In the aftermath, to a greater extent than or less 20,000 people died of starvation patch some other 30,000 were scattered amid the white farmers inward the outlying areas where they sought function for food.
Despite,this disaster as well as havoc,it wrought on Xhosa people,Xhosa civilisation has remained strong.Although their lifestyle has been adapted to western traditions, they have got still retained many of their traditions as well as culture. They were the firstly African people to acquire widely known to Europeans as well as this is belike why, according to historians, the call ‘Xhosa’ became the call for all Africans inward the Eastern Cape.
Xhosa women. circa 1910
LANGUAGE
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal linguistic communication of the Bantu family. While the Xhosas telephone telephone their linguistic communication "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to equally "Xhosa" inward English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken past times virtually 18% of the South African population, as well as has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken inward urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, especially those living inward urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.
Among its features, the Xhosa linguistic communication famously has 15 click sounds, originally borrowed from at nowadays extinct Khoisan languages of the region. Xhosa has iii basic click consonants: a dental click, written with the alphabetic quality "c"; a palatal click, written with the alphabetic quality "q"; as well as a lateral click, written with the alphabetic quality "x". There is also a elementary inventory of 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u). Some vowels still may live silent. In other words, they tin privy live nowadays inward written linguistic communication but hardly audible inward spoken language. This happens especially at the goal of the word. This is because the musical note of most Xhosa words is lowest at the end.
Xhosa circumcised initiates (umkheta)
Economy
Subsistence.
The amaXhosa were pastoralists [people who herded livestock, often equally nomadic wanderers without a laid farm area], as well as their tedious motility was to a greater extent than of an expansion of territory rather than migration. One of the main reasons for this motility of expansion was only the splintering off of the sons of chiefs to found novel chiefdoms of their own. Over centuries diverse chiefdoms formed equally a termination of inner turmoils as well as division, through unions with the Khoisan groups [more virtually this later] whose territories were overrun as well as conquered past times the amaXhosa as well as through the arrival of refugees from wars inward Natal, having been expelled from this expanse past times the legendary Rex uShaka.
Xhosa people on their land.circa 1963
Xhosa people on their land.circa 1963
In the rural areas mixed farming consisting of horticulture as well as brute husbandry is practiced. Depending on the availability of arable land, each household has access to a acre ranging from 2.1 acres (0.86 hectare) to 8.5 acres (3.43 hectares) or a little garden equally portion of the residential plot. Chief's as well as headmen usually have larger tracts of terra firma that make betwixt 15 acres (6 hectares) as well as 32 acres (13 hectares). Maize (the staple), sorghum, wheat, barley, beans, peas, potatoes, pumpkins, precious rock squash, cabbage, carrots, tomatoes, as well as tobacco are grown.
Xhosa man child inward traditional attire
The soil varies from sandy to sandy loam, as well as a few areas have got clay as well as alluvial soils. Soil depth ranges from vi inches (15 centimeters) to 6.6 feet (2 meters) (alluvial soils side past times side to riverbeds). The main implements are ox-drawn plows as well as metal-bladed hoes. Cows as well as goats are eaten on special occasions related to the life bicycle as well as religious ceremonies, as well as sheep, pigs, as well as chickens provide meat for household consumption. Commodities non produced locally, such equally coffee, tea, sugar, canned food, cloth, clothes, utensils, as well as furniture, are bought with the earnings from migrant labor inward urban areas or the proceeds from the sale of skins as well as wool to local traders or at shops inward nearby towns.
caJ. Barnett as well as Co.: Young Xosa [Xhosa] Woman inward Costume; Wood Bowls and Gourd Container Nearby, n.d. [late nineteenth century].
People living nigh the sea or rivers eat the fish as well as crustaceans as well as mollusks. Roots, bulbs, berries, wild fruit, as well as herbal plants are gathered to supplement the diet. Occasionally little game may live hunted.
Former SA prez Thabo Mbeki is from Xhosa tribe
Commercial Activities. As a termination of evolution efforts a number of irrigation schemes were initiated inward which little farmers were resettled to make pineapples, citrus fruit, coffee, as well as tea for commercial purposes. Government policy regarding terra firma redistribution favors commercial dairy farming, wool production, as well as agriculture on a larger scale. In some areas handicrafts are manufactured for the tourist market.
Steve Bantu Biko,the hreat liberty fighter is from Xhosa tribe
Industrial Arts. Mats, baskets, beer strainers, brooms, utensils made from calabash, beadwork, pipes, knobkerries, walking sticks, wooden yokes, whips, as well as leather harnesses are made to a greater extent than often than non for personal use.
Thembu women wore highly decorated leather purses hanging from the hip over
leather skirts.Circa 1960
Some people are regarded equally specialists inward these crafts as well as may industry these items for others. In areas nigh major roads some of those items may live sold to tourists. Sleds are made from forked tree trunks to carry goods. Wooden mortars as well as pestles as well as grinding stones are made for the grinding of grain.
Xhosa adult woman wearing traditional attire with native wooden violin inward her hand
leather skirts.Circa 1960
Some people are regarded equally specialists inward these crafts as well as may industry these items for others. In areas nigh major roads some of those items may live sold to tourists. Sleds are made from forked tree trunks to carry goods. Wooden mortars as well as pestles as well as grinding stones are made for the grinding of grain.
Division of Labor. In general, men tend to the livestock as well as clear virgin terra firma for horticulture as well as women do the household chores (cleaning, preparing as well as serving food, washing clothes, fetching H2O as well as firewood, as well as caring for children) as well as function inward the fields or gardens. After the introduction of ox-drawn plows, men became to a greater extent than involved inward horticulture past times tilling the soil as well as planting the crops as well as women did the weeding.
Nelson Mandela is from Xhosa tribe
The whole identify unit of measurement is involved inward harvesting. Boys who do non attend schoolhouse herd the livestock as well as chase birds when the crops ripen. Girls attention for younger siblings as well as aid their mothers with their chores. In areas unopen to the sea men, women, as well as children harvest marine resources. In urban areas the segmentation of labor is less prescriptive, but women still do the household chores.
Nelson Mandela is from Xhosa tribe
The whole identify unit of measurement is involved inward harvesting. Boys who do non attend schoolhouse herd the livestock as well as chase birds when the crops ripen. Girls attention for younger siblings as well as aid their mothers with their chores. In areas unopen to the sea men, women, as well as children harvest marine resources. In urban areas the segmentation of labor is less prescriptive, but women still do the household chores.
Land Tenure. There are iii systems of terra firma tenure—permission to occupy, quitrent, as well as freehold—in the rural areas. Land is regarded equally the belongings of the tribal grouping as well as is held inward trust past times the chief.
Xhosa settlement
A soul who wants residential and/or arable terra firma must apply through his or her local headman, as well as depending on availability, terra firma is allocated. After payment of the required fees, the terra firma is registered at the local magistrate's purpose inward the call of the soul to whom it is allocated for that soul to usage inward accordance with the rules applicable to the item type of terra firma tenure system.
Xhosa land
Xhosa settlement
A soul who wants residential and/or arable terra firma must apply through his or her local headman, as well as depending on availability, terra firma is allocated. After payment of the required fees, the terra firma is registered at the local magistrate's purpose inward the call of the soul to whom it is allocated for that soul to usage inward accordance with the rules applicable to the item type of terra firma tenure system.
Xhosa land
Kinship
Kin Groups as well as Descent. Descent is patrilineal. Exogamous patriclans (iziduko) are the most of import kin groups. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 multifariousness of clan names are derived from the names of founder members, animals, as well as plants. The clans are noncorporate groups, as well as private members may back upwards i some other inward times of crisis as well as during ceremonies related to the life bicycle as well as sacrifices to the ancestors.
Closer relatives who have got the same clan name (isiduko) are called imilowo (equated past times some researchers to lineages) as well as are to a greater extent than deeply involved inward the daily lives of private members. In before times a grouping of imilowo would cast a corporate grouping with a leader (intloko yemilowo). The father's sis ( udadobawo ) plays an of import role inward the lives of her brother's children. At ceremonial occasions the children of sisters (abatshana) are included equally imilowo. In urban areas neighbors often are included equally imilowo. Kinship does non have got the same importance inward urban areas that it does inward rural areas.
Closer relatives who have got the same clan name (isiduko) are called imilowo (equated past times some researchers to lineages) as well as are to a greater extent than deeply involved inward the daily lives of private members. In before times a grouping of imilowo would cast a corporate grouping with a leader (intloko yemilowo). The father's sis ( udadobawo ) plays an of import role inward the lives of her brother's children. At ceremonial occasions the children of sisters (abatshana) are included equally imilowo. In urban areas neighbors often are included equally imilowo. Kinship does non have got the same importance inward urban areas that it does inward rural areas.
Kinship Terminology. Kin terms are a variation of the Iroquois type. However, the woman parent as well as the mother's sis are non referred to with the same term, as well as the mother's sister's children are referred to past times unlike terms than are the father's brother's children.
Xhosa circumcission initiate (Umkhweta)
RITES OF PASSAGEThe Xhosa are a South African cultural grouping who emphasize traditional practices as well as customs inherited from their forefathers. Each soul within the Xhosa civilisation has his or her identify which is recognized past times the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa soul goes through graduation stages which recognize his growth as well as assign him a recognized identify inward the community.
Young bare breasted Xhosa girls inward traditional procession
Each phase is marked past times a specific ritual aimed at introducing the private to their counterparts as well as hence to the ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to innovate a novel born to the ancestors, to umphumo, from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals as well as ceremonies are still practiced today, but many urbanized Xhosa people do non follow them rigidly. The ulwaluko as well as intonjane are also traditions which separated this tribe from the ease of the Nguni tribes.
Xhosa women inward their traditional attire smoking their trademark pipes
All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the private spends fourth dimension with community elders to prepare for the side past times side stage. The elders' teachings are non written, but transmitted from generation to generation past times oral tradition. The Iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even to a greater extent than than names as well as surnames) are transferred from i to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your “Isiduko” is vital to the Xhosas as well as it is considered a shame as well as “Uburhanuka” (lack-of-identity) if i doesn’t know one's clan.
This is considered so of import that when 2 strangers run across for the firstly time, the firstly identity that gets shared is “Isiduko”. It is so of import that 2 people with the same surname but unlike clan are considered total strangers but the same 2 people from the same clan but unlike surnames are regarded equally unopen relatives. This forms the roots of "Ubuntu" (neighbouring) - a behaviour synonymous to this tribe equally extending a helping mitt to a consummate stranger when inward need. Ubuntu goes farther than just helping i some other - it is so deep that it fifty-fifty extends to looking after as well as reprimanding your neighbour's kid when inward the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a hamlet to enhance a child".
Intonjane (girl's initiation, puberty rite)
Thembu-Xhosa Female intonjane Initiation at Qutubeni inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1965
Thembu Female Initiation:
Intonjane at Nkondlo inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1962
A grouping of women sing a traditional vocal equally the immature adult woman as well as her 2 amakhankatha (orderlies or attendants), who are covered inward blankets from caput to human foot are led from the veld to the homestead past times elders.
Women sing as well as trip the low-cal fantastic for the intonjane. They also taught her valuable womanhood life skills as well as develop her for the stage.
"‘When a immature adult woman arrives at the historic period of time of puberty she must live danced for. The trip the low-cal fantastic is to preclude evil inward after days, just equally when a adult woman is married, dancing at her kraal takes identify lest evil should arrive."
Amakhuko (grass mats) are used equally partitions to maintain the initiate inward seclusion for the duration of her intonjane.
She must slumber on grass covered solely past times blankets, naked a portion from a dark doek roofing her head. On her human face she wears white clay as well as inkciyo (traditional underwear), but her breasts as well as buttocks remain exposed. Her entire body – from her human face to her toes – is painted with soft white clay usually worn past times the abakhwetha (male circumcision initiates).
Mother as well as kid at intonjane at Nkondlo inward Transkei province,South Africa.Circa 1962.
Intonjane initiation ceremony
Every eve local boys as well as girls come upwards to the hut to perform Xhosa dances as well as songs, showcasing their skills. On the tenth day, the immature adult woman is dressed inward imibhaco. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 dark doek covers her caput equally the flooring is cleaned as well as smeared with moo-cow dung. Outside the grass is burnt. In the evening, novel grass is placed on the flooring as well as she removes the clothes equally she returns to seclusion. On her finally day, her elders pick out her to the main theatre as well as study dorsum to her parents as well as other identify unit of measurement members
Xhosa womenDressed, attending - as well as enjoying1 - intonjane. 1970.
Women dressed for intonjane, inward accuse of the beer at Nkondlo. 1957.
Thus, fifty-fifty without intonjane, a immature adult woman became an intombi at puberty as well as could live married. More importantly, the rite was regarded equally of import grooming for child-bearing. Without it, a immature adult woman was liable to autumn sick after marriage, live barren, or have got sickly children.
Any problem inward the immature bride was probable to live diagnosed past times the diviner equally having been sent past times her father's ancestors, who were aggrieved that the custom had been omitted, as well as that she should render to her parental homestead as well as undergo the rite.
Xhosa wedding:Inspection of the bride as well as bridesmaids at Ngqokotho . 1975.
Among the southern Nguni, the custom did non involve teaching inward sexual matters as well as techniques, or fifty-fifty inward the duties of married adult woman as well as mother.
Sacred Xhosa Birth Rituals- SIFUDU
In Xhosa culture, cattle as well as goats are sacred because they provide meat, milk, hides for clothes as well as symbolise the unity betwixt the human stuff world as well as the spiritual world of universal gods as well as the ancestors. When a babe is born, she slips through the 2 worlds equally it were into the nowadays social community, bringing gifts of grapheme as well as recent connections with the spirit world as well as fifty-fifty ancestors that will, over time, differentiate her from whatsoever other human being.
Umtuma ingredient grooming for the child`s umbilical cord
Birth inward the Xhosa culture, is an of import rite of passage as well as is so treated with due respect, honour as well as celebration. Traditionally, the birthing woman parent is attended to past times ‘grand-mothers’ inward her ‘rondavel’, who have got experience inward birthing babies. The rondavel is made with mud or a cob-like mixture, as well as the roof is usually thatched, so the room is dark as well as circular. After the nascence the woman parent as well as novel babe are secluded until the cord falls off as well as the grandmother aids this physical care for past times mixing ash, saccharide as well as a poisonous works life called ‘Umtuma’ together as well as rubbing the glue onto the newly severed cord, which is believed to assist the drying out process.
Cutting the child`s umbilical cord. After birth, a length of dry out grass taken from the roof of the hut, is split inward half, its border is razor sharp, as well as with this the umbilical cord is severed leaving a length of 7 to 10 cm of cord on baby. Approximately as well as hr later, this length is reduced to to a greater extent than or less 5 cm past times over again severing with the grass equally seen, maintaining that the 2d cutting issue all unnecessary blood from the cord.
Once the cord has fallen off, the novel babe is introduced to unopen woman soul identify unit of measurement members equally good equally to women of the wider community. The ritual of “Sifudu” is as well as then performed. Pungent leaves of the Sifudu tree are burnt inward a fire, about which the women gather, to make a really pungent smoke. The babe is as well as then floated over the fume (upside-down) iii times, which causes a severe reaction of coughing as well as sometimes screaming.
Traditional medicine beingness applied to ensure that the residual of the cord rots
Then the babe is given to the woman parent who passes the babe nether her left genu as well as then her correct knee. This ceremony is believed to brand the babe stronger inward spirit as well as protect her from time to come evil. The babe is as well as then washed as well as smeared with a white chalk called “Ingceke” mixed with basis “Mtomboti” wood, a sweetness smelling amount that lasts for many weeks.
A adult woman holding a baby`s caput downward into the smoke, which gives it such a daze it tin privy hardly cry
The babe is as well as then breastfed past times the “Umdlezana”, the mother.
“Inkaba” is the ritual of burying the cord as well as the placenta as well as this has keen significance to the clan as well as seals the attachment of the babe to her ancestral lands. “Inkaba” as well as then comes to hateful one’s ancestral habitation as well as symbolizes the human relationship betwixt the individual, his/her clan, the terra firma as well as the spiritual world.
Mother swiftly passing the kid nether i of her legs, as well as then nether the other. All this, plus the fume shock, assures beyond doubt, that when the kid grows upwards it volition never live dependent to fright, nor live timid, shy or easily ridiculed past times pocket-size or adult, equally it volition stand upwards it's ground.
The burial identify of an ‘Inkaba’ is a identify where i must go as well as dream as well as communicate with ancestors.
The ritual of “Imbeleko” is the ceremony welcoming the kid into the greater community, when a caprine animal is slaughtered as well as the clan is invited to attend the feast. The pare of the caprine animal as well as then becomes a sacred item for the novel clan member, the baby, who volition slumber on it inward the time to come inward times of trouble, signifying a want for connexion with the ancestors.
Child beingness thoroughly washed after it's ordeal.
The babe volition live named with a identify unit of measurement prefix, or suffix as well as may live named to signify events, similar a thunderstorm or lightening, or wishes the identify unit of measurement may have got similar “Hope” or “Themba”.
Baby is painted with white amount INGCEKE from river bank. Substance is prepared on a apartment rock into which a little quantity of basis MTOMBOTI forest is mixed. This forest has a potent pleasant odour, which they maintain clings to the babe holding off all evil spirits from attacking the child.
A clan “Praise-Singer”, who is comparative to a Bard inward celtic culture, volition telephone telephone upon the ancestors as well as vocally elaborate on all the ancestors’ feats of excellence as well as praiseworthy qualities, so equally to imbue the novel fellow member of the clan with a sense of her responsibleness to the grouping at an early on age.
Baby feeding after its ordeal. Note how white it's human face has acquire at nowadays that the pigment has dried.
The Abakwetha Circumcision Ceremony
A man child amid the Xhosa is a 'thing' as well as non a soul until he has been through the Tribe's circumcision rite. This rite is known equally the UKWALUSA (circumcision) or the ABAKWETHA ritual as well as it is the most of import lawsuit inward whatsoever male's life. The total ritual is spread over a period of time of virtually 3 months.
Before circumcision immature men apparel “Gourds” (calabashes) over private parts. Like this considered fully dressed fifty-fifty inward forepart of women.
Among the southern Nguni, the ordeal (ukwaluka/abakwetha) was seen equally a necessary demonstration that the youth was worthy of beingness considered a 'man'. If a manlike soul did non undergo this rite, he would ever live referred to equally inkwenkwe (boy) no thing how old he became. He was excluded from all manlike soul activities, prohibited from participation inward councils, as well as was unable to inherit.
The initiates to live circumcised, heads shaved, have got finally repast inward sheep kraal before operation.
The uncircumcised manlike soul was subjected to the intense ridicule of women equally good equally men; no adult woman would have got anything to do with him, as well as no identify unit of measurement would concur to adjust a marriage. Overt religious overtones, inward the cast of directly invocations to ancestors, were few as well as the participation of a religious specialist (igqira-diviner) was limited to i ceremony during the entire process. Nevertheless, the religious significance was important.
The newly thatched hut, Sutu, which volition acquire their habitation for iii months.
This custom initiated the immature homo into total membership inward the family, which included non solely the living adults but also its guiding spirits--the ancestors who would never have got an uncircumcised man. However, this religious aspect was largely inherent rather than explicit as well as overt.
Xhosa traditional circumcission surgeon ready with pike before operation.
To acquire men through circumcision. Five youths at a fourth dimension are circumcised, ages 17 to twenty years The grouping of 5 alive together inward a specially constructed hut (sutu), which becomes their habitation for iii months patch they undergo the transformation from youth to manhood.
The start of actual operation, 500 yards from newly constructed hut. (Sutu).The severing of the foreskin. No modern medicine used.
The lawsuit usually takes identify inward the boy's belatedly teens but sometimes, when they are especially wild as well as cannot live controlled past times their parents, boys are spot inward before to sober them upwards as well as to instill responsibleness into them.
Completely severed. At this 2d the man child shouts NDIYINDODA (I am a man).
The interesting portion virtually the rite is that it indisputably does have got this effect. The argue is non because of whatsoever penalisation or acre of study that is exercised over the initiate inward the schoolhouse itself but purely, it seems, because of the psychological powerfulness the rite has.
The bandaging. Goat pare strip about waist becomes bandage. The herbs used. Left mitt ‘swadi” stops bleeding. Right mitt “isichwe” antiseptic.
There have got been cases of widows whose sons, without a father's restraint, were quite out of command and
spent their fourth dimension thieving as well as getting upwards to all the mischief imaginable, who inward the goal were physically caught past times the men of a kraal as well as taken struggling as well as shouting to the "ngcibi" (surgeon) with his sharpened assegai. They were inward each illustration completely reformed equally a termination of the ceremony.
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
The "ngcibi" or surgeon arrives at sunrise as well as equally he passes the identify unit of measurement huts, the women start wailing. Those whom he passes have got to live careful because he flails his arms as well as his assegai around, non worried virtually injuring anyone.
As he comes inward sight of the initiates he screams viciously referring to them equally 'dogs' as well as 'things'.
The functioning is done with a sharpened blade as well as the man child must non outcry out or fifty-fifty flinch inward pain.
As he operates the "ngcibi" (doctor) says, 'You are a man!' as well as throws the excised portion on the basis inward forepart of the man child who has to repeat,"'Ndiyindoda!'" ('I am a man!') equally he picks upwards the portion as well as holds it inward his clenched hand.
live inward isolation for upwards to several weeks painted inward white clay.
After this, the initiates or "Umkhweta" have got to go inward unlike directions as well as bury the portions inward an pismire heap where the ants volition swallow them upwards so that a magician cannot discovery them as well as brand medicine from them. If the portions were used for such a purpose as well as then the initiates' wounds would never heal.
The injure is outpouring with special leaves supposedly having healing properties as well as mud is as well as then packed over it.
The surgeon as well as then smears a mixture of pismire heap as well as H2O on the human face as well as pectus of the initiates as well as makes them imbibe a mouthful of the mixture. This makes their hearts hard similar an pismire heap, so that they won't live cowards inward their time to come lives equally men. It also prevents them from beingness dizzy.
The initiates are looked after past times an amakhankatha, or guardian, who explained the rules they had to follow if they want to acquire inward manhood properly. The firstly chore of the amakhankatha is to pigment their naked as well as shaved bodies from caput to human foot inward white ochre, turning the initiates into ghosts. The white chalk symbolized purity. The initiates as well as then twine themselves upwards inward their novel blankets so that they volition non pick out handle of cold. They are as well as then lectured on beingness honourable Xhosa's as well as the manlike soul parent of each initiate pays the surgeon 50 cents.
Young Xhosa Abakwetha. © James Nachtwey, National Geographic.The circumcision rituals, known as Ulwaluko, are traditional within the Xhosa civilisation (and many other African cultures). The ceremonies signify the passage from man child to manhood.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
Lobola
Labola was a fundamental chemical constituent of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth inward cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. Except inward the illustration of chiefs as well as really rich men, the number of cattle demanded was usually fewer than ten. The number of cattle as well as the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation. In many cases, the finally total was non decided, nor inward most cases were all of the cattle delivered prior to the completion of the marriage. As a result, the woman's relatives would demand additional cattle from fourth dimension to time. In monastic tell to increase the pressure level if it was felt in that location was unnecessary dilatoriness, the adult woman mightiness live called habitation as well as detained until additional cattle were forthcoming.
Much has been written virtually lobola as well as its significance. African matrimony was primarily a joining of 2 families rather than a thing betwixt 2 individuals. As a result, negotiations as well as decision-making regarding whatsoever proposed matrimony were inward the hands of the identify unit of measurement heads. In theory (except inward the illustration of older heads of their ain homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' as well as the wishes of immature people were non regarded equally crucial. Obedience to one's parents as well as the economical as well as legal dependence of the immature people caused most to have got the arrangements made for them.
Xhosa mothers
In practice, immature men were often consulted as well as their wishes respected; if a immature homo wanted to get married a item girl, his identify unit of measurement most probable would endeavour to adjust the match, as well as rarely would they endeavour to override a potent dislike or objection. Girls were consulted much less, as well as families would resort to potent pressure, including thrashings, if they thought the matrimony a goodness i as well as were anxious to conclude it. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature adult woman was expected to submit to the wishes of her father. However, fathers were constrained non solely past times their fondness for their daughters as well as the demand to acquire the consent of the girl's mother, but also past times the fact that if the married adult woman were responsible for a breakdown inward the marriage, the lobola mightiness have got to live returned. Thus, if a immature adult woman were determined, she could usually number a veto over a proposed marriage.
Xhosa wedding
Lobola was the foundation of African marriage. Although in that location were a number of ceremonies, rituals as well as reciprocal entertainments past times the families, solely lobola was indispensable inward legitimizing a marriage. Without the payment of cattle, the manlike soul parent or his identify unit of measurement could non claim parental rights to the children. Without the payment of lobola, a boy did non have got a claim to inherit. Perpetuation of the lineage was a source of keen anxiety to African families, as well as the main incentive as well as purpose of African matrimony was the want to provide children. Also, equally an active producer in agriculture, a adult woman made of import contributions to the economic scheme of a homestead. Thus, lobola was a compensation from the identify unit of measurement of the groom to that of the bride for the loss of her productive as well as reproductive contributions Moreover, lobola cemented the alliance betwixt the families, as well as the substantial transfer of wealth created really of import vested interests inward the marriage.
The payment of lobola was an indication to the bride's identify unit of measurement that the proposed married adult man was capable of providing for the bride as well as that he as well as his identify unit of measurement were people of substance. Also, it was a safety bond posted past times or on behalf of the bridegroom equally a pledge of goodness treatment; a homo was non probable to abandon such a substantial investment, as well as inward most societies, if a divorce resulted because of abuse as well as ill-treatment, all or most of the lobola was forfeited.
On the other hand, past times the receipt of lobola, the bride's identify unit of measurement incurred a keen many obligations. The bride had to carry to her novel home, a wardrobe, a make of presents for her novel 'in-laws', as well as a goodness furnish of household articles; also, from fourth dimension to time, she would render habitation to replenish these past times demanding more. Her identify unit of measurement had incentives to encourage the immature wife's goodness behaviour.
If she were at error inward a divorce, the lobola would have got to live returned. If she created problem or violated the ukuhlonipa (to present respect) restrictions, she would live sent habitation to acquire a fine to restore harmonious relations inward the husband's homestead. Beneficiaries of lobola acquired lifelong obligations; if widowed or divorced, a adult woman could go to them as well as claim protection as well as maintenance.Also, it seems that inward the lawsuit of disaster or hard times, a married adult man could inquire for as well as appear some assistance from his wife's family.
XHOSA TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE/WEDDING- IDULI (Nguwa Nguwa Umtshato)
Before the Missionaries acquire inward to alter the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a homo with his wives, married sons with their wives as well as children, as well as single daughters. Marriage was polygamous as well as patriarchal. Each adult woman inward the household who has been married a twelvemonth or to a greater extent than had her ain hut, as well as also a store-hut.
Uduli - the bridal political party - consisting of bridesmaids, immature men, an old homo as well as old adult woman escort the bride-to-be to the prospective bridegroom's identify unit of measurement umzi (the kraal).
Huts were arranged inward a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The opened upwards segment of
the circle was filled past times a cattle kraal. The senior manlike soul of the household was the possessor of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, as well as that of his firstly wife(the 'great wife') are built reverse the gate of the cattle kraal.
Xhosa married adult man as well as wife
The traditional physical care for of Xhosa matrimony begins with "Ukutwala," which agency "the taking," or "carry away/abduction" which occurs after the grooms identify unit of measurement has chosen a suitable bride for himself. It is of import to Federal Reserve notation that "Ukutwala" is non kidnapping because the prospective bride is non harmed as well as may render to the family. It is rather a formal method signifying the intention to get married as well as this marks the firstly of the betrothal process.
Bride as well as maids within hut icon up. Bodies smeared with crimson ochre glue as well as ears painted white.
After "Ukutwala" has taken place, the groom`s identify unit of measurement volition kicking start the negotiation for matrimony as well as lobola with the bride`s family. It is of import to appreciate that lobola is non a" bride price," but a agency of establishing links betwixt the 2 families. the size of lobola varies considerably depending on the relative wealth as well as condition of the families involved, the wages to gain from the matrimony link, as well as the desirablility of the bride.
Painting complete, they are adorned inward their beadwork, taking keen pains just equally a white bride does on her keen day.
Traditionally lobola usually amounted to 8 heads of cattle, as well as today the value of each caput of cattle forms portion of the overall negotiation. However,there is a Xhosa saying 'one never stops paying lobola," which agency the identify unit of measurement link is an of import portion of lobola, a union that must live constantly kept renewed past times visiting one`s in-laws, inviting them around, as well as inward general, maintaining goodness familial relationships.
Once lobola is finalized matrimony tin privy pick out place. On the appointed day, the bride`s identify unit of measurement brings the bride to the groom`s house, amidst celebration inward which animals (chickens,goat or cattle) are slaughtered equally sacrifice to the ancestors, inviting them to the occasion as well as introducing the bride to them. There are no formal invitation to this event, rather whoever wishes to attend, tin privy participate inward the celebrations, as well as this often leads to a really large gatherings
Xhosa wedding ceremony ceremony
The lawsuit is joyous as well as really communal inward spirit and the celebration goes on at to the lowest degree 2 days at both the bride`s habitation as well as the groom`s (especially at the groom`s).
The finally phase of the matrimony occurs when the bride as well as the groom present themselves to the community past times walking along the main route together. This is known equally "ukucanda ibala."
A Xhosa wedding ceremony which incorporates both African as well as Western ways of doing things.
A play on umtshato.
Umakoti (Daughter in-law/wife)
A bride has to present honour towards her husband's family. The firstly virtue demanded of a bride is that she should live hardworking, respectful as well as eager. She must attention for her husband's comfort as well as that of his identify unit of measurement especially the parents inward law. Part of her responsibilities include fetching the wood, H2O as well as wild spinach from distant places. She also takes attention of the habitation garden as well as of course of teaching the cooking.
Customary police requires that a bride must present honour towards all senior relatives of her husband, especially his manlike soul relatives.
The bride must never go nigh the cattle kraal inward which her husbands manlike soul parent or granddad are buried or where the ancestors of the identify unit of measurement are believed to reign. However, if she opens her ain homestead with her husband, she may go nigh the kraal of that homestead; she is solely forbidden to go to that of the senior homestead. She must avoid the inkundla (courtyard betwixt huts as well as kraal) inward which men sit. When entering a hut of a senior relative of her husband, manlike soul as well as female, she must turn sharply to left advertizement circle about the dorsum so equally to avoid the men's side (Ukuceza). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 daughter-in-law disdains her husband's umzi if she does non avoid every identify bout where her fathers sit.
The avoidance of the correct of huts, the inkundla, as well as the cattle kraal is extended to those imizi (homesteads) of her husband's seniors into which a adult woman mightiness have got married. In her husband's mother's hut a bride is expected to pick out a retired position. She may approach the hearth to mend the dismiss or reckon to the pots, but cannot sit down upwards to the fire. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride avoids the name, as well as words, of which a principal syllable is similar to the regulation syllable of the call of her husband's father, his brothers, her husband's elderberry brothers, as well as his father's father, whether they are living or dead. She also avoids personal names of her husband's mother, paternal aunts, as well as elderberry sisters, but does non avoid words similar to them.
At ibhasi (the trip the low-cal fantastic of the married men) at Qebe,Transkei Province,SA.Circa 1973.
When she arrives, she is told (by her husband's sister, or an elderberry co-wifey) what words are avoided inward the homestead. So long equally she lives inward her mother-in-law's homestead, a wife, no thing how long she has been married, is responsible to her other-in-law, fifty-fifty to a greater extent than than her husband. If she want to see her homestead, the married adult woman must acquire permission from her woman parent inward police as well as and then she tin privy tell her married adult man that his woman parent has given her permission to go see with her people. Impoliteness to her mother in law may termination inward a bride beingness sent dorsum to her people. Nevertheless, a mother in law is expected to live "Bush shelter" to her daughter-in-law against her husband. If a married adult man beats upwards his wife, she run to her mother in law to seek refuge there, as well as the son, because he respects his mother, volition non pursue her there.(
Xhosa traditional wedding
Domestic Unit.
Households are defined past times sharing a cooking expanse as well as eating together. The ideal is that married sons volition rest with their parents inward patrilineal extended families. However, equally a termination of a shortage of terra firma as well as restrictions on the size of residential plots, the vogue is away from extended families as well as toward nuclear families.
Documentary photography Older Xhosa women Healers inward traditional dress
A married homo volition rest for some fourth dimension with his parents as well as and then attempt to secure his ain residential plot. In the illustration of polygyny a homo tin privy settle all his wives on i residential plot or acquire a separate residential plot for each one.
Xhosa traditional marriage
Households inward urban areas consist of nuclear families extended past times married and/or single relatives as well as tenants. There is a fairly high incidence of matrifocal families, often extending over 4 generations.
Inheritance.
According to customary law, a man's oldest boy or, inward cases of polygyny, the oldest boy of the main married adult woman is his main heir as well as successor. The correct to terra firma ordinarily is transferred to the call of the main heir inward the illustration of quitrent as well as permission to occupy.
Xhosa men inward their traditional dress
Land inward freehold tin privy follow the customary pattern or live inherited inward accordance with a will. The main heir also inherits the livestock, plows, tractor, car, houses, household utensils, as well as furniture, as well as these items are regarded equally theatre property. The widow has the correct to usage the belongings if the main heir is still a minor. The main heir also inherits his father's debts. Each boy inherits something from his manlike soul parent because during his lifetime the manlike soul parent earmarks livestock for each of his sons as well as that livestock volition live handed over to them when they get married as well as start their ain households. His clothes are distributed amid his sons, as well as his pipage as well as accessories are given to i of his brothers.
Xhosa warrior
In cases of polygyny, the wives are assigned to unlike houses as well as the oldest boy from each theatre is the main heir inward that house. As a dominion daughters do non inherit anything from their fathers. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 homo tin privy push clitoris upwards a volition as well as dissever his belongings amid all his children. When a adult woman dies, the household utensils that she brought to the matrimony remain portion of the belongings of her house. Her married adult man may determine the distribution of her clothes as well as ornaments amid her daughters, as well as her pipage as well as accessories are given to the husband's oldest sister.
Xhosa people
Socialization.
Depending on their age, children are raised past times their fathers, mothers, older sisters, grandparents, as well as other unopen relatives. From the historic period of time of virtually 8 years boys inward rural areas are assigned tasks such equally herding little animals, as well as their fathers instruct them the tasks assigned to men. Girls are drawn into the realm of household chores, as well as their mothers instruct them the tasks assigned to women. Obedience to both parents is expected as well as tin privy live enforced through corporal punishment. Respect must live shown to all older people. Nine years of compulsory schooling forms an of import portion of the socialization physical care for inward both rural as well as urban areas.
Xhosa circumcised initiates
Boys are initiated at the historic period of time of to a greater extent than or less xviii years. This involves circumcision as well as seclusion for at to the lowest degree iii weeks, depending on how long the wounds pick out to heal. During this fourth dimension they are dependent to restrictions regarding their movements as well as nutrient as well as are taught the proper way to comport equally adult men. This custom is practiced inward urban areas equally well, although increasingly males are circumcised inward hospitals.
The corresponding ceremony for women (the intonjane) takes identify during a girl's firstly menstruation. This custom has fallen into disuse inward many rural areas as well as has acquired the grapheme of a fertility rite equally married women who have got difficulty becoming pregnant are sent dorsum to their fathers' homes to undergo this rite.
Sociopolitical Organization
Social Organization
Status is determined past times historic period of time as well as gender. Men have got a higher condition than women according to indigenous law. This is changing because of the impact of the Bill of Rights included inward the Constitution of South Africa. Although no formal historic period of time groups or historic period of time sets exist, men as well as women occupy unlike condition positions during their life cycles that are determined past times their historic period of time phase and/or marriage. These groups get together separately during ceremonies as well as are served unlike portions of meat from sacrificial animals, as well as beverages are served to them inward unlike containers. Succession to political purpose inward rural areas is determined past times manlike soul primogeniture. Important visitors as well as dignitaries such equally chief's, headmen, ministers, priests, as well as authorities officials occupy a identify of accolade during festivities as well as ceremonies.
Xhosa people of Transkei,South Africa performining their traditional dance
Presently to a greater extent than or less 10 i G m Xhosa people are distributed across the country, as well as Xhosa is South Africa's 2d most mutual habitation language, after Zulu, to which Xhosa is closely related. The pre-1994 apartheid scheme of Bantustans denied Xhosas South African citizenship, but enabled them to have got self-governing "homelands" namely; Transkei as well as Ciskei, at nowadays both a portion of the Eastern Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa alive inward Cape Town (iKapa inward Xhosa), East London (iMonti), as well as Port Elizabeth (iBhayi).
As of 2003 the bulk of Xhosa speakers, to a greater extent than or less 5.3 million, lived inward the Eastern Cape, followed past times the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), as well as Limpopo (14,225).
Xhosa people at the countryside
HISTORY
According to Pinnock, the earliest reports past times Portuguese survivors of shipwrecks along the south-east coast during the sixteen as well as 17th centuries depict the amaXhosa equally cattle herders who hunted game as well as cultivated sorghum. They lived inward beehive –shaped huts inward scattered homesteads which were ruled past times chiefs.
Tshawe founded the Xhosa kingdom past times defeating the Cirha as well as Jwarha groups. His descendants expanded the kingdom past times settling inward novel territory as well as bringing people living in that location nether the command of the amaTshawe. Generally, the grouping would pick out on the call of the main nether whom they had united. There are so distinct varieties of the Xhosa language, the most distinct beingness isiMpondo (isiNdrondroza). Other dialects include: Thembu, Bomvana, Mpondimise, Rharhabe, Gcaleka, Xesibe, Bhaca, Cele, Hlubi, Ntlangwini, Ngqika, Mfengu.
Xhosa people
According to oral tradition, the ancestors of the amaXhosa lived inward the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains before moving piece of cake to the coast. "The firstly grouping of Nguni immigrants to migrate to South Africa about 13th century from East Africa ahead of the Zulus consisted of Xhosa, (made upwards of Gcaleka,Nggika,Ndlambe as well as Dushane clans), the Thembu as well as Pondo. However, the 2d grouping of Nguni-speakers joined these tribes later. historical evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have got inhabited the eastern Cape expanse equally long equally 1593 as well as belike fifty-fifty before that. some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have got lived inward the expanse since 7th AD."
By the mid 17th century, the Thembu tribe was settled about Mbashi River [meaning “dark river” or “dangerous ravine”] with the original Xhosa tribe inward the vicinity of Kei River as well as beyond. The senior Xhosa chiefdom was given honour as well as tribute but was non much feared.The senior main did non have got plenty armed forces powerfulness to brand himself Rex of a larger centralized state.
1840 SCHINZ/HONEGGER LITHOGRAPH Xhosa People
The chiefdom was farther weakened when Rarabe,brother of the chief, Gcaleka challenged his brother`s dominion as well as was driven off with his followers. He was succeeded equally a western Xhosa main past times his boy Ndlambe as well as after Nggika,his grandson, who took the chieftaincy away from his uncle inward 1796. During the 1820`s as well as 30`s southern Africa was torn apart past times violent wars betwixt differrent indigenous peoples, inward what is often termed Mfecane/Difeqane ("The Crushing").
Two Nguni chiefs started these wars,Zwide of Ndwandwe kingdom inward the northward of present-day Zulu terra firma (the expanse of Kwa-Zulu Natal lying northward of the Tugela River) as well as Dingiswayo of the Mthethwe kingdom inward the south.Refugees from both regular army became mfecane tribe "on the march" as well as swept across the countrycushing anyone that crossed their path.
Xhosa people
When the British came to eastern Cape, they tried to preclude armed forces conception past times adopting a treat-state system. Treaties of friendship tied Independent African states such equally Ciskei as well as Pondoland to the British. However the treaty-state scheme did non finally really long as well as state of war broke out betwixt the white settlers as well as the Xhosa tribes. An allied regular army of Nggika-Xhosa, Gcaleka-Xhosa as well as Thembu defeated the British.
However,this did non deter the British from annexing Keiskamma territory, thus setting the scene for some other state of war which volition eventually escalate to a civil state of war betwixt Gcaleka, the Xhosa main as well as the local Mfengu tribe that lives amid them. In the wars against the British as well as colonial troops, 2 Xhosa chiefs Sandile as well as Maqoma, emerged potent leaders. After both had been defeated, Xhosa resistance crumbled as well as past times early on 1800`s, the finally of Nguni chiefs has been brought nether colonial rule. however, what genuinely broke the Nguni nation`s resolve was the disaster that occurred inward mid 1850`s (The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857). In all the Xhosa fought for i hundred years to save their independence, heritage as well as land, as well as today this expanse is still referred to past times many equally Frontier Country.
The Great Cattle Killing of 1856-1857
A immature young adult woman past times call Nongqause, had a vision of warriors of the old rising upwards from the reeds surrounding the puddle into which she was gazing.They had been purified of witchcraft as well as they encouraged her to tell the Xhosa people purify themselves past times killing their cattle, destroying all their grains as well as non planting whatsoever crops.
The Photo of Nonkosi(left) as well as Nonqause(right), the niece of a prohet who allegedly misled her people to commit national suicide past times killing 25,000 cows as well as convinced them to dismiss their crops about 1857
This activity would also aid acquire rid of the White settlers, since the old warriors would come upwards as well as drive the White settlers away. News of Nongqause prophecy, spurred on past times the preaching of her uncle Mlakaza, spread amid the people similar wild fire.In the aftermath, to a greater extent than or less 20,000 people died of starvation patch some other 30,000 were scattered amid the white farmers inward the outlying areas where they sought function for food.
Despite,this disaster as well as havoc,it wrought on Xhosa people,Xhosa civilisation has remained strong.Although their lifestyle has been adapted to western traditions, they have got still retained many of their traditions as well as culture. They were the firstly African people to acquire widely known to Europeans as well as this is belike why, according to historians, the call ‘Xhosa’ became the call for all Africans inward the Eastern Cape.
Xhosa women. circa 1910
LANGUAGE
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal linguistic communication of the Bantu family. While the Xhosas telephone telephone their linguistic communication "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to equally "Xhosa" inward English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken past times virtually 18% of the South African population, as well as has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken inward urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, especially those living inward urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.
Among its features, the Xhosa linguistic communication famously has 15 click sounds, originally borrowed from at nowadays extinct Khoisan languages of the region. Xhosa has iii basic click consonants: a dental click, written with the alphabetic quality "c"; a palatal click, written with the alphabetic quality "q"; as well as a lateral click, written with the alphabetic quality "x". There is also a elementary inventory of 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u). Some vowels still may live silent. In other words, they tin privy live nowadays inward written linguistic communication but hardly audible inward spoken language. This happens especially at the goal of the word. This is because the musical note of most Xhosa words is lowest at the end.
Xhosa circumcised initiates (umkheta)
Economy
Subsistence.
The amaXhosa were pastoralists [people who herded livestock, often equally nomadic wanderers without a laid farm area], as well as their tedious motility was to a greater extent than of an expansion of territory rather than migration. One of the main reasons for this motility of expansion was only the splintering off of the sons of chiefs to found novel chiefdoms of their own. Over centuries diverse chiefdoms formed equally a termination of inner turmoils as well as division, through unions with the Khoisan groups [more virtually this later] whose territories were overrun as well as conquered past times the amaXhosa as well as through the arrival of refugees from wars inward Natal, having been expelled from this expanse past times the legendary Rex uShaka.
Xhosa people on their land.circa 1963
Xhosa people on their land.circa 1963
In the rural areas mixed farming consisting of horticulture as well as brute husbandry is practiced. Depending on the availability of arable land, each household has access to a acre ranging from 2.1 acres (0.86 hectare) to 8.5 acres (3.43 hectares) or a little garden equally portion of the residential plot. Chief's as well as headmen usually have larger tracts of terra firma that make betwixt 15 acres (6 hectares) as well as 32 acres (13 hectares). Maize (the staple), sorghum, wheat, barley, beans, peas, potatoes, pumpkins, precious rock squash, cabbage, carrots, tomatoes, as well as tobacco are grown.
Xhosa man child inward traditional attire
The soil varies from sandy to sandy loam, as well as a few areas have got clay as well as alluvial soils. Soil depth ranges from vi inches (15 centimeters) to 6.6 feet (2 meters) (alluvial soils side past times side to riverbeds). The main implements are ox-drawn plows as well as metal-bladed hoes. Cows as well as goats are eaten on special occasions related to the life bicycle as well as religious ceremonies, as well as sheep, pigs, as well as chickens provide meat for household consumption. Commodities non produced locally, such equally coffee, tea, sugar, canned food, cloth, clothes, utensils, as well as furniture, are bought with the earnings from migrant labor inward urban areas or the proceeds from the sale of skins as well as wool to local traders or at shops inward nearby towns.
caJ. Barnett as well as Co.: Young Xosa [Xhosa] Woman inward Costume; Wood Bowls and Gourd Container Nearby, n.d. [late nineteenth century].
People living nigh the sea or rivers eat the fish as well as crustaceans as well as mollusks. Roots, bulbs, berries, wild fruit, as well as herbal plants are gathered to supplement the diet. Occasionally little game may live hunted.
Former SA prez Thabo Mbeki is from Xhosa tribe
Commercial Activities. As a termination of evolution efforts a number of irrigation schemes were initiated inward which little farmers were resettled to make pineapples, citrus fruit, coffee, as well as tea for commercial purposes. Government policy regarding terra firma redistribution favors commercial dairy farming, wool production, as well as agriculture on a larger scale. In some areas handicrafts are manufactured for the tourist market.
Steve Bantu Biko,the hreat liberty fighter is from Xhosa tribe
Industrial Arts. Mats, baskets, beer strainers, brooms, utensils made from calabash, beadwork, pipes, knobkerries, walking sticks, wooden yokes, whips, as well as leather harnesses are made to a greater extent than often than non for personal use.
Thembu women wore highly decorated leather purses hanging from the hip over
leather skirts.Circa 1960
Some people are regarded equally specialists inward these crafts as well as may industry these items for others. In areas nigh major roads some of those items may live sold to tourists. Sleds are made from forked tree trunks to carry goods. Wooden mortars as well as pestles as well as grinding stones are made for the grinding of grain.
Xhosa adult woman wearing traditional attire with native wooden violin inward her hand
leather skirts.Circa 1960
Some people are regarded equally specialists inward these crafts as well as may industry these items for others. In areas nigh major roads some of those items may live sold to tourists. Sleds are made from forked tree trunks to carry goods. Wooden mortars as well as pestles as well as grinding stones are made for the grinding of grain.
Division of Labor. In general, men tend to the livestock as well as clear virgin terra firma for horticulture as well as women do the household chores (cleaning, preparing as well as serving food, washing clothes, fetching H2O as well as firewood, as well as caring for children) as well as function inward the fields or gardens. After the introduction of ox-drawn plows, men became to a greater extent than involved inward horticulture past times tilling the soil as well as planting the crops as well as women did the weeding.
Nelson Mandela is from Xhosa tribe
The whole identify unit of measurement is involved inward harvesting. Boys who do non attend schoolhouse herd the livestock as well as chase birds when the crops ripen. Girls attention for younger siblings as well as aid their mothers with their chores. In areas unopen to the sea men, women, as well as children harvest marine resources. In urban areas the segmentation of labor is less prescriptive, but women still do the household chores.
Nelson Mandela is from Xhosa tribe
The whole identify unit of measurement is involved inward harvesting. Boys who do non attend schoolhouse herd the livestock as well as chase birds when the crops ripen. Girls attention for younger siblings as well as aid their mothers with their chores. In areas unopen to the sea men, women, as well as children harvest marine resources. In urban areas the segmentation of labor is less prescriptive, but women still do the household chores.
Land Tenure. There are iii systems of terra firma tenure—permission to occupy, quitrent, as well as freehold—in the rural areas. Land is regarded equally the belongings of the tribal grouping as well as is held inward trust past times the chief.
Xhosa settlement
A soul who wants residential and/or arable terra firma must apply through his or her local headman, as well as depending on availability, terra firma is allocated. After payment of the required fees, the terra firma is registered at the local magistrate's purpose inward the call of the soul to whom it is allocated for that soul to usage inward accordance with the rules applicable to the item type of terra firma tenure system.
Xhosa land
Xhosa settlement
A soul who wants residential and/or arable terra firma must apply through his or her local headman, as well as depending on availability, terra firma is allocated. After payment of the required fees, the terra firma is registered at the local magistrate's purpose inward the call of the soul to whom it is allocated for that soul to usage inward accordance with the rules applicable to the item type of terra firma tenure system.
Xhosa land
Kinship
Kin Groups as well as Descent. Descent is patrilineal. Exogamous patriclans (iziduko) are the most of import kin groups. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 multifariousness of clan names are derived from the names of founder members, animals, as well as plants. The clans are noncorporate groups, as well as private members may back upwards i some other inward times of crisis as well as during ceremonies related to the life bicycle as well as sacrifices to the ancestors.
Closer relatives who have got the same clan name (isiduko) are called imilowo (equated past times some researchers to lineages) as well as are to a greater extent than deeply involved inward the daily lives of private members. In before times a grouping of imilowo would cast a corporate grouping with a leader (intloko yemilowo). The father's sis ( udadobawo ) plays an of import role inward the lives of her brother's children. At ceremonial occasions the children of sisters (abatshana) are included equally imilowo. In urban areas neighbors often are included equally imilowo. Kinship does non have got the same importance inward urban areas that it does inward rural areas.
Closer relatives who have got the same clan name (isiduko) are called imilowo (equated past times some researchers to lineages) as well as are to a greater extent than deeply involved inward the daily lives of private members. In before times a grouping of imilowo would cast a corporate grouping with a leader (intloko yemilowo). The father's sis ( udadobawo ) plays an of import role inward the lives of her brother's children. At ceremonial occasions the children of sisters (abatshana) are included equally imilowo. In urban areas neighbors often are included equally imilowo. Kinship does non have got the same importance inward urban areas that it does inward rural areas.
Kinship Terminology. Kin terms are a variation of the Iroquois type. However, the woman parent as well as the mother's sis are non referred to with the same term, as well as the mother's sister's children are referred to past times unlike terms than are the father's brother's children.
Xhosa circumcission initiate (Umkhweta)
RITES OF PASSAGEThe Xhosa are a South African cultural grouping who emphasize traditional practices as well as customs inherited from their forefathers. Each soul within the Xhosa civilisation has his or her identify which is recognized past times the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa soul goes through graduation stages which recognize his growth as well as assign him a recognized identify inward the community.
Young bare breasted Xhosa girls inward traditional procession
Each phase is marked past times a specific ritual aimed at introducing the private to their counterparts as well as hence to the ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to innovate a novel born to the ancestors, to umphumo, from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man). These rituals as well as ceremonies are still practiced today, but many urbanized Xhosa people do non follow them rigidly. The ulwaluko as well as intonjane are also traditions which separated this tribe from the ease of the Nguni tribes.
Xhosa women inward their traditional attire smoking their trademark pipes
All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the private spends fourth dimension with community elders to prepare for the side past times side stage. The elders' teachings are non written, but transmitted from generation to generation past times oral tradition. The Iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even to a greater extent than than names as well as surnames) are transferred from i to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your “Isiduko” is vital to the Xhosas as well as it is considered a shame as well as “Uburhanuka” (lack-of-identity) if i doesn’t know one's clan.
This is considered so of import that when 2 strangers run across for the firstly time, the firstly identity that gets shared is “Isiduko”. It is so of import that 2 people with the same surname but unlike clan are considered total strangers but the same 2 people from the same clan but unlike surnames are regarded equally unopen relatives. This forms the roots of "Ubuntu" (neighbouring) - a behaviour synonymous to this tribe equally extending a helping mitt to a consummate stranger when inward need. Ubuntu goes farther than just helping i some other - it is so deep that it fifty-fifty extends to looking after as well as reprimanding your neighbour's kid when inward the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a hamlet to enhance a child".
Intonjane (girl's initiation, puberty rite)
Thembu-Xhosa Female intonjane Initiation at Qutubeni inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1965
Thembu Female Initiation:
Intonjane at Nkondlo inward Transkei Province,SA. Circa 1962
A grouping of women sing a traditional vocal equally the immature adult woman as well as her 2 amakhankatha (orderlies or attendants), who are covered inward blankets from caput to human foot are led from the veld to the homestead past times elders.
Women sing as well as trip the low-cal fantastic for the intonjane. They also taught her valuable womanhood life skills as well as develop her for the stage.
"‘When a immature adult woman arrives at the historic period of time of puberty she must live danced for. The trip the low-cal fantastic is to preclude evil inward after days, just equally when a adult woman is married, dancing at her kraal takes identify lest evil should arrive."
Amakhuko (grass mats) are used equally partitions to maintain the initiate inward seclusion for the duration of her intonjane.
She must slumber on grass covered solely past times blankets, naked a portion from a dark doek roofing her head. On her human face she wears white clay as well as inkciyo (traditional underwear), but her breasts as well as buttocks remain exposed. Her entire body – from her human face to her toes – is painted with soft white clay usually worn past times the abakhwetha (male circumcision initiates).
Mother as well as kid at intonjane at Nkondlo inward Transkei province,South Africa.Circa 1962.
Intonjane initiation ceremony
Every eve local boys as well as girls come upwards to the hut to perform Xhosa dances as well as songs, showcasing their skills. On the tenth day, the immature adult woman is dressed inward imibhaco. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 dark doek covers her caput equally the flooring is cleaned as well as smeared with moo-cow dung. Outside the grass is burnt. In the evening, novel grass is placed on the flooring as well as she removes the clothes equally she returns to seclusion. On her finally day, her elders pick out her to the main theatre as well as study dorsum to her parents as well as other identify unit of measurement members
Xhosa womenDressed, attending - as well as enjoying1 - intonjane. 1970.
Women dressed for intonjane, inward accuse of the beer at Nkondlo. 1957.
Thus, fifty-fifty without intonjane, a immature adult woman became an intombi at puberty as well as could live married. More importantly, the rite was regarded equally of import grooming for child-bearing. Without it, a immature adult woman was liable to autumn sick after marriage, live barren, or have got sickly children.
Any problem inward the immature bride was probable to live diagnosed past times the diviner equally having been sent past times her father's ancestors, who were aggrieved that the custom had been omitted, as well as that she should render to her parental homestead as well as undergo the rite.
Xhosa wedding:Inspection of the bride as well as bridesmaids at Ngqokotho . 1975.
Among the southern Nguni, the custom did non involve teaching inward sexual matters as well as techniques, or fifty-fifty inward the duties of married adult woman as well as mother.
Sacred Xhosa Birth Rituals- SIFUDU
In Xhosa culture, cattle as well as goats are sacred because they provide meat, milk, hides for clothes as well as symbolise the unity betwixt the human stuff world as well as the spiritual world of universal gods as well as the ancestors. When a babe is born, she slips through the 2 worlds equally it were into the nowadays social community, bringing gifts of grapheme as well as recent connections with the spirit world as well as fifty-fifty ancestors that will, over time, differentiate her from whatsoever other human being.
Umtuma ingredient grooming for the child`s umbilical cord
Birth inward the Xhosa culture, is an of import rite of passage as well as is so treated with due respect, honour as well as celebration. Traditionally, the birthing woman parent is attended to past times ‘grand-mothers’ inward her ‘rondavel’, who have got experience inward birthing babies. The rondavel is made with mud or a cob-like mixture, as well as the roof is usually thatched, so the room is dark as well as circular. After the nascence the woman parent as well as novel babe are secluded until the cord falls off as well as the grandmother aids this physical care for past times mixing ash, saccharide as well as a poisonous works life called ‘Umtuma’ together as well as rubbing the glue onto the newly severed cord, which is believed to assist the drying out process.
Cutting the child`s umbilical cord. After birth, a length of dry out grass taken from the roof of the hut, is split inward half, its border is razor sharp, as well as with this the umbilical cord is severed leaving a length of 7 to 10 cm of cord on baby. Approximately as well as hr later, this length is reduced to to a greater extent than or less 5 cm past times over again severing with the grass equally seen, maintaining that the 2d cutting issue all unnecessary blood from the cord.
Once the cord has fallen off, the novel babe is introduced to unopen woman soul identify unit of measurement members equally good equally to women of the wider community. The ritual of “Sifudu” is as well as then performed. Pungent leaves of the Sifudu tree are burnt inward a fire, about which the women gather, to make a really pungent smoke. The babe is as well as then floated over the fume (upside-down) iii times, which causes a severe reaction of coughing as well as sometimes screaming.
Traditional medicine beingness applied to ensure that the residual of the cord rots
Then the babe is given to the woman parent who passes the babe nether her left genu as well as then her correct knee. This ceremony is believed to brand the babe stronger inward spirit as well as protect her from time to come evil. The babe is as well as then washed as well as smeared with a white chalk called “Ingceke” mixed with basis “Mtomboti” wood, a sweetness smelling amount that lasts for many weeks.
A adult woman holding a baby`s caput downward into the smoke, which gives it such a daze it tin privy hardly cry
The babe is as well as then breastfed past times the “Umdlezana”, the mother.
“Inkaba” is the ritual of burying the cord as well as the placenta as well as this has keen significance to the clan as well as seals the attachment of the babe to her ancestral lands. “Inkaba” as well as then comes to hateful one’s ancestral habitation as well as symbolizes the human relationship betwixt the individual, his/her clan, the terra firma as well as the spiritual world.
Mother swiftly passing the kid nether i of her legs, as well as then nether the other. All this, plus the fume shock, assures beyond doubt, that when the kid grows upwards it volition never live dependent to fright, nor live timid, shy or easily ridiculed past times pocket-size or adult, equally it volition stand upwards it's ground.
The burial identify of an ‘Inkaba’ is a identify where i must go as well as dream as well as communicate with ancestors.
The ritual of “Imbeleko” is the ceremony welcoming the kid into the greater community, when a caprine animal is slaughtered as well as the clan is invited to attend the feast. The pare of the caprine animal as well as then becomes a sacred item for the novel clan member, the baby, who volition slumber on it inward the time to come inward times of trouble, signifying a want for connexion with the ancestors.
Child beingness thoroughly washed after it's ordeal.
The babe volition live named with a identify unit of measurement prefix, or suffix as well as may live named to signify events, similar a thunderstorm or lightening, or wishes the identify unit of measurement may have got similar “Hope” or “Themba”.
Baby is painted with white amount INGCEKE from river bank. Substance is prepared on a apartment rock into which a little quantity of basis MTOMBOTI forest is mixed. This forest has a potent pleasant odour, which they maintain clings to the babe holding off all evil spirits from attacking the child.
A clan “Praise-Singer”, who is comparative to a Bard inward celtic culture, volition telephone telephone upon the ancestors as well as vocally elaborate on all the ancestors’ feats of excellence as well as praiseworthy qualities, so equally to imbue the novel fellow member of the clan with a sense of her responsibleness to the grouping at an early on age.
Baby feeding after its ordeal. Note how white it's human face has acquire at nowadays that the pigment has dried.
The Abakwetha Circumcision Ceremony
A man child amid the Xhosa is a 'thing' as well as non a soul until he has been through the Tribe's circumcision rite. This rite is known equally the UKWALUSA (circumcision) or the ABAKWETHA ritual as well as it is the most of import lawsuit inward whatsoever male's life. The total ritual is spread over a period of time of virtually 3 months.
Before circumcision immature men apparel “Gourds” (calabashes) over private parts. Like this considered fully dressed fifty-fifty inward forepart of women.
Among the southern Nguni, the ordeal (ukwaluka/abakwetha) was seen equally a necessary demonstration that the youth was worthy of beingness considered a 'man'. If a manlike soul did non undergo this rite, he would ever live referred to equally inkwenkwe (boy) no thing how old he became. He was excluded from all manlike soul activities, prohibited from participation inward councils, as well as was unable to inherit.
The initiates to live circumcised, heads shaved, have got finally repast inward sheep kraal before operation.
The uncircumcised manlike soul was subjected to the intense ridicule of women equally good equally men; no adult woman would have got anything to do with him, as well as no identify unit of measurement would concur to adjust a marriage. Overt religious overtones, inward the cast of directly invocations to ancestors, were few as well as the participation of a religious specialist (igqira-diviner) was limited to i ceremony during the entire process. Nevertheless, the religious significance was important.
The newly thatched hut, Sutu, which volition acquire their habitation for iii months.
This custom initiated the immature homo into total membership inward the family, which included non solely the living adults but also its guiding spirits--the ancestors who would never have got an uncircumcised man. However, this religious aspect was largely inherent rather than explicit as well as overt.
Xhosa traditional circumcission surgeon ready with pike before operation.
To acquire men through circumcision. Five youths at a fourth dimension are circumcised, ages 17 to twenty years The grouping of 5 alive together inward a specially constructed hut (sutu), which becomes their habitation for iii months patch they undergo the transformation from youth to manhood.
The start of actual operation, 500 yards from newly constructed hut. (Sutu).The severing of the foreskin. No modern medicine used.
The lawsuit usually takes identify inward the boy's belatedly teens but sometimes, when they are especially wild as well as cannot live controlled past times their parents, boys are spot inward before to sober them upwards as well as to instill responsibleness into them.
Completely severed. At this 2d the man child shouts NDIYINDODA (I am a man).
The interesting portion virtually the rite is that it indisputably does have got this effect. The argue is non because of whatsoever penalisation or acre of study that is exercised over the initiate inward the schoolhouse itself but purely, it seems, because of the psychological powerfulness the rite has.
The bandaging. Goat pare strip about waist becomes bandage. The herbs used. Left mitt ‘swadi” stops bleeding. Right mitt “isichwe” antiseptic.
There have got been cases of widows whose sons, without a father's restraint, were quite out of command and
spent their fourth dimension thieving as well as getting upwards to all the mischief imaginable, who inward the goal were physically caught past times the men of a kraal as well as taken struggling as well as shouting to the "ngcibi" (surgeon) with his sharpened assegai. They were inward each illustration completely reformed equally a termination of the ceremony.
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
The "ngcibi" or surgeon arrives at sunrise as well as equally he passes the identify unit of measurement huts, the women start wailing. Those whom he passes have got to live careful because he flails his arms as well as his assegai around, non worried virtually injuring anyone.
As he comes inward sight of the initiates he screams viciously referring to them equally 'dogs' as well as 'things'.
The functioning is done with a sharpened blade as well as the man child must non outcry out or fifty-fifty flinch inward pain.
As he operates the "ngcibi" (doctor) says, 'You are a man!' as well as throws the excised portion on the basis inward forepart of the man child who has to repeat,"'Ndiyindoda!'" ('I am a man!') equally he picks upwards the portion as well as holds it inward his clenched hand.
live inward isolation for upwards to several weeks painted inward white clay.
After this, the initiates or "Umkhweta" have got to go inward unlike directions as well as bury the portions inward an pismire heap where the ants volition swallow them upwards so that a magician cannot discovery them as well as brand medicine from them. If the portions were used for such a purpose as well as then the initiates' wounds would never heal.
The injure is outpouring with special leaves supposedly having healing properties as well as mud is as well as then packed over it.
The surgeon as well as then smears a mixture of pismire heap as well as H2O on the human face as well as pectus of the initiates as well as makes them imbibe a mouthful of the mixture. This makes their hearts hard similar an pismire heap, so that they won't live cowards inward their time to come lives equally men. It also prevents them from beingness dizzy.
The initiates are looked after past times an amakhankatha, or guardian, who explained the rules they had to follow if they want to acquire inward manhood properly. The firstly chore of the amakhankatha is to pigment their naked as well as shaved bodies from caput to human foot inward white ochre, turning the initiates into ghosts. The white chalk symbolized purity. The initiates as well as then twine themselves upwards inward their novel blankets so that they volition non pick out handle of cold. They are as well as then lectured on beingness honourable Xhosa's as well as the manlike soul parent of each initiate pays the surgeon 50 cents.
Young Xhosa Abakwetha. © James Nachtwey, National Geographic.The circumcision rituals, known as Ulwaluko, are traditional within the Xhosa civilisation (and many other African cultures). The ceremonies signify the passage from man child to manhood.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
Lobola
Labola was a fundamental chemical constituent of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth inward cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. Except inward the illustration of chiefs as well as really rich men, the number of cattle demanded was usually fewer than ten. The number of cattle as well as the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation. In many cases, the finally total was non decided, nor inward most cases were all of the cattle delivered prior to the completion of the marriage. As a result, the woman's relatives would demand additional cattle from fourth dimension to time. In monastic tell to increase the pressure level if it was felt in that location was unnecessary dilatoriness, the adult woman mightiness live called habitation as well as detained until additional cattle were forthcoming.
Much has been written virtually lobola as well as its significance. African matrimony was primarily a joining of 2 families rather than a thing betwixt 2 individuals. As a result, negotiations as well as decision-making regarding whatsoever proposed matrimony were inward the hands of the identify unit of measurement heads. In theory (except inward the illustration of older heads of their ain homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' as well as the wishes of immature people were non regarded equally crucial. Obedience to one's parents as well as the economical as well as legal dependence of the immature people caused most to have got the arrangements made for them.
Xhosa mothers
In practice, immature men were often consulted as well as their wishes respected; if a immature homo wanted to get married a item girl, his identify unit of measurement most probable would endeavour to adjust the match, as well as rarely would they endeavour to override a potent dislike or objection. Girls were consulted much less, as well as families would resort to potent pressure, including thrashings, if they thought the matrimony a goodness i as well as were anxious to conclude it. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 immature adult woman was expected to submit to the wishes of her father. However, fathers were constrained non solely past times their fondness for their daughters as well as the demand to acquire the consent of the girl's mother, but also past times the fact that if the married adult woman were responsible for a breakdown inward the marriage, the lobola mightiness have got to live returned. Thus, if a immature adult woman were determined, she could usually number a veto over a proposed marriage.
Xhosa wedding
Lobola was the foundation of African marriage. Although in that location were a number of ceremonies, rituals as well as reciprocal entertainments past times the families, solely lobola was indispensable inward legitimizing a marriage. Without the payment of cattle, the manlike soul parent or his identify unit of measurement could non claim parental rights to the children. Without the payment of lobola, a boy did non have got a claim to inherit. Perpetuation of the lineage was a source of keen anxiety to African families, as well as the main incentive as well as purpose of African matrimony was the want to provide children. Also, equally an active producer in agriculture, a adult woman made of import contributions to the economic scheme of a homestead. Thus, lobola was a compensation from the identify unit of measurement of the groom to that of the bride for the loss of her productive as well as reproductive contributions Moreover, lobola cemented the alliance betwixt the families, as well as the substantial transfer of wealth created really of import vested interests inward the marriage.
The payment of lobola was an indication to the bride's identify unit of measurement that the proposed married adult man was capable of providing for the bride as well as that he as well as his identify unit of measurement were people of substance. Also, it was a safety bond posted past times or on behalf of the bridegroom equally a pledge of goodness treatment; a homo was non probable to abandon such a substantial investment, as well as inward most societies, if a divorce resulted because of abuse as well as ill-treatment, all or most of the lobola was forfeited.
On the other hand, past times the receipt of lobola, the bride's identify unit of measurement incurred a keen many obligations. The bride had to carry to her novel home, a wardrobe, a make of presents for her novel 'in-laws', as well as a goodness furnish of household articles; also, from fourth dimension to time, she would render habitation to replenish these past times demanding more. Her identify unit of measurement had incentives to encourage the immature wife's goodness behaviour.
If she were at error inward a divorce, the lobola would have got to live returned. If she created problem or violated the ukuhlonipa (to present respect) restrictions, she would live sent habitation to acquire a fine to restore harmonious relations inward the husband's homestead. Beneficiaries of lobola acquired lifelong obligations; if widowed or divorced, a adult woman could go to them as well as claim protection as well as maintenance.Also, it seems that inward the lawsuit of disaster or hard times, a married adult man could inquire for as well as appear some assistance from his wife's family.
XHOSA TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE/WEDDING- IDULI (Nguwa Nguwa Umtshato)
Before the Missionaries acquire inward to alter the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a homo with his wives, married sons with their wives as well as children, as well as single daughters. Marriage was polygamous as well as patriarchal. Each adult woman inward the household who has been married a twelvemonth or to a greater extent than had her ain hut, as well as also a store-hut.
Uduli - the bridal political party - consisting of bridesmaids, immature men, an old homo as well as old adult woman escort the bride-to-be to the prospective bridegroom's identify unit of measurement umzi (the kraal).
Huts were arranged inward a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The opened upwards segment of
the circle was filled past times a cattle kraal. The senior manlike soul of the household was the possessor of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, as well as that of his firstly wife(the 'great wife') are built reverse the gate of the cattle kraal.
Xhosa married adult man as well as wife
The traditional physical care for of Xhosa matrimony begins with "Ukutwala," which agency "the taking," or "carry away/abduction" which occurs after the grooms identify unit of measurement has chosen a suitable bride for himself. It is of import to Federal Reserve notation that "Ukutwala" is non kidnapping because the prospective bride is non harmed as well as may render to the family. It is rather a formal method signifying the intention to get married as well as this marks the firstly of the betrothal process.
Bride as well as maids within hut icon up. Bodies smeared with crimson ochre glue as well as ears painted white.
After "Ukutwala" has taken place, the groom`s identify unit of measurement volition kicking start the negotiation for matrimony as well as lobola with the bride`s family. It is of import to appreciate that lobola is non a" bride price," but a agency of establishing links betwixt the 2 families. the size of lobola varies considerably depending on the relative wealth as well as condition of the families involved, the wages to gain from the matrimony link, as well as the desirablility of the bride.
Painting complete, they are adorned inward their beadwork, taking keen pains just equally a white bride does on her keen day.
Traditionally lobola usually amounted to 8 heads of cattle, as well as today the value of each caput of cattle forms portion of the overall negotiation. However,there is a Xhosa saying 'one never stops paying lobola," which agency the identify unit of measurement link is an of import portion of lobola, a union that must live constantly kept renewed past times visiting one`s in-laws, inviting them around, as well as inward general, maintaining goodness familial relationships.
Once lobola is finalized matrimony tin privy pick out place. On the appointed day, the bride`s identify unit of measurement brings the bride to the groom`s house, amidst celebration inward which animals (chickens,goat or cattle) are slaughtered equally sacrifice to the ancestors, inviting them to the occasion as well as introducing the bride to them. There are no formal invitation to this event, rather whoever wishes to attend, tin privy participate inward the celebrations, as well as this often leads to a really large gatherings
Xhosa wedding ceremony ceremony
The lawsuit is joyous as well as really communal inward spirit and the celebration goes on at to the lowest degree 2 days at both the bride`s habitation as well as the groom`s (especially at the groom`s).
The finally phase of the matrimony occurs when the bride as well as the groom present themselves to the community past times walking along the main route together. This is known equally "ukucanda ibala."
A Xhosa wedding ceremony which incorporates both African as well as Western ways of doing things.
A play on umtshato.
Umakoti (Daughter in-law/wife)
A bride has to present honour towards her husband's family. The firstly virtue demanded of a bride is that she should live hardworking, respectful as well as eager. She must attention for her husband's comfort as well as that of his identify unit of measurement especially the parents inward law. Part of her responsibilities include fetching the wood, H2O as well as wild spinach from distant places. She also takes attention of the habitation garden as well as of course of teaching the cooking.
Customary police requires that a bride must present honour towards all senior relatives of her husband, especially his manlike soul relatives.
The bride must never go nigh the cattle kraal inward which her husbands manlike soul parent or granddad are buried or where the ancestors of the identify unit of measurement are believed to reign. However, if she opens her ain homestead with her husband, she may go nigh the kraal of that homestead; she is solely forbidden to go to that of the senior homestead. She must avoid the inkundla (courtyard betwixt huts as well as kraal) inward which men sit. When entering a hut of a senior relative of her husband, manlike soul as well as female, she must turn sharply to left advertizement circle about the dorsum so equally to avoid the men's side (Ukuceza). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 daughter-in-law disdains her husband's umzi if she does non avoid every identify bout where her fathers sit.
The avoidance of the correct of huts, the inkundla, as well as the cattle kraal is extended to those imizi (homesteads) of her husband's seniors into which a adult woman mightiness have got married. In her husband's mother's hut a bride is expected to pick out a retired position. She may approach the hearth to mend the dismiss or reckon to the pots, but cannot sit down upwards to the fire. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride avoids the name, as well as words, of which a principal syllable is similar to the regulation syllable of the call of her husband's father, his brothers, her husband's elderberry brothers, as well as his father's father, whether they are living or dead. She also avoids personal names of her husband's mother, paternal aunts, as well as elderberry sisters, but does non avoid words similar to them.
At ibhasi (the trip the low-cal fantastic of the married men) at Qebe,Transkei Province,SA.Circa 1973.
When she arrives, she is told (by her husband's sister, or an elderberry co-wifey) what words are avoided inward the homestead. So long equally she lives inward her mother-in-law's homestead, a wife, no thing how long she has been married, is responsible to her other-in-law, fifty-fifty to a greater extent than than her husband. If she want to see her homestead, the married adult woman must acquire permission from her woman parent inward police as well as and then she tin privy tell her married adult man that his woman parent has given her permission to go see with her people. Impoliteness to her mother in law may termination inward a bride beingness sent dorsum to her people. Nevertheless, a mother in law is expected to live "Bush shelter" to her daughter-in-law against her husband. If a married adult man beats upwards his wife, she run to her mother in law to seek refuge there, as well as the son, because he respects his mother, volition non pursue her there.(Table Mountain
The Battle of Qamata as well as the Sea Dragons: According to the ancient legend of the Xhosa people,
Qamata was the creator of the world. As he was creating the earth, he wanted to cast dry out land. The dragons beneath the sea were furious with Qamata inward his quest to create dry out terra firma as well as began an epic battle. Qamata’s mother, world Goddess, Djobela, helped Qamata past times creating 4 powerful giants that would protect the world from the dragons. The giants were defeated past times the dragons but wished Djobela to turn them into mountains so that they could go on to protect the land. According to traditional Xhosa beliefs, i of these 4 giants was turned into Table Mountain.
‘AmaXhosa History'
A for certain homo had iii sons, whose names were Ibranana,
Xosa, as well as Twa. Ibranana was a keeper of cattle, sheep, and
goats, equally was also Xosa, patch pitiable Twa was satisfied with his
honey plane as well as his game inward the desert. Ibranana (the ancestor
of the Hottentots) was non a tall man, as well as his complexion was
sallow. Twa (the ancestor of the Bushman) was shorter still and
more slender, as well as also of a sallow complexion, but a shade
lighter. And Xosa was a tall, muscular man, as well as dark
coloured. We know naught on which nosotros tin privy depend, of
Sikomo, or his boy Togu, or his boy Gconde, farther than that
they as well as our fathers occupied a province northward of our present
settlement.
The oldest boy of the manlike soul parent of all was a Hottentot; the 2d a
Kafir [African or Xhosa]; the 3rd a white man. No creature
could have got been to a greater extent than happily situated than the Hottentot. He
reveled inward the abundance of his father's riches as well as luxuries. At
length, past times argue of the abundance inward which he moved, he
grew careless, indolent, as well as utterly regardless. His great
amusement was to follow the honey-bird from hateful solar daytime to hateful solar daytime in
search of bee-hives. One hateful solar daytime he went out equally usual, as well as never
returned to his father, leaving everything behind him. That is
the argue given why the Hottentots are such an improvident
people.
The 2d son, the Kafir, took a special liking to cattle, and
the herding of them. Cattle ultimately became his inheritance;
and when he came of age, he left his father, as well as laid upwards for
himself. That is why the Kafirs are to this hateful solar daytime so fond of cattle.
The other thing, received from his father, to retain for ever as
his inalienable property, was Kafir corn, for which he has a
special liking.
While the oldest son, the Hottentot, was pursuing his
wandering chase after the honey-bird, as well as the 2d son,
the Kafir, was next his flocks inward the fields, the youngest
son, the white man, was ever at habitation with the old man, his
father. As the youngest, he was a keen favourite. He was
constantly inward his father's company, waiting upon him, and
hearing his wise talk. In this way he became a precocious
child. His manlike soul parent poured into his ‘ soft caput ' all the treasures of
wisdom as well as knowledge. He told him everything; showed him
how to do all things; as well as thus the white homo was inward advance
of the other races.
“The Cattle-Killing”
And so catastrophe crippled this land,
for Mhlakaza's immature adult woman emerged from the pool,
came dorsum habitation noising the problem,
made her demented study to men,
who never pay whatsoever attending to females.
That inward itself of course of teaching was suspect,
a veritable curse to this terra firma of Xhosa,
for a adult woman to claim that the shades had addressed her,
that she'd met as well as conversed with them human face to face.
Where were this country's thinking people?
Where were the keen men?
Where were the dignitaries?
Where were the senior men of experience,
who danced to the vanquish established past times others,
dancing besotted on cattle?
--------------------
So then, my swain countrymen,
this is the work Nongqawuse announced,
informing the Xhosa, who sat dorsum unsuspecting:
she claimed to have got talked to the shades inward person,
and they called for the wholesale slaughter of cattle
and the total devastation of grain,
for the One Everlasting would speak to the nation,
the i nosotros know past times the call of Qamata.
It was this same Qamata who had pressed her to prominence
on the hateful solar daytime the unheard-of occurred,
events without precedent inward the province of Phalo.
It so happened that when this immature adult woman made her announcement
the Xhosa were inward virtual command of the land,
a nation custom-sustained.
So they made preparations to have what was coming
and began to slaughter their innocent cattle.
-------
All of our problems began with conversion:
conversion entailed the credence of God,
yet this God nosotros said nosotros accepted,
this Bible---is pregnant with evil incarnate,
it's held past times a homo who faces westward,
his clerical neckband primly folded inward front
is secured past times a butterfly stud at the back,
and concealed at his dorsum a cannon is lodged
which looms into sentiment when he opens his mouth
and shatters the sinews of those he confronts.
And when confusion afflicted the land
the Christian missionaries cutting correct through,
they cutting correct through urging peace as well as calm.
-------
Xhosa bodily marks (scarifications)
Travelling through the Transkei inward South Africa, i really often sees a immature maiden with her tum total of scars of equal size, which run from betwixt her breasts downwardly to the navel, as well as horizontally across the sides of her tummy, patch many bear the scars on their backs equally well.
Investigation proved beyond incertitude that this custom is carried out past times most immature Tembu girls for the sake of beautifying the body. The operators, elderly women, are experts at the job, performing the functioning whenever a immature maiden requests it equally described inward the next manner:
Tribal amaxhosa beautification marks
Medicine.
Therapeutic practices include cutting, sucking, massage, purgatives, as well as the provision of amulets made from brute as well as works life parts as well as beads. Medicines are made from dried bark, leaves, roots, as well as bulbs basis into a fine powder. Medicine is mixed with H2O as well as drunkard or smeared onto the affected portion of the body; it also tin privy live carried on the body inward a little container. Some herbalists have got divining spirits that aid them execute their duties as well as brand the presence of those spirits known to the ancestral spirits. Many "Muti shops" that sell indigenous medicines be inward urban areas. Clinics as well as hospitals inward rural as well as urban areas provide scientific medicine to patients. Often i type of medicine is reverted to after the other type has been used if the soul is non satisfied with the outcome of the firstly treatment.
Death as well as Afterlife.
Death is ascribed to witchcraft as well as sorcery, natural causes, as well as the volition of God. The spirit of a deceased household caput is believed to go on to alive equally an ancestral spirit. By law, all corpses must live buried inward a cemetery, as well as this has had an influence on the belief that a household caput should live buried inward his cattle corral, a soul who was struck past times lightning or who drowned should live buried where the corpse was found, as well as babies should live buried nether the forest pile.
A expiry causes impurity, as well as whatsoever soul who has come upwards into contact with a corpse must live purified through the washing of his or her hands.
Funerals are of import occasions, as well as relatives as well as friends brand an elbow grease to attend. Graves are covered with branches from thorn trees to preclude animals from damaging the grave as well as to preclude sorcerers from earthworks upwards the body as well as changing it into a familiar. There are unlike types of tombstones inward both rural as well as urban areas, as well as they are ceremonially unveiled. Burial societies play an of import role inward rural as well as urban areas, as well as their members provide i some other with stuff as well as moral support.
Xhosa girl, Eastern Cape, Kwazulu Natal, South Africa
The brewing of traditional beer
The firstly stride is to prepare the malt. This is done past times moistening a quantity of sorghum or mealies, roofing it as well as placing it inward a warm identify to germinate after which it is dried as well as used equally malt or inkoduso for making the beer. Meanwhile the women as well as girls grind sorghum, maize or wheat coarsely. This repast is moistened as well as left overnight to live basis fine the side past times side day. The resultant dough is placed inward a tub as well as left, covered with a hessian purse overnight. The next hateful solar daytime a sparse porridge is cooked, using the dough.
Xhosa chiefs sits with adult woman whilst they're drinking traditional beer
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 little quantity of this is left to cool as well as is as well as then poured into a pot or tub where it is mixed with the malt to ferment chop-chop as well as forms theisilumiso, or yeast , some of which is as well as then used to hasten the fermentation of a little quantity of beer. This is drunkard past times the caput of the household as well as his friends. On the hateful solar daytime laid aside for the purpose, the ease of the porridge is poured into containers as well as mixed with the ease of the isilumiso / yeast.
Amakwenkwe (boys) aid to prepare for beer-drinking at intonjane. Mbekeni. 1970.
Before this yeast is poured into the container, one-half of the remaining malt, known as imithombo yangaphantsi is poured into the bottom of the tub as well as the whole mixture is stirred thoroughly. Then the other one-half of the malt,imithombo yangaphezulu, is poured over the mixture which is over again stirred as well as and then covered with a sack to ferment. The charge per unit of measurement of fermentation depends on the amount of yeast added as well as the prevailing temperature, but it ordinarily takes virtually 24 hours. The beer is as well as then strained as well as is ready for consumption. Nowadays the repast as well as malt are bought ready ground. Apart from this, the brewing physical care for remains unaltered.
Khaya La Bantu dancers of Xhosa tribe
Amakwenkwe (boys) aid to prepare for beer-drinking at intonjane. Mbekeni. 1970.
Before this yeast is poured into the container, one-half of the remaining malt, known as imithombo yangaphantsi is poured into the bottom of the tub as well as the whole mixture is stirred thoroughly. Then the other one-half of the malt,imithombo yangaphezulu, is poured over the mixture which is over again stirred as well as and then covered with a sack to ferment. The charge per unit of measurement of fermentation depends on the amount of yeast added as well as the prevailing temperature, but it ordinarily takes virtually 24 hours. The beer is as well as then strained as well as is ready for consumption. Nowadays the repast as well as malt are bought ready ground. Apart from this, the brewing physical care for remains unaltered.
Khaya La Bantu dancers of Xhosa tribe
Ubuntu
The term literally agency “humanness” as well as is used to correspond the saying “I am because nosotros are” as well as is described past times Barbara Nessbaum equally follows:
Ubuntu is the capacity inward African civilisation to limited compassion, reciprocity, dignity, harmony as well as humanity inward the interests of edifice as well as maintaining community with judge as well as mutual caring. Ubuntu, an Nguni word from South Africa, speaks to our interconnectedness, our mutual humanity as well as the responsibleness to each other that flows from our deeply felt connection. Ubuntu is consciousness of our natural want to affirm our swain human beings as well as to function as well as human activity towards each other with the communal goodness inward the forefront of our minds. Ubuntu calls upon us to believe as well as experience that:
Your hurting is My pain,
My wealth is Your wealth,
Your salvation is My salvation.
Xhosa chiefs virtually to acquire inward Ubuntu Education Fund Centre
And this consequently gives ascension to the saying: Umntu Ngumntu Ngabantu – “A soul is a soul because of others”. Ubuntu is a social philosophy, a way of being, a code of ethics as well as behaviour deeply embedded inward African culture. The underlying value seeks to accolade the dignity of each soul as well as is concerned virtually the evolution as well as maintenance of mutually affirming as well as enhancing relationships.
Archbishop Desmond Tutu is from Xhosa tribe
Because ubuntu embraces as well as requires justice, it inspires as well as so creates a theatre foundation for our mutual humanity. It has been inward existence for thousands of years inward most countries of Africa as well as continues to prevarication at the core of intrinsic values inward traditional African culture, although inward urban areas, such values are beingness increasingly eroded
Archbishop Desmond Tutu is from Xhosa tribe
Because ubuntu embraces as well as requires justice, it inspires as well as so creates a theatre foundation for our mutual humanity. It has been inward existence for thousands of years inward most countries of Africa as well as continues to prevarication at the core of intrinsic values inward traditional African culture, although inward urban areas, such values are beingness increasingly eroded
I am because nosotros are
Ubuntu ungamntu ngabanye abantu
Xhosa proverb
"People are people through other people".
"My humanity is caught up, is inextricably outpouring upwards inward yours. We
belong inward a packet of life. I am a human because I belong. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 person
with ubuntu is opened upwards as well as available to others, affirming of others, does
not experience threatened that others are able as well as good; for he or she
belongs inward a greater whole as well as is diminished when others are
humiliated or diminished, when others are tortured or oppressed, or
treated equally if they were less than who they are."
Desmond Tutu explaining Ubuntu inward No Future Without Forgiveness;
1999
Khaya la bantu dancers of Xhosa tribe
Everyday Social Observances
Observances pertaining to greetings when entering a room:
The visitor greets firstly equally he/she enters saying “Molo” when in that location is solely i soul inward the room/house and “Molweni” if in that location are 2 or to a greater extent than people. If the visitor is known or knows the family, he/she may telephone telephone out the person’s name. Likewise, the same physical care for tin privy live followed when greeting a grouping of people with the greeting “Molweni mawethu” – Greetings my fellows. These observances are also ordinarily accompanied past times the shaking of hands. Other observances pertaining to the shaking of hands are:
- The mitt of a witchdoctor is non shaken.
- The mitt of a immature homo who is undergoing the initiation or ulwaluko process is non shaken.
- Hand shaking is accompanied past times coming together the eyes of the other person, non looking sideways or down.
- In the to a greater extent than rural areas, immature people tin privy live expected to greet i some other non with a mitt shake, but with sticks.
- Men ever occupy the left side of a room equally yous enter, with the women on the right. This is traditionally done for reasons of protection, because an “enemy” after entering a room as well as noticing this seating arrangement, volition at nowadays stride back. To deviate slightly, the same applies to when a homo as well as a adult woman are walking together – the homo volition walk on the left as well as slightly inward front, inward monastic tell to ward off whatsoever enemy that mightiness live lying inward wait. Today this could for illustration take identify equally yous go out a lift, as well as the homo walking out first. This over again is non to live perceived equally a sign of impoliteness, but rather seen equally him fulfilling his role equally protector – hence the aspect “Ukugabula izigcawu” – To vanquish away the spiders (pave the way).
- After knocking on the door, yous volition live summoned within past times the caput of the family, with the word “Ngaphakathi!”, literally pregnant “Inside!”, but implying “Come in, yous are welcome”.
- The visitor should ever hold back to live offered a seat, the homo beingness offered a spot on the left-hand side, a adult woman on the right, boys with boys as well as girls with girls, etc.
Xhosa girls
Cultural observances inward this situation
- It is etiquette for the visitor to milk shiver everyone’s mitt with the exception of:
- A newly wed or immature adult woman should greet solely the older members of the family, especially the women, as well as just nod to the other members.
- The older soul volition initiate the well-being commutation past times saying: “Unjani? (singular) or “Ninjani?” (plural) – both pregnant “How are you?” This plural cast is commonly used as well as the enquiry is often asked why this is directed at a single person. The argue for this is that the enquiry is non solely directed at the visitor equally an individual, but also includes his/her identify unit of measurement at home.
- This initiation of the well-being commutation is responded to past times the visitor saying “Ndiphilile enkosi” – I am good thanks, or“Siphilile enkosi” – We are good thanks, followed past times the reciprocal question “Unjani wena?” – “And how are you?” or “Ninjani nina? – “And how are yous all?”.
Khaya La Bantu Dancers Performing Traditional Xhosa Dance.Khaya La Bantu
Other cultural observances pertaining to the greeting
- The firstly to enquire virtually the well-being of a visitor is the most senior soul inward the room or house.
- Should the coming together pick out identify inward the street, the firstly to greet does non initiate the well-being exchange, but rather the i met as well as greeted. This is done equally a sign of honour as well as politeness.
- This do applies to all genders. However a woman soul may non enquire virtually whatsoever well-being before this has been done past times a manlike soul fellow member of the household.
- If the visitor is a woman, the manlike soul volition initiate the well-being commutation as well as and then mitt over to the most senior adult woman or his wife, if she is the most senior.
- One tin privy appear the respondent (visitor) to relate the well-being of his /her entire identify unit of measurement to those present.
Xhosa adult woman smoking traditional pipe
Cultural observances pertaining to departing / farewell
The visitor when wishing to go out may province whatsoever i of the next depending on the stituation as well as those present:
- Ndicela indlela – I am requesting the route (may I leave?)
- Mandinishiye – I must go out you
- Mandibaleke – I must hurry off
- Nisale kakuhle –Stay good (all of you)
Responses to these are:
- Kulungile, hamba kakuhle - Fine, go well
- Nawe uhambe kakuhle – And yous too, go well
- Kulungile, Ubulise kubo bonke ekhaya – Ok, Gretting to all at home
The visitor should non go out until given permission past times the senior soul nowadays that he may do so. He could inward a formal situation, say“Siyakunika” –“ We are giving yous the route – yous may leave”. Another circular of handshaking denoting deviation could follow, with the senior household fellow member accompanying the visitor to the door.
Xhosa tradition
Source:http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Xhosa.aspx
http://www.spiritualbirth.net/sacred-xhosa-birth-rituals-south-africa
Khaya La Bantu Dancers from Xhosa tribe
Khaya La Bantu
(Home of People)
Xhosa Cultural Village & Guest Farm
(Home of People)
Xhosa Cultural Village & Guest Farm
Khaya La Bantu Dancers posing
Xhosa Circumcision
Khaya La Bantu Dancer as well as her brother
Khaya La Bantu Dancers
Thembu Traditional healers at Ibhasi,Dance for Married men
Umkhetha (circumcision initiate)
Xhosa maids bathing inward the river.
A unique picture. Married Xhosa twin sisters.
Xhosa immature adult woman assiting her pal to dress
Mama Africa
Xhosa kids
Below are the total pictorial representation of the Xhosa tribal beautification marks (scarification), Abakwetha,Intonjane as well as Wedding (Induli) initiation/ceremonies of Xhosa people of South Africa. All the articles as well as photos were culled from:http://www.ezakwantu.com/' as well as authored by Lister Haig Hunter
Scarification of the Body for Beauty
Amasumpa - Amantsumpa - Bumps
The next imagery as well as text was authored past times Lister Haig Hunter
SCARIFICATION OF THE BODY FOR BEAUTY
(THMBU GIRLS)
VAMBA UMZIMBA
COMPRISING SLIDES NOS 83 - 98
Travelling through the Transkei inward South Africa, i really often sees a immature maiden with her tum total of scars of equal size, which run from betwixt her breasts downwardly to the navel, as well as horizontally across the sides of her tummy, patch many bear the scars on their backs equally well.
Investigation proved beyond incertitude that this custom is carried out past times most immature Tembu girls for the sake of beautifying the body. The operators, elderly women, are experts at the job, performing the functioning whenever a immature maiden requests it equally described inward the next manner: -
83. 
Two maidens seated upon the ground, have got designs drawn upon their skins past times the operator, using whatsoever little stick which works similar a pencil upon the dark skin.
84. 
The designs completed.
85. 
Operation begins past times lifting the pare with a needle at quarter inch intervals, as well as then slitting the pare with a blade.
86. 
Operation inward progress. Note dark bleeds really picayune compared to the front.
87. 
A close-up of needle lifting skin.
88. 
A 11 ½ cm. close-up of the actual cut.
89. 
Showing the forepart nearly complete.
90. 
Operation continues, showing dorsum as well as front.
91. 
Operation completed.
92. 
Dry blood beingness washed away.
93. 
The cuts visible at nowadays after washing.
94. 
Fresh moo-cow dung is smeared over the cuts, sealing them from the air, thereby ensuring no sick effects.
95. 
Close-up showing novel cuts equally moo-cow dung is applied.
96.
Four days later. Note the scabs which have got formed.
97. 
Scabs are all removed which ensures the pare growing together inward a mode forming the blobs upon the body which, when healed, they maintain is really beautiful.
98.
The body beautiful when fully healed.
The Abakwetha
The next imagery as well as text was authored past times Lister Haig Hunter
THE CEREMONY OF CIRCUMCISION PRESENTING
IN COLOUR SLIDES THE STORY OF THE
ABAKWETHA
COMPRISING SLIDES NOS. 1 – 50
IN COLOUR SLIDES THE STORY OF THE
ABAKWETHA
COMPRISING SLIDES NOS. 1 – 50
In the Xhosa Language, aba means a group, while kwetha meats to learn, hence the word “Abakwetha”, pregnant a grouping learning. What are they learning? To acquire men through circumcision. Five youths at a fourth dimension are circumcised, ages 17 to twenty years The grouping of 5 alive together inward a specially constructed hut (sutu), which becomes their habitation for iii months patch they undergo the transformation from youth to manhood.
1.
Before circumcision immature men apparel “Gourds” (calabashes) over private parts. Like this considered fully dressed fifty-fifty inward forepart of women.
2. 
Some with “Gourds” removed, proving uncircumcised.
3. 
Date of circumcision announce. They acquire chi-cha boys wearing fantastic headdress for 2 to iii weeks before circumcision.
4. 
On hateful solar daytime of circumcision men start out erection of skeleton framework
5. 
The completed framework.
6. 
Women pick out over as well as start out thatching framework.
7. 
Each initiate has caput completely shaved.
8. 
Sheep are slaughtered for initiates.
9.
The initiates to live circumcised, heads shaved, have got finally repast inward sheep kraal before operation.
10.
The newly thatched hut, Sutu, which volition acquire their habitation for iii months.
11.
The Witch Doctor ready with pike before operation.
12. 
The start of actual operation, 500 yards from newly constructed hut. (Sutu)
13.
The severing of the foreskin. No modern medicine used.
14.
Completely severed. At this 2d the man child shouts NDIYINDODA (I am a man).
15. 
The severed foreskin beingness stretched over the boys thumb.
16. 
The bandaging. Goat pare strip about waist becomes bandage.
17.
The herbs used. Left mitt ‘swadi” stops bleeding. Right mitt “isichwe” antiseptic.
18.
Operation complete, faces smeared with mud. Not white paint.
19. 
Entering newly-constructed hut - their habitation for iii months.
20. 
The way the initiate must swallow for the firstly vii days, never touching nutrient or imbibe with his hands.
21. 
The 8th day. Emerging for “Jisa” (the hateful solar daytime of the roasting).
22. 
Initiates seated, watch, equally 2 strips of meat taken from flank of sheep just slaughtered are placed on coal. Note light-green leaves on coals to brand meat bitter. These leaves are from the famous stinkwood tree (Nukani).
23. 
Roasted, each strip of meat is cutting into 5 little pieces. Then each slice is offered on goal of: stick to initiate, firstly slice he must spit out, 2d slice he may eat.
24. 
Roasted mealie held betwixt 2 sticks offered to initiate. As inward 23, firstly mouthful of firstly mealie he must spit out. The 2d mouthful of 2d mealie he may eat.
25. 
Beer from tin privy offered to initiate. First mouthful he must spit out, equally seen. Second mouthful he may swallow.
26. 
“Jisa” (roasting) competed, initiates acquire inward hut take away mud from faces, as well as then pigment themselves completely white from Ingceke mixture made inward large hollow stone.
27. 
Outside showing themselves painted completely white. This ensures, they say, that the complexion of the youth changes nether pigment to the complexion of manhood.
28. 
The incision of the forehead, after which dark pulverization Ntsisyabatwa, is rubbed in, past times witch doctor. See dark grade on forehead, also drib of blood. Initiate as well as then takes ease of dark pulverization past times mouth.
29. 
A calendar month after circumcision, completely healed, they clothes for dancing.
30. 
Dancing (Nchilo) fully dressed inward their palm foliage skirts, caput as well as human face gear.
31. 
Beautifully dressed older women of the tribe vanquish an ox enshroud drum from which the boys obtain the beat for dancing.
32. 
A sentiment of the huge crowd watching the dancers.
33. 
During dancing, the most energetic dancer is chosen. His wages is to live painted similar a leopard which they maintain is the most agile of animals. He is as well as then known equally the King of Dancers for the ease of the ceremony. Corn cobs burnt to charcoal provide the dark amount creating the dots.
34. 
A close-up of the Leopard Man with spear, dancing inward total regalia.
35. 
Lazing about their hut which is encircled past times white flag representing presents sent past times immature adult woman friends.
36. 
Last hateful solar daytime of three-month ceremony, inward the river, white Ingceke pigment is completely removed.
37. 
After washing, returning from the river with the cattle to ensure their nudity is obscured past times the beasts.
38. 
Arriving dorsum at their hut, appointed with ox fatty which they rub into their bodies until it glistens.
39. 
He fits the "Sidla" (cup made of sheep skin) to private part. This replaces the "Gourd" (calabash) as well as is his proof of completing the ceremony from youth to manhood.
40. 
He as well as then receives his Red Blanket of Manhood.
41. 
As the novel men as well as the crowd displace away, the hut (Sutu) is laid alight.
42. 
A close-up of the burning hut, burnt to obliterate everything concerning their youth.
43. 
Reaching main kraal, novel men acquire inward hut. Two mix crimson Mdiki pulverization as well as H2O on stone, as well as then start out icon themselves red.
44. 
The others follow, as well as before long all are plastered inward the crimson Mdiki pigment of manhood. They are at nowadays known equally "maqualas".
45. 
To-night they trip the low-cal fantastic the Ntiombe. This flashlight taken after midnight shows their hazy faces from consumption of beer.
46. 
Next day, seated inward cattle kraal, they listen, equally older men lecture them as well as mitt out presents. Note novel blankets on laps.
47. 
Next hateful solar daytime ceremony ends. As the novel men inward dark turbans as well as crimson faces emerge from hut, they are met past times double line of women waving mealie stalks as well as bidding them farewell. The rigorous ceremony completed.
48. 
Many months later, equally fully-fledged men, dressed for dancing, nosotros reckon them with "sidla" (sheep pare cup) fitted, non calabashes.
49. 
Close-up of these men showing the "sidla" (sheep pare cup) inward place, whilst side past times side slide...
50. 
Shows the close-up with the "sidla" removed, proving that he has indeed been circumcised.
Initiation into Womanhood
The next imagery as well as text was authored past times Lister Haig Hunter
INITIATION INTO WOMANHOOD - "NTONJAAN"
COMPRISING sixteen SLIDES Nos. 67 - 82
Described really briefly, this ceremony concerning immature primitive maidens of many Transkeian tribes, solely takes identify after the immature young adult woman who, through the natural acts of nature, of a precipitous finds herself a woman. She naturally informs her woman parent of this, who explains to her immature adult woman what has happened.
Until the higher upwards occurs, the girl's parent volition never allow their immature adult woman marry, no thing how pitiable they may be, or how many cattle are offered. The sign that womanhood has arrived is fourth dimension for give-and-take betwixt mother, manlike soul parent as well as relatives, equally to when their immature adult woman volition start the ceremony of "NTONJAAN". This ceremony is an historic period of time old custom with the most primitive tribes. It's purpose is to instil upon the immature adult woman the acre of study required of women inward the tribe - further, the immature adult woman herself feels she MUST consummate the ceremony, equally it volition enable her to make many children, patch the tribe themselves volition ever recognize her equally a truthful woman.
To instill the acre of study referred to, the immature adult woman is seated within a hut, behind 2 sleeping mats strung from the ceiling, where she volition remain inward so called seclusion for to a greater extent than or less iii to 5 weeks. During this period of time she is visited daily past times older women friends from far as well as wide. Seated facing the girl, they instruct her continually virtually life, it's pit falls, etc., emphasizing the wonders of beingness a truthful adult woman inward the tribe. The number is fantastic, equally never volition a adult woman of loose morals live found inward the tribe after this ceremony.
Just equally men inward the tribe volition never live recognize equally men until circumcised, so the same applies to women unless they consummate the ceremony.
67. 
Near sunset, maids who attend Ntonjaan (in white) render from the river, where they have got washed her really thoroughly to cleanse the body before the ceremony, patch upon their heads they carry special bundles of grass.
68. 
Entering huts specially provided as well as thoroughly cleaned, Ntonjaan is seated against the wall, her caput covered past times a dark turban given past times her mother. From the roof of the hut, 2 sleeping mats are strung behind which she sits inward seclusion. The mats are ever closed, as well as have got solely been opened for you, the viewer, to see. Therefore, all instructions spoken past times the older women, are to someone they cannot see, but know she is in that location past times her answers. The special grass is strewn upon the flooring for visitors to sit down upon patch instructing.
69. 
The next morning, she is painted completely white to obliterate all traces of the girlhood complexion. White pigment is made from a soft white rock from the river, telephone telephone "INGEKE".
70. 
While exterior a huge gather of people celebrate the occasion.
71. 
A close-up showing her beingness painted.
72. 
A close-up showing the majesty of the beautifully dressed women.
73. 
During the celebration, a goat, equally sacrifice, is slaughtered, of which a slice is roasted upon coals within the hut, cutting into little pieces as well as offered to Ntonjaan on the goal of a sharpened stick, equally she may non touching meat with her hands patch transforming from girlhood to womanhood. Once she tastes the sacrificial meat, all celebrators pick out portion inward the feast of Ntonjaan. This may finally 2 or iii days.
74. 
While inward seclusion, maids attending Ntonjaan, transcend the fourth dimension past times ornament the wall inside. Black pigment for base of operations is made past times burning corn cobs to charcoal, as well as then mixing with water. The white paint, equally inward 69, is applied with a chicken plume creating designs seen.
75. 
It is an piece of cake thing to tell how long Ntojaan has been inward seclusion, equally higher upwards her head, behind the mats, maids maintain a calendar painted on the wall, adding a circular dot of "INGCOKE" every morning. This Ntonjaan, equally calendar indicates, has been hither 8 days.
76. 
At the goal of seclusion period, Ntonjaan is taken to the river to launder the white pigment from her body, after which nosotros reckon her seated inward the river equally maids attend her hair.
77. 
Returning to the hut, Ntonjaan is painted completely red, with a pulverization called "MDIKI", which, when mixed with water, gives the termination equally seen.
78. 
A close-up of the painting. It's purpose, to obliterate all traces of white pigment which mightiness still adhere to the body. The crimson so ensuring no traces of girlhood remain.
79. 
Leaving hut she has occupied for iii weeks, Ntonjaan sits upon a sleeping mat exterior hut, patch elderberry sis fetches fresh moo-cow dung cast cattle enclosure from which she makes a dung basin on basis inward forepart of Ntonjaan.
80. 
Ntonjaan is offered thick sour milk, takes a goodness mouth-full which she spits into dung basin.
81. 
Spitting completed, sis closes dung basin as well as then throws it dorsum into father's cattle enclosure. This action, they maintain ensures that many cattle volition transcend into father's cattle enclosure equally Labolo (dowry), inward commutation for his daughter, when her mitt is ought inward matrimony after ceremony.
82. 
Ceremony nears goal equally Ntonjaan, within hut, receives presents from relatives as well as friends, equally they wishing her luck equally a adult woman at nowadays ready for marriage. Presents given equally seen, are elementary things such equally Bangles, Sweets, Tobacco as well as Beadwork, etc.
The higher upwards complete, her finally chore is to pick out a bucket of water, into which she throws fresh world making a sparse muddied paste. With this, she enters the hut where she underwent her seclusion, as well as obliterates all traces of youth from the walls equally described inward Slide 74.
Xhosa Wedding - Umtshato
African Wedding
Traditional Eastern Cape Wedding
The next imagery as well as text was authored past times Lister Haig Hunter
XHOSA WEDDING
UMTSHATO
COMPRISING 24 SLIDES Nos. 99 - 122
To fully depict the wedding ceremony would pick out really many pages. However, the points of the ceremony are captured inward color slides.
You volition non reckon a bridegroom equally he has chose his bride long ago, paid her manlike soul parent twelve caput of cattle equally Labola (dowry), which he borrowed from his ain father. He is belike at the Gold mines inward Johannesburg working to earn coin so that upon his render he tin privy pay the debt to this manlike soul parent inward honour of the cattle which he borrowed. After this, he volition go out with his married adult woman to start his ain home.
His bride as well as her retinue have got come upwards from twenty miles away to the bridegroom's father's home, where a hut has been prepared for them. It is hither that the foreign wedding ceremony takes place. Upon it's completion the retinue render to their ain homes, patch the novel bride remains as well as works hither awaiting the render of her husband.
99.
Bride as well as maids within hut icon up. Bodies smeared with crimson ochre glue as well as ears painted white.
100. f
f Painting complete, they are adorned inward their beadwork, taking keen pains just equally a white bride does on her keen day.
101. 
Standing. Only the bride has an talocrural articulation length skirt, but shortly.....
102. 
We discovery maids equally good equally bride inward long skirts. Reason - when emerging later, the huge crowd exterior cannot tell bride from maid. This custom ensures indemnity until the finally possible moment.
103. 
A close-up of the bride.
104. 
Bride as well as maids seated inward line having heads covered with dark turbans.
105. 
Blankets are drawn upwards enclosing dark turban - termination - a dark turbaned caput surrounded past times crimson blanket. When they emerge from hut it is IMPOSSIBLE to tell bride from maids.
106. 
Emerging, the leading adult woman tosses sweets into the air (see inward left-hand corner) for the children.
107. 
Walking inward single file, grouping follows leader who leads them to inward forepart of where the men are sitting.
108. 
Here a adult woman spreads out a sleeping mat upon which bride as well as maids sit down shoulder to shoulder, facing men. The retinue at nowadays forms a circle about the kneeling lot, stretching their blankets broad opened upwards from goal to end. The men watching so reckon solely the circle of closed blankets. Occupants non visible.
109. 
Inside higher upwards circle, i of retinue begins to take away dark turbans as well as drib shoulder blankets.
110. 
At a given sign, the retinue who have got kept the higher upwards physical care for enclosed, of a precipitous swing blankets opened upwards for a brief period, enabling bridegrooms manlike soul parent as well as the men, to gaze for the firstly fourth dimension upon the bride as well as her maids.
111. 
A close-up of bride as well as maids, after which the circle is closed in i lawsuit again, patch bride as well as maids turn themselves around, dorsum towards men, as well as then same physical care for equally inward 109 takes place. Upon completion of 109 as well as 110, turbans as well as blankets are replaced. They stand upwards up as well as proceed inward single file to where the chattering, inquisitive women excitedly await just the same performance equally n 107 to 109.
112. 
The bride as well as maids returning to the hut after their most exciting experience.
113. 
We discovery them within having a repast after the performance, equally they await the slaughter of a beast.
114. 
Upon completion of slaughter, bride receives meat first, which she roasts. See dismiss ready for lighting on floor. As before long equally meat enters her mouth, the ease of the tribe begins to feast as well as drink, taking sometimes iii or 4 days, after which all is repose as well as normality in i lawsuit over again settles over the home. The bride remains with parents-in-law until her husband's return.
115. 
Next hateful solar daytime all the immature single girls who were friends of the bride inward the expanse she lived before her marriage, have got risen really early on as well as clothes for what is termed "The Duli", the giving away of their friend for the expanse inward which she lived to the novel area. Distance inward this item illustration was twenty miles. They all assemble, beautifully dressed, as well as then laid off together. Eventually nosotros them arriving inward a long single file at the bride's novel home.
116. 
Outside the brides hut they cast a semi-circle, singing as well as chanting the so-called handing over of their friend to the novel area. While doing so, beautifully dressed married women come upwards dancing into the semi-circle, chanting as well as thanking them for the wonderful bride who was in i lawsuit a playmate of theirs.
117. 
A close-up forepart sentiment showing how immature girls clothes on this occasion.
118. 
A raise view. Noted the long bands of beads which fit about the caput hanging downwardly the spine.
119. 
A sentiment of the married women described inward 115, with 2 of the single dancers.
120. 
Two tiny tots who attended.
121. 
The dancing described inward 115 carries on until to a greater extent than or less 3.00 p.m. By this fourth dimension the performers are really hungry, as well as it is customary to cast a semi-circle, equally seen, about the bride's hut as well as chant for food. This is readily given, as well as after they have got eaten, the girls over again for a semi-circle chanting their good daytime vocal to their friend, after which they volition go out on their long journeying home, belike arriving after dark.
122. 
A icon present of bride as well as groom taken nine months after after his render from the mines. Shortly afterwards the yoke left hither as well as started their ain home.
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