Info For Y'all Venda People: Traditionalist In Addition To Unique S African Tribe For Whom Fine Art Is Spiritual
"Hu ambuwa vhuṅanga; vhukololo a vhu ambuwi." (The medicine-man who crosses a river [into unusual territory] takes his arts and crafts with him, but majestic rank cannot live taken abroad). Venda Proverb. It agency "Away from dwelling theater high nascence does non count."
Beautiful Venda women from South Africa wearing their traditional dress
The Venda or Ba venda (Vhavhenda or Vhavgona) are an amalgamation of Bantu-speaking Southern African people living mostly close the South African-Zimbabwean border. The Vhavenda or the "Venda" every bit they are popularly called, are perhaps the only Black nation southward of the Vhembe River (Limpopo River), whose the world was non named after the people. The call "Venda" agency the world or country. It has no prefix or suffix to call for that it is a the world inhabited past times a certainly people. That is why its inhabitants are Vhavenda or the Venda, pregnant the people of Venda. The the world became a kingdom when Dambanyika, established himself at Lwandali inwards 1688. He consolidated the kingdom as well as became the foremost Thovhele of the modern Venda society. This happened at a fourth dimension when most, if non all, Black nations inwards the sub-continent were silent living inwards scattered communities.
When the bantustan of Venda received nominal independence inwards 1973, their population stood at 200,000. Currently, at that spot are almost 3.5 1000000 Venda speaking people inwards South Africa according to 2011 census whilst at that spot are almost 600,000 venda people inwards Zimbabwe.
Venda tribe old women from Republic of Zimbabwe inwards their traditional dress
GEOGRAPHY
The Vhavenda people are located on the North as well as West of Makhado inwards the Limpopo province of South Africa. The part they inhabit borders Republic of Zimbabwe as well as it is where the Shashe as well as Vhembe rivers meet. The give-and-take Vhavenda as well as Venda are used interchangeably when referring to the Vhavenda people, notwithstanding the give-and-take Vhavenda improve describes the people, whilst Venda refers to a greater extent than to the language. The Venda also lives inwards Republic of Zimbabwe close the border with South Africa. “The Venda traditionally occupy an expanse inwards as well as exactly about the Soutpansberg Mountains inwards the northeastern department of South Africa's Northern Province, unopen to the borders with Mozambique as well as Zimbabwe.”
Venda landscape
“Their novel dwelling theater is a beautiful seat with fertile soil as well as rolling hills thickly wooded with forests of
subtropical wild fig as well as stinkhout trees as well as indigenous ferns as well as flowers. The mount itself is often
shrouded inwards mist as well as whereas the surrounding countryside is hot as well as dry, the mountains receives an
annual rainfall of nearly 2,000 millimetres inwards places.”
Largest Baobab tree inwards the world.Venda metropolis of Limpopo
Settlements
Attacks past times marauders inwards the foremost portion of the nineteenth century changed settlement patterns. Most chiefs as well as headmen relocated their villages from the low-lying regions to areas high on the mount slopes, straight nether cliffs.
For protective purposes the chief's residence was located at the highest dot of the hamlet nether the cliffs, majestic households were placed instantly inwards front, as well as the houses of the commoners spread out lower downward as well as inwards front. This pattern continued good into the 1900s, when diminished hostilities as well as novel forms of authorities management allowed the homecoming of villages to the valleys; the old ones nether the cliffs gradually became deserted.
Villages are built exactly about the musanda, or majestic residence. Adjacent to the musanda is the public coming together seat (khoro) where visitors are met as well as courtroom meetings, dances, as well as other social events are held. Houses are traditionally wattle-and-daub constructions with thatched roofs. Several houses are linked together with mud brick walls as well as arranged exactly about an opened upward key courtyard with a key fireplace where the household unit of measurement sits inwards skillful weather. Traditionally, homesteads were partitioned off past times hedgerows, wooden palisade fences, or stone walls. Most of the older settlements are reminiscent of miniature Great Republic of Zimbabwe ruins with their walls, stones steps, passageways, as well as terraces.
Modern edifice materials have got replaced traditional ones inwards many instances. Customary homesteads are beingness replaced past times houses of Western design, as well as settlement layout favors a grid scheme instead of the haphazard organisation of the past. Most villages have got access to electricity, piped water, as well as telephone communications.
Venda Language
The Venda language, TshiVenda or LuVenda, is a Bantu language. It emerged every bit a distinct dialect inwards the 16th Century. The bulk of Venda speakers live inwards the northern portion of South Africa's Limpopo Province, but almost 10% of its speakers live inwards Zimbabwe. The Venda linguistic communication is related to Kalanga (Western Shona, different from Shona, official linguistic communication of Zimbabwe) which is spoken inwards Republic of Botswana as well as Zimbabwe. During the Apartheid era of South Africa, the bantustan of Venda was laid upward to comprehend the Venda speakers of South Africa.
In the 20th Century, the TshiVenda vocabulary was similar to SeSotho through association, but the grammer shares similarities with Shona dialects, which are spoken inwards Zimbabwe. Today almost 875 000 people inwards South Africa speak Tshivenda. The Tshipani variety of Tshivenda is used every bit the standard.
The bulk of Venda speakers live inwards South Africa, where "Venda" is an official authorities language, but at that spot are also speakers inwards Zimbabwe. Before South Africa became a democratic country, the Bantustan of Venda was laid upward to comprehend the Venda speakers of South Africa. Throughout this area, variants of Tshivenda are spoken.
The Venda Language, spoken past times almost 6,00,000 Africans. As a outcome of inhabiting different regions, diverse dialects have got evolved. This variation has also effected the customs as well as rituals, though the difference is non besides conspicuous.
THE DIALECTICAL VARIATIONS OF VENDA LANGUAGE
Tshiilafuri = Western Venda with traces of Sotho
Tshimanda = Central Venda, used past times the Luonde as well as Lwamondo
Venda proper = found inwards Tshivhase as well as Mphaphuli's areas.
Tshimbedzi = Eastern Venda
Tshilembethu = North Eastern Venda
Extreme Eastern Venda = influenced past times Karanga from Zimbabwe.
Tshironga = Southern Venda
South Eastern Venda = shows influence of Tonga as well as Sotho
Here are some of Basic Venda words
Family (Muta)
Father Khotsi
Mother Mme
Brother Mukomana
Sister Khaladzi
Grand parents Makhulu
Greeting (U lumelisa)
Good morn Ndi Matsheloni
Afternoon Ndi masiari
Hello(Male) Nnda!
Hello(Female) Aa!
Day to twenty-four hours words (Maipfi a duvha na duvha)
foods Zwiliwa
Water Madi
hunger Ndala(I am hungry-Ndi na ndala)
House Nndu
Gate Gethe
Love Lufuno(I honey you- Ndi a ni funa)
Keep visiting Ni dale hafhu
Venda tribe elder
History/Origin
The Venda of today are descendants of many heterogeneous groupings as well as clans such as:
Dzindou dza Vharundwa / Dza Mitshetoni /Dza Manenzhe
Vhadau;
Vhakwevho;
Vhambedzi;
Vhafamadi;
Vhania;
Vhagoni;
Vhalea;
Vhaluvhu;
Vhatavhatsindi;
Vhatwanamba;
Vhanzhelele/Vhalembethu;
VhaDzanani
Vhanyai;
Vhalaudzi;
Masingo; and
Vhalemba.
Vhadau, Vhakwevho, Vhafamadi, Vhania, Vhangona, Vhalea, as well as Vhaluvhu were collectively known every bit Vhangona. The Vhangona as well as Vhambedzi are considered to live the original inhabitants of Venda.
The the world of Vhangona was later on settled past times Karanga-Rodzvi clans from Zimbabwe: Vhatwanamba, Vhanyai, Vhatavhatsindi, as well as Vhalembethu. Masingo, Vhalaudzi, as well as Vhalemba are belatedly arrivals inwards Venda.
According to i version of Vhangona oral history the upper-case missive of the alphabet of Vhangona was Mapungubwe with the Raphulu Royal House every bit the most senior majestic theater of the Vhangona. According to this version the Vhangona Kingdom had +-145 chiefdoms as well as a King (Thovhele). It is said that the Kingdom was divided into 7 districts:
Dzanani;
Mbilwi;
Tswime;
Tshiendeulu;
Tshakhuma;
Tshamanyatsha; and
Thulamela.
These districts were ruled past times District Chiefs (Mahosi):
Mudzanani/Nesongozwi Dzanani);
Nembilwi (Mbilwi);
Netswime (Tswime);
Netshiendeulu (Tshiendeulu);
Netshakhuma (Tshakhuma);
Netshamanyatsha (Tshamanyantsha); and
Makhahani (Thulamela).
Each district had Vhamusanda (Junior Chiefs) who paid tribute to Mahosi. This tradition states that i of the Vhangona Kings was King Shiriyadenga whose majestic kraal was at Mapungubwe. It is non clear if this Shiriyadenga is the same Shiriyedenga of the Sanga dynasty, a Karanga-Rodzvi branch. The Sanga dynasty, inwards Zimbabwe’s eastern highlands, was founded past times Chiphaphami Shiriyedenga who died inwards 1672. Could it live that at i dot the Karanga-Rodzvi Empire extended beyond the Vhembe (Limpopo) River, as well as that the
Vhangona, though non Karanga speaking, were at i dot nether Karanga-Rodzvi rule.
Mapungubwe Hills
The other version of Vhangona history disputes that the Vhangona were ever united nether i primary or King. It says that the Vhangona had different independent chiefdoms as well as that the Vhangona primary of Nzhelele valley was Tshidziwelele of the Mudau clan. What is clear, however, is that the Vhatwanamba, who were of Karanga-Rodzvi origin, conquered Vhangona clans who lived inwards Mapungubwe, Musina, Ha-Tshivhula, Ha-Lishivha, HaMatshete, Ha-Mulambwane, as well as Ha-Madzhie (the areas of Ha-Tshivhula, Ha-Lishivha, HaMatshete, as well as Ha-Mulambwane are known today every bit Alldays as well as Waterpoort).
One of the most interesting as well as distinct groups of people who later on joined the Venda are the African Semites, the Lemba. They are believed to live the descendants of Semitic (Arab) traders who entered Africa exactly about 696AD. The Lemba believe themselves to live Black Jews, descendants of the lost tribe of Israel. They maintain to themselves, only conjoin within their ain grouping as well as sometimes refer to themselves every bit Vhalungu, which agency 'non-Negroid' or 'respected foreigner'.
Venda adult man from Lemba tribe,Zimbabwe
The beads they brought with them from these far-off countries are silent treasured to this twenty-four hours as well as are used inwards divination as well as other magical ceremonies. The Lemba were really skillful traders as well as artisans. They were also famous, for their metalwork as well as pottery. The foremost contact betwixt the Venda as well as the whites occurred when the Voortrekker leader, Louis Trichardt came to the expanse inwards 1836.
Mapungubwe was the centre of a kingdom with almost 5000 people living at its center. Mapungubwe every bit a merchandise centre lasted betwixt 1030 as well as 1290 AD. The people of Mapungubwe mined as well as smelted copper, Fe as well as gold, spun cotton, made drinking glass as well as ceramics, grew millet as well as sorghum, as well as tended cattle, goats as well as sheep. The people of Mapungubwe had a sophisticated knowledge of the stars, as well as astronomy played a major role non only inwards their tradition as well as culture, but also inwards their day-to-day lives. Mapungubwe traded with ancient Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia through the ports of Adulis on the Red Sea as well as the ports of Raphta (now Quelimani) as well as Zafara (now Sofala) inwards Mozambique.
Mapungubwe predates the settlements at Great Zimbabwe, Thulamela as well as Dzata. It is believed that that people left Mapungubwe for Great Republic of Zimbabwe because Great Republic of Zimbabwe was judged to have got a to a greater extent than suitable climate.
From 800AD, the Mapungubwe Kingdom emerged, stretching from the Soutpansberg inwards the south, across the Limpopo River to the Matopos inwards the north. The Mapungubwe Kingdom declined from 1240, as well as the centre of powerfulness as well as merchandise moved northward to the Great Republic of Zimbabwe Kingdom.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 shifting of focus to Zimbabwe's Khami as well as Rozwi empires followed, but the civilization did non come upward to a standstill. South of the Limpopo Shona-Venda as well as Venda pottery styles developed inwards the 14th as well as 15th Centuries. There are no stonewalled ruins comparable inwards size to Great Republic of Zimbabwe inwards the northeastern portion of Northern Province, but those inwards the mountains exhibit a link.
Accompanying the evolution of these centres, from almost 1400, waves of Shona-speaking migrants from modern Republic of Zimbabwe (known past times the Venda every bit Thavatsindi) settled across the Lowveld.
The Venda are to a greater extent than often than non regarded every bit i of the finally dark groups to have got entered the expanse southward of the Limpopo River. Their history is closely related to the history of their successive captains’ houses, especially those who were descended from their legendary ancestor, Thoho-ya-Ndou (Head of the Elephant).
While some historical accounts have got maintained that the Venda (also called theBaVenda) came from the Congo region, others insist that they migrated from the Great Lakes of Central Africa over a one 1000 years agone as well as moved towards the southern portion of Africa (BERCD 1979:17). Venda history is complex as well as the dependent of unending dispute amidst different parties as well as dynastic groups that inhabit the territory. Writing almost the 1930s, Stayt argued that the Venda are ‘a composite people’ (Stayt 1968:9). Others have got agreed with this view inwards the 1990s such every bit Loubser who contended that the Venda ‘do non consider themselves every bit a culturally homogeneous or politically united nation’ (Loubser 1990:13;also consider Ralushai 1977:46). Oral tradition suggests that most of the of import migrations to the territory known today every bit Venda came from northward of the Limpopo River inwards the 17th as well as 18th centuries.
Among these migrations, 2 are peculiarly important inwards thehistory of the area. The Vhatavhatsinde grouping arrived first, followed past times the MaKhwinde from what is todayknown every bit southern Zimbabwe. Early ethnographers have got showed that i of the major differences betwixt the Vhatavhatsinde as well as other Venda groups is their method of disposing of the dead. While other groups bury their dead permanently, the Vhatavhatsinde exhume the corpse after several months as well as sack the bones inwards a ritual ceremony after which the ashes are scattered inwards specified rivers. The latter grouping (MaKhwinde) is said to have got found the Ngona grouping ‘a non-warlike rather disorganized people, who allowed the invaders to settle peacefully amidst them’ (Stayt 1968:10). It is claimed that the Ngona are the original inhabitants of the territory. After their leader was subjugated past times the Makhwinde invaders, the Ngona primary became a high priest of their deity as well as was oft invited past times their conquerors to serve every bit a medium betwixt Ngona ancestral spirits as well as the MaKhwinde invaders.
Venda girls going to draw water. Circa 1928
According to Singo Venda traditionalists, this distant past times is replete with supernatural events, starting when a puddle within a mount cave gave nascence to their first king, Nwali. The legendary Singo virile mortal monarch Dimbanyika, boy of Nwali, migrated southward from Republic of Zimbabwe as well as crossed the Limpopo River to conquer Venda-speaking chiefdoms inwards the Soutpansberg Mountains. By beating a magical drum, known every bit Ngoma-Lungundu, the early on warrior virile mortal monarch of the Singo generated a audio that killed those autochthonous Venda people who dared resist this invasion (Mudau 1940). Ngomalungundu. This was a sacred drum of Mwali (Mwari), the Great God of the Singo. Ngomalungundu was the pike as well as shield of the Singo. Their virile mortal monarch is believed to have got worked miracles with this drum which had magic as well as killing powers. In fearfulness of Ngomalungundu, other groupings surrendered to or fled from the Singo killing powers. Through conquest the Vhangona came to revere as well as fearfulness this greatest musical instrument. They regarded this drum every bit the Voice of their Great God, Raluvhimba, the Lord of all their ancestor spirits, the musical instrument of the Royal Ancestral spirits. By the belatedly 19th century Vhavenda had to come upward to think of Raluvhimba as well as Mwali every bit interchangeable names for the same deity, although they had i time been separate.
Mashovhela Rock Pool: (Mashovhela, “the seat where the drums tin live heard”, is the second-most-sacred seat inwards Venda culture. This sacred site is silent used occasionally past times Sangomas inwards rain-making ceremonies, similar a few years agone - shortly after which Venda had the heaviest rains as well as most devastating floods inwards living memory. According to Venda tradition the legendary as well as powerful Venda King, Thohoiyanda, had a mystical drum, Ngoma Lungundo, "drum of the dead". As his enemies approached, this drum was played as well as the foe exactly dropped dead.One night, King Thohoiyanda as well as the sacred drum mysteriously disappeared from his majestic kraal. Neither were ever seen again. It was believed he disappeared into the Western Soutpansberg, where Mashovhela Lodge is situated. Tradition has it that it is this sacred drum that tin sometimes live heard inwards the echoes from the stone cliffs of Mashovhela pool).
After the MaKhwinde migrated to Vendaland, led past times their leader Dimbanyika, they presently dominated the entire the world as well as settled at Tshieundeulu, where the Vhatavhatsinde had established their capital. Dimbanyika placed his sons as well as other kinsmen every bit petty chiefs throughout the villages as well as gradually incorporated the other groups nether his hegemony. Dimbanyika’s reign did non finally long every bit he died inwards circa.1720, after subjugating the other groups.
Although the way of his decease is highly contentious amidst the Venda. Stayt as well as others maintain that the decease of Dimbanyika is a favourite myth amidst the Venda. While some accounts take hold that Phophi killed his father, others insist that Dimbanyika went hunting inwards a cave as well as spell he was inside, a stone fell as well as covered the entrance, thereby entombing him alive.
Oral tradition holds that at the fourth dimension of his decease Dimbanyika had 4 adult sons of whom Phophi was the oldest. He had appointed them every bit petty chiefs inwards satellite villages: Phophi (Thohoyandou) ruled inwards Nzhelele, Tshisebe inwards Makonde, Tshivhase inwards Phiphidi, as well as Bele inwards Vuba. However, it is undisputed that Dimbanyika`s oldest son, Phophi, succeeded him as well as chose to telephone scream upward himself, Thoho-ya-ndou (Head of the Elephant) given that his father, the ‘elephant,’ had died. He as well as then moved his upper-case missive of the alphabet to Dzata, which today is‘regarded every bit the ancestral dwelling theater of the BaVenda’ (Stayt 1968:12).
After Thohoyandou’s decease the other brothers declared their villages independent of the capital. Loubser (1990) estimates that this trial may have got taken seat betwixt 1750 as well as 1800. Although Thohoyandou’s son, Tshikalanga was appointed to take over from his father, Venda was already disintegrating into several, autonomous chiefdoms. This fragmentation was exacerbated past times the advent of European invaders as well as colonialists.
Of the several lines of descent of Dimbanyika, the Mphephu as well as Tshivhase are the most numerous as well as powerful. The Mphephu leadership traces its descent from Tshikalanga as well as has established its upper-case missive of the alphabet at Nzhelele where Thohoyandou had ruled before becoming the King of the Venda. Other chiefdoms that were recognised past times the colonial as well as apartheid authorities are the chiefdoms of Senthumele, Khuthama as well as Rambuda. The Mphaphuli expanse is the 3rd most populated Venda territory, though its history is shrouded inwards a spider web of complexity.
Stayt (1968) has described Thohoyandou’s reign every bit the golden historic period of time of the BaVenda. This is because all the chiefdoms were united nether his leadership. But after his death, household unit of measurement disputes as well as ‘internecine warfare’ precipitated the disintegration as well as sectionalisation of the kingdom. It is believed that the drum magical drum of the Singo royalty retained its magical properties every bit long every bit it was kept suspended to a higher seat the ground. Singo hegemony over a vast expanse southward of the Limpopo River crumbled when this drum accidentally touched the
basis during infighting betwixt virile mortal monarch Thoho-ya-Ndou as well as his brothers.
This catastrophic trial inwards early on Venda history is believed to have got angered the ancestor spirits, including Nwali, so much that they withdrew from their everyday involvement inwards the affairs of the Singo royalty. The dropping of the drum, Thoho-ya-Ndou’s defeat inwards battle past times the hands of his brothers, as well as his disappearance into Lake Fundudzi grade the termination of the supernatural period of time inwards Venda history
The Sacred Lake Fundudzi: the most sacred spot of all inwards Venda Culture is the enchanted trunk of H2O known every bit Lake Fundudzi inwards the Thathe Vondo Forest, inwards Venda as well as is the dwelling theater to the mythical python as well as white crocodile. Lake Fundudzi, the only natural lake of its form inwards South Africa, was originally formed past times a landslide, according to scientists. But the local people consider it inwards a far to a greater extent than mysterious way. They'll dot out that iii rivers flow into the lake, yet it never overflows as well as at that spot is no obvious outlet.
The rivalry that followed King Thohoyandou’s decease led to the sectionalisation of the Venda kingdom into iii different kingdoms as well as numerous independent chiefdoms. The iii kingdoms were Ramabulana with its base of operations at Tshirululuni (present twenty-four hours Makhado town), Tshivhase with its base of operations at Dopeni as well as later on Phiphidi, as well as Ravhura with its base of operations at Makonde. The Mphaphuli as well as Rambuda houses later on split from the Tshivhase theater as well as founded their ain dynasties with their bases at Tshitomboni as well as Dzimauli respectively.
Historians believe that the geography of Venda was non inwards favour of unity as well as that the temptation for Ravhura as well as Tshivhase houses to convert autonomy into independence must have got been besides strong. The Singo rulers had tried to counterbalance the temptation past times favouring certainly houses that could non succeed to the supreme title, such every bit the Ndalamo as well as Mphaphuli.
Thohoyandou’s sons were Mandiwana, Munzhedzi, as well as Ratombo. Munzhedzi became the novel virile mortal monarch of Ha-Ramabulana as well as ruled from Tshirululuni. Mandiwana settled inwards the Nzhelele valley, spell Ratombo settled at Ha-Ratombo inwards the Luvuvhu valley. Both Mandiwana as well as Ratombo paid tribute to their brother, Munzhedzi. Raluswielo, Thohoyandou’s brother, also known every bit Tshivhasa Midiyavhathu, established a dynasty known every bit Ha-Tshivhasa. It is non clear when the Mphaphuli theater split from the Tshivhase house. It is, however, of import to advert that the Mphaphulis dispute that they were i time ruled past times the Tshivhases, spell the Tshivhases insist that the Mphaphulis used to herd their cattle.
Ravhura established his dynasty inwards the Mutale valley with its base of operations at Makonde. It is, however, non clear whether the Vhandalamo of Ha-Tshikundamalema as well as Vhalembethu of Ha-Mutele as well as Thulamela were nether Ravhura. Today Makonde is portion of Ha-Tshivhasa.
The Tshivhase dynasty, which has dominated the eastern department of the Venda territory. After the decease of his older blood brother Thohoyandou, Tshivhase declared himself independent. He became a wealthy as well as powerful primary as well as was succeeded past times his son, Mukesi Tshivhase. Stayt (1968:16) contends that Mukesi’s reign was marked past times frequent skirmishes with his neighbours, especially Chief Mphaphuli, an independent primary living unopen to him. When Mukesi died, he was succeeded past times his boy Legegisa, who moved his upper-case missive of the alphabet from Miluwani to Mukumbani - the nowadays Tshivhase capital. His son, Ramaremisa Tshivhase succeeded him as well as was inwards turn succeeded past times Ratshimphi Tshivhase (circa 1931).
Ratshimphi was a powerful as well as wealthy primary who is, until the present, a legendary figure amidst the Tshivhase people. Local accounts take hold that he resisted Boer encroachment into his territory so resolutely that it cost him his life. Some people maintain that during his reign Ratshimphi joined the Communist Party inwards the 1930s, as well as was arrested past times the province for fearfulness that he would turn his chiefdom into a communist stronghold. He was incarcerated inwards Pretoria where he died inwards 1946 as well as was succeeded past times Thohoyandou Tshivhase, the virile mortal parent of the nowadays chief, Kennedy Tshivhase.
Modern local authorities began inwards Venda inwards 1913, when the authorities of the Union of South Africa demarcated specific territories every bit ‘reserves’ for dark people. The Native Affairs Act, 23 of 1920 provided for the institution of local councils as well as a Native Commission to advise the South African authorities on issues that affected dark people. The most important legislation was the Bantu Authorities Act 68 of 1951, which provided for the creation of ‘tribal’, regional as well as territorial authorities. As a outcome of this Act, 25 tribal authorities, iii regional authorities as well as i territorial say-so were established inwards the Venda expanse (BERCD 1979:41).
Phiphidi Waterfalls: Phiphidi village, Ha-Tshivhasa
Given its obsession with ethnic difference, the apartheid authorities emphasised that each ethnic grouping or people was endowed with the inalienable right to go self-governing inwards its ain territory as well as to grade out the path of its ain historical destiny. In the lite of this ideology, the Venda were recognised non only every bit distinct from non-Venda, but also every bit a single people, or ‘volk’, which should commence the physical care for of becoming an entity with its ain territorial state. This led to the formation of the Thohoyandou Territorial Authority inwards 1962 headed past times Chief Patrick Mphephu. According to this development, 2 or to a greater extent than members represented each of the 25 tribal authorities inwards a regional authority, i of whom was the primary or headman. The regional authorities were represented inwards the Territorial Authority past times their chairmen as well as other members depending on population size as well as the number of taxpayers (BERCD 1979:42).
After the issuing of annunciation R.168 of 20 June 1969, the Thohoyandou Territorial Authority became known every bit the Venda Territorial Authority. This led to several changes inwards the shape of representation. Each tribal say-so was represented at the Territorial Authority past times its primary or chairman as well as some other member, elected past times the tribal say-so from amidst its councillors. The Territorial Authority was also granted to a greater extent than powers to conduct its ain affairs with less direct command from the South African government. This evolution was farther strengthened inwards June 1971 when the Black US Constitution Act No. 21 was passed. This Act provided for the creation of so-called Legislative Assemblies, i of which was constituted inwards Venda inwards Feb 1973, thereby making Venda a ‘self-governing territory’. The legislative assembly was made upward of lx members, 42 of whom had to live traditional leaders. The remaining xviii were elected past times the residents of Venda every bit good every bit Venda citizens who were resident exterior Venda territory. Eventually inwards 1979 Venda received ‘independence’ from the Republic of South Africa but the international community refused to recognise this novel status (BERCD 1979:42).
Of the 25 tribal authorities that create upward Venda, Tshivhase is the most populated as well as largest inwards the world area. This notwithstanding, at that spot is an on-going disputation amidst the 25 tribal authorities (each of which constitutes a separate chiefdom), especially betwixt the Mphephu as well as Tshivhase chiefdoms, which are, inwards genealogical terms, the ‘senior’ Venda chiefdoms. Although the Tshivhase silent engage inwards some grade of rivalry with the neighbouring Mphaphuli chiefdom, the human relationship betwixt the 2 is less contentious that that betwixt Tshivhase as well as Mphephu.
One of the reasons for this rivalry is that the Tshivase perceive the Mphephu every bit having been to a greater extent than accommodating to the colonisers than they were. This is a referenceboth to the Mphephu role inwards the wars
against the Boers betwixt 1867 as well as 1899 as well as to their collaboration with the apartheid regime. The Tshivhase also perceive the Mphephu grouping every bit to a greater extent than ‘acculturated’ owing to their geographical proximity to the white settlements of Louis Trichardt as well as Schoemansdal. In particular the Tshivhase resent the fact that Patrick Mphephu lorded it over their chiefdom inwards his endeavour to revive the Venda kingdom during the homeland period. The finally factor should live taken into business organisation human relationship inwards monastic say to sympathise electrical flow chiefdom politics inwards Venda. The Tshivhase maintain to consider themselves every bit the ‘embodiment’ of the fighting spirit of the Venda every bit expressed inwards their call - Tshivhase, pregnant ‘one who burned as well as conquered the houses of the others’. The relative wealth as well as prestige of the Tshivhase chiefs also contributed significantly to this perception that the Tshivhase were the most powerful Venda chiefs. To add together to this catalogue is the claim that the granddad of the nowadays primary was a staunch fellow member of the Communist Party as well as had personally known Nelson Mandela inwards the 1940s prior to his decease every bit a captive of the state. The Tshivhase thence claim a legacy of association with resistance as well as liberation, although some historians have got disputed this.
It is likely that the main obstruction to Mphephu’s dream of extending his hegemony beyond his chiefdom was the reputation as well as powerfulness of the Tshivhase chiefs. It is thence likely that the abrupt decease of Chief Thohoyandou Tshivhase inwards 1966 played inwards Mphephu’s favour. Although Kennedy Tshivhase was installed inwards 1970 every bit heir to the throne of the Tshivhase, his uncle, John Tshivhase was set inwards seat every bit regent until it was deemed appropriate for Kennedy Tshivhase to assume effective office.
In 1979 Venda became a so-called independent province as well as was known every bit the Republic of Venda. Thovhele Ramaano Patrick Mphephu Ramabulana was elected the foremost president of the Republic of Venda. This Banana Republic was, however, only recognised past times its creators, apartheid South Africa, as well as beau banana republics: Transkei, Bophuthatswana as well as Ciskei.
Between 1970 as well as 1990, Kennedy Tshivhase stayed with his woman parent as well as attended schoolhouse inwards Polokwane (formerly Pietersburg). While he was away from the chiefdom, major developments took seat that changed the landscape of politics inwards Venda. The most of import of these was the independence of Venda inwards 1979 nether the leadership of Chief Patrick Mphephu. Mphephu was a shrewd politico who collaborated closely with the apartheid regime inwards Pretoria. His Venda National Party (VNP) dominated the political scene inwards Venda, leaving the Venda Independence People’s Party (VIPP) inwards permanent opposition. During the 1980s, Patrick Mphephu co-opted almost all the major chiefs inwards the other dynasties including John Tshivhase, the Regent of the Tshivhase chiefdom. Chief Mphephu declared himself president for life of the Republic of Venda. It was popularly believed that he also nursed the ambition of reuniting the entire Venda territory every bit a kingdom nether his leadership. But he favoured the recruitment of his Mphephu subjects into the civil service as well as it was rumoured that people from other chiefdoms, especially the Tshivhase, were discriminated against. But such discrimination was concealed past times the co-optation of influential members of the Tshivhase majestic household unit of measurement into his government. One of themwas Kennedy Tshivhase’s uncle, A. A. Tshivhase, who was appointed to a key ministerial post service inwards Mphephu’s government. A. A. Tshivhase had opposed Kennedy’s selection every bit heir to the throne of Tshivhase. By virtue of his influential post service inwards the government, he became the dominant political figure inwards the Tshivhase family, choosing which direction the household unit of measurement was to follow. During election periods, the Tshivhase Tribal Authority, headed past times John Tshivhase, used to elbow grease for the VNP. Following his decease inwards 1989, Patrick Mphephu was succeeded every bit President of Venda past times Khosi Nndwakhulu Frank Ravele of Mauluma, a unopen kinsman as well as ally.
Ravele took over powerfulness at a fourth dimension when at that spot was increasing demand for an cease to apartheid dominion as well as the abandonment of the homelands. The rising of civic associations inwards villages, advocating an cease to the dwelling theater the world system, had enormous impact on the stability of the authorities inwards Venda. In 1989 - 1990 witchcraft accusations as well as murders became the monastic say of the twenty-four hours inwards Venda, as well as Ravele’s failure to quell the murders or maintain peace triggered a full general feel of anger. Furthermore, his failure to pay civil servants as well as his poor direction of the province led to a military machine coup inwards 1990, led past times Brigadier Gabriel Ramushwana.
In the early on 1990s, the Tshivhase Royal Council was divided into 2 camps: those who supported Kennedy’s right to the throne as well as those who ardently opposed it. The influence of the notorious A. A. Tshivhase, the
Regent as well as his unopen allies embarked on a elbow grease to distort history, as well as nowadays Kennedy Tshivhase every bit an upstart who desired to usurp powerfulness from the elders through unorthodox means. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 important number of
headmen opposed Kennedy Tshivhase’s claim to the throne, especially those who owed their seat to the apartheid scheme as well as the Venda authorities inwards particular.
Meanwhile, although Kennedy Tshivhase did non publicly seat himself with the ANC, he was known amidst the youth as well as the civics every bit the legitimate heir to the throne as well as a comrade. Those who supported his homecoming made strenuous efforts to spread the notion that Kennedy was simply reclaiming what was rightfully his. A photograph of the 1970 installation was available to testify that at that spot had been no distortion of historical fact. When he eventually won the legal suit against his uncle as well as assumed business office inwards 1993, pop conjecture almost his political affiliation was confirmed. Both the military machine leader, Gabriel Ramushwana as well as the ANC stalwart,
Walter Sisulu were conspicuously nowadays at his installation inwards Mukumbani. Sisulu was given an chance to address the people. By 1993 it became clear that Chief Kennedy Tshivhase was an ANC fellow member who had played his cards cleverly inwards the1980s.
Contrary to expectations that he would seek to depose the headmen who had opposed his struggle for the throne, he called instead for peace as well as unity amidst the Tshivhase people. He also appealed to the divided Royal Council to bury the hatchet as well as unite to build a strong chiefdom.
Kennedy Tshivhase also extended a manus of reconciliation to the Mphephu dynasty. Kennedy Tshivhase was quite friendly with Dimbanyika Mphephu, Patrick’s successor every bit chief. This did non halt him launching a legal suit to reclaim a number of Tshivhase villages that had been incorporated into the Mphephu territory during Patrick Mpephu’s presidency. When Dimbanyika Mphephu died inwards a motorcar accident inwards 1998, Chief Tshivhase participated actively at the funeral as well as delivered a speech. He disapproved of Dimbanyika’s successor, however, as well as this has strained relations betwixt the 2 major Venda dynasties i time more.
Towns as well as major centres found inwards Venda include Makhado (former Louis Trichardt), ElimMpheni, Vuwani, Dzanani (Tshituni), Musina, Tshipise, Thohoyandou, Shayandima, Sibasa, Masisi, Tshikondeni, as well as Tshilamba.
Economy
Venda's economic scheme is reportedly dependent on agriculture as well as forestry but the bulk of the people, 70 per cent, piece of work within South Africa. Most households inwards the villages maintain gardens during the summertime months to grow the staple crop, maize. Other crops include pumpkins, sweetness potatoes, groundnuts, sorghum, as well as finger millet, with the latter 2 grains oft used to create beer.
Vegetable gourds (marankas) are grown for utilization every bit containers, scoops, or spoons. Communal land, which is held inwards trust past times chiefs as well as headmen, may live used for summertime crop production if permission is given. After the foremost as well as subsequent rains, women gather the novel leaves as well as flowers of certainly plants to live used every bit a vegetable relish (maroho). There are fruit trees inwards most gardens; the most commonly grown fruits are mangoes, papayas, avocados, bananas, as well as plantains. The Venda may have got been primarily herders inwards the past. During the 20th century their cattle holdings—especially the herds of their chiefs—increased from a few to an appreciable number; they also maintain goats, sheep, pigs, as well as fowl. Venda also has rich deposits of coal, fertile soils as well as plenty of rainfall. Cattle ranching as well as production of sub-tropical fruit are reported to live areas of high economical potential.
Commercial Activities. Commercial irrigation farms have got developed on a little to medium scale along many of the rivers; on those farms, vegetables are grown as well as orchards of mangoes, avocados, litchis, as well as citrus flourish. Tea is good suited to the climate as well as soils of the eastern mist belt of the Soutpansberg Mountains, as well as exactly about 2,200,000 pounds (1 1000000 kilograms) of tea is produced annually for blending with imported Ceylon teas. Informal markets be inwards the main towns as well as along the major roads where women sell fruit as well as vegetables that are produced inwards Venda or come upward from the neighboring Levubu commercial farms. Animal husbandry was traditionally limited but is on the increase, with many majestic families edifice upward large herds of cattle as well as goats.
Tourism is becoming a major currency earner, as well as the unique civilization of the Venda as well as the beautiful scenery are attracting many overseas visitors. The early on Zimbabwe-style stone-walled archaeological sites are peculiarly pop with tourists.
Industrial Arts
Woodcarving, traditional pottery, baskets, as well as beadwork are the main Venda handicrafts as well as are sold locally to tourists or sent to the major cities inwards South Africa, where at that spot are large markets for these items.
Mat weaving past times manus using traditional motifs is commercially practiced. The traditional brightly colored vesture of Venda women has go a dwelling theater manufacture inwards many villages.
Division of Labor
As a full general rule, women piece of work with clay as well as soil as well as men piece of work with animals as well as wood, but at that spot are exceptions, such every bit women collecting firewood every bit portion of their domestic duties. Hand hoeing of the world inwards grooming for planting as well as keeping the the world clear of weeds are the piece of work of women, but inwards commercial operations the mechanical grooming of the world past times agency of cattle-drawn plows or tractors is a man's job, every bit is crop spraying.
Land Tenure
All the world is communal nether the trusteeship of the chief, who allocates the utilization of the world inwards the interests of his community. The fact that these chiefs do non have got championship deeds to the the world that they traditionally claim has led the authorities to province that such communal the world is state-owned as well as that the province demand non pay royalties to the primary as well as his community for using resources on communal property.
Kinship
Kin Groups as well as Descent. Descent is unilineal through the virile mortal line, with i complicated as well as rare exception: In cases where a adult woman has married a married adult woman or wives as well as children are born (fathered past times the spouse's hubby or other men she has allowed to slumber with her wives), technically, descent is on the woman mortal side. However, inwards practise the spouse is metaphorically seen every bit the "husband" because she married the wives as well as thus is addressed every bit "father" past times the children; descent thence is silent on the "male" side.
Venda kids
Marriage as well as Family
Venda groom as well as his bride
Marriage
Cross-cousin marriages are preferred but non compulsory, as well as a immature man's selection of a married adult woman may differ from that of his parents. If a immature lady vehemently dislikes the adult man to whom she is betrothed, dependent to the consent of the man, the betrothal may live broken as well as other arrangements made. Bargaining, usually through a 3rd person, almost the bride-price as well as spousal human relationship arrangements tin take a long time.
With to a greater extent than immature persons moving to the major industrial towns as well as cities, traditional spousal human relationship practices are diminishing, with immature men as well as women marrying for love. Cross-cultural marriages have got go to a greater extent than common.
Polygyny is practiced; the number of wives depends on the wealth as well as status of the husband. The higher a man's traditional status is, the to a greater extent than wives he tin marry. Chiefs as well as headmen to a greater extent than often than non are wealthier than commoners, as well as for them caring for multiple wives is seldom a problem, with headmen having upward to 6 wives as well as chiefs beingness entitled to many more. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 wealthy commoner may conjoin to a greater extent than than i wife, every bit tends to occur with businessmen. Men past times the historic period of time of 50 oft take a immature adult woman every bit a married adult woman to comport children as well as take aid of them inwards their old age.
An unusual shape of spousal human relationship occurs when a wealthy woman, unremarkably a headwoman, marries a married adult woman or wives. She usually is already married to a man. Her hubby or other chosen men may live the biological fathers of the children who are born, but metaphorically she is the "father" of those children. The children must address her every bit "father," spell her biological children telephone scream upward her their mother.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 novel married adult woman is expected to live with her mother-in-law, who teaches her almost her husband's likes as well as dislikes as well as his family. This continues until the nascence of the foremost child, when she moves into her ain theater unopen by. Marital residence thus is patrilocal.
Venda married women
Domestic Unit
A household has i married adult woman as well as her offspring, who part a single hearth as well as swallow together. In polygynous marriages each married adult woman is given her ain theater as well as courtyard, which is physically separate from those of the other wives. The hubby has his ain sleeping expanse (pfamo), which is usually next to the household of the senior wife, who keeps monastic say amidst the other wives. The husband's relatives to a greater extent than often than non live inwards the surrounding homesteads, as well as this scheme gives children access to their aunts as well as uncles.
Inheritance
Traditionally, all the world is communal, nether the trusteeship of the chief. However, every adult man has indisputable rights to the the world he occupies as well as uses. His sons are entitled to the utilization of his the world but may also enquire the local headman to allocate fresh portions of land. Movable property—livestock, household utensils, as well as the proceeds of agriculture as well as trade—passes to the oldest boy or, inwards the instance of a polygynous marriage, the oldest boy of the senior wife. This boy becomes the undisputed caput of the household unit of measurement unless he has disgraced himself inwards the eyes of the family, inwards which instance the boy next inwards line is appointed past times the deceased's oldest sis with the consent of his brothers.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman may possess property, unremarkably the surplus proceeds of her labors, as well as may dispose of it freely. Usually inwards the instance of her death, her youngest boy inherits. In a polygynous marriage, if the senior married adult woman does non have got a virile mortal heir, the oldest immature lady is recognized every bit the legal heir but may non go the caput of the family; that duty usually passes to her belatedly father's oldest surviving brother. An exception to this practise occurs when a adult woman marries wives as well as no virile mortal heir is born; as well as then the oldest immature lady becomes the caput of that family. Brothers may inherit the wives of a deceased man.
Socialization
Infants as well as children are looked after past times their parents as well as grandparents every bit good every bit past times uncles as well as aunts who oft assume the duties of parents inwards loco. Children oft refer to these relatives every bit their virile mortal parent as well as mother. Children are introduced to responsibleness as well as grooming for their later on roles inwards life at an early on age, with boys beingness sent out to herd goats at almost the historic period of time of v as well as girls accompanying their mothers or aunts to collect H2O or firewood or caring for their infant brothers or sisters spell the woman parent is working on the land. There is ever sufficient fourth dimension for play after the allotted tasks are correctly done. Corporal penalisation is rare.
Sociopolitical Organization
Social Organization. Positions of traditional leadership are hereditary, passing unremarkably from the virile mortal parent to the oldest boy of the senior wife. At the decease of the father, it is the duty of his oldest sis (makhadzi) to innovate the heir to the household unit of measurement or advise a novel heir if that boy proves to live incapable. If the heir is besides immature to go the caput of the family, she fulfills that role every bit a regent.
The makhadzi of a majestic household unit of measurement is oft i of the main advisers to her brother, the chief. She may human activity every bit a regent inwards his absence or after his death. Her participation inwards many of the traditional rituals is essential for the well-being as well as prosperity of the community. For many activities, the chief's younger blood brother or oldest surviving uncle may appear on his behalf.
Access to chiefs past times those who are non household unit of measurement members is unremarkably difficult, as well as persons with problems have got to piece of work their way through a hierarchy of counselors before beingness granted an audience with the chief. This is a remnant of the scheme used to guard divine leaders inwards the past.
Political Organization
After 1910 Venda was governed past times the key authorities of the Union of South Africa (later the Republic of South Africa) nether a scheme of commissioners until it received independence from the South African authorities inwards September 1979. Independence was rescinded inwards 1994, when all homelands as well as independent states created past times the apartheid authorities became portion of the democratically elected authorities of South Africa.
Venda is divided into thirty-two chieftaincies with different status levels, of which several are disputed, with these chieftaincies having been created inwards the past times for political expediency as well as the smoother running of an "independent" Venda. Traditionally, the status levels were paramount primary (khosikhulu), senior chiefs, petty chiefs, as well as headmen. During the dark liberation struggle as well as peculiarly since the belatedly 1980s, traditional leadership has been undermined past times resistance organizations, because traditional leaders were considered puppets of the white nationalist government. Civic organizations developed inwards many towns as well as villages as well as ruled through intimidation. In the early on twenty-first century a scheme of mutual tolerance is maintained betwixt Venda traditional leaders as well as civic organizations. Villages as well as towns have got been combined to shape local councils to bargain with issues relating to local government.
Social Control
In the past times persons involved inwards antisocial activities were taken to the courtroom of the headman for pocket-size infringements or to the courtroom of the primary for serious issues, where usually a fine would live imposed. The size of the fine depended on the seriousness of the transgression every bit good every bit the numbers of previous offences committed past times the accused. Witchcraft usually was punished past times death, as well as murder past times banishment or death. When the defendant was pronounced innocent, the plaintiff would live fined.
As the concepts of Roman-Dutch law became entrenched inwards Venda society, many issues were no longer taken to traditional courts but instead were reported to the police. Today a mortal defendant of a serious criminal offense is apprehended, imprisoned, brought to trial, as well as sentenced, usually with a term of imprisonment. Judicial courts are becoming to a greater extent than sympathetic toward mutual law, as well as judgments may live based on fundamental traditional norms as well as values rather than purely on Roman-Dutch law.
Venda women inwards their traditional outfit
Conflict
Although at that spot is evidence of internecine warfare inwards the past, physical conflict betwixt clans no longer occurs. However, people seen every bit opponents have got been killed nether the guise of ritual murder. Between 1820 as well as 1850 many raids past times BaPedi (Sotho), Swazi, as well as Zulu marauders took place. The coming of the foremost white colonialists was met with resistance, including the burning of the foremost white town inwards the Soutpansberg part inwards 1867. Further clashes with traders as well as authorities administrators continued until exactly about 1900. Since 1994 many Vhavenda have got been dissatisfied with the activities of the predominantly Sotho authorities of the Northern Province, as well as periodically verbalize of creating a separate province occurs.
Religious Belief
Unlike many ethnic groups, the Venda race has mostly retained retained their original native organized religious belief as well as thrived on indigenous customs as well as traditions to Pb a unopen knit community life. The Venda people believe inwards a supreme or high God called RALUVHIMBA.The call is composed of the prefix Ra-, which is honorific as well as perhaps connected with the thought of 'Father'; luvhimba is the eagle, the plane that soars aloft. It symbolizes the groovy powerfulness which travels through the cosmos, using the heavenly phenomena every bit its instruments.
'Raluvhimba is connected with the get-go of the world as well as is supposed to live somewhere inwards the heavens as well as to live connected with all astronomical as well as physical phenomena. . . . Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 shooting star is Raluvhimba traveling; his phonation is heard inwards the thunder; comets, lightning, meteors, earthquakes, prolonged drought, floods, pests, as well as epidemics- inwards fact, all the natural phenomena which touching on the people every bit a whole- are revelations of the groovy god. In thunderstorms he appears every bit a groovy sack close the chief's kraal, whence he booms his desires to the primary inwards a phonation of thunder; this sack ever disappears before whatever mortal tin gain it. At these visitations the primary enters the hut and, addressing Raluvhimba every bit Makhalu [Grandfather], converses with him, the phonation of god replying either from the thatch of the hut or from a tree nearby; Raluvhimba as well as then passes on inwards farther clap of thunder. Occasionally he is angry with the primary as well as takes revenge on the people past times sending them a drought or a flood, or perchance past times opening an enormous cage inwards the heavens as well as letting loose a swarm of locusts on the land.' (H.A. Stayt, The Bavenda, Oxford, 1931, p.236)
Raluvhimba, it is said, was wont to manifest himself past times appearing from fourth dimension to fourth dimension every bit a groovy flame on a platform of stone to a higher seat a certainly cave. With the flame at that spot came a audio every bit of clanking irons on hearing which the people shouted with joy as well as their cries passed on throughout the country. The Chief mounted to the platform where he called upon Raluvhimba, thanked him for revealing himself as well as prayed on behalf of his people for rain, felicity as well as peace.
He is at times greeted spontaneously past times the whole people inwards a way that is most unusual amongst the southern Bantu. The Rev. G. Westphal of the Berlin Mission relates that inwards 1917 a shooting star flare-up inwards the middle of the twenty-four hours making a unusual humming audio followed past times a thunder-like crash. This portent was greeted past times the people, non with terror but with cries of joy. Another Missionary, the Rev. McDonald, tells how after a slight tremor of the basis the was an extraordinary clamour amidst the people, the lululuing of women, clapping of hands as well as shouting 'The whole tribe was greeting Raluvhimba who was passing through the country.' People say that during an earthquake they listen a dissonance inwards the sky similar to thunder. Then they clap their hands to welcome the mysterious god as well as pray: 'Give us rain! Give us health.'
Dr H.A. Junod says that Raluvhimba is regarded every bit the maker as well as sometime of everything as well as every bit the rain-giver. If pelting is scarce as well as starvation threatens, people complain: 'Raluvhimba wants to destroy us,' they say the same if floods spoil their fields. Prayers as well as sacrifices are offered inwards times of drought. There is some notion of Raluvhimba every bit Providence. He takes aid no only of the tribe every bit a whole but of private members. When a adult man has narrowly escaped drowning he volition say: 'I have got been salve past times Raluvhimba, Mudzimu.'
Raluvhimba is identified with Mwari (or Nwali) whose earthly abode (like Yahwe's on Mount Sinai) is inwards the Matopo Hills of Southern Rhodesia. Every twelvemonth the Venda used to send a special messenger (whose business office was hereditary) with a dark ox as well as a slice of dark cloth every bit an offering to Mwari. The dark ox was laid gratis inwards the wood to bring together the god's large herd which had accumulated there.
They also believe zwidutwane, (water spirits), which live at the bottom of waterfalls. These beings are only half-visible; they have got only i eye, i leg, as well as i arm. One one-half tin live seen inwards this world as well as the other one-half inwards the spirit world. The Venda would take offerings of nutrient to them because the zwidutwane cannot grow things underwater.
For the average person, skillful or sick fortune, including sickness, often is controlled past times his or her immediate ancestors. When at that spot is problem or an unexplained decease inwards the family, a diviner (mungome) is consulted, the magical divining die are thrown, as well as a prognosis is made. In many cases the interpretation volition live that i of the ancestors must live appeased, usually through the ritual sacrifice of a dark caprine animal for commoners or a sheep for royals at the grave of the troublesome ancestor.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 mungome uses an intricately carved wooden divining bowl (ndilo) to regain witches. Belief inwards witchcraft is really prevalent fifty-fifty amidst the educated, as well as although the killing of witches is considered murder, it occurs regularly. When the diviner is unsuccessful, a witch MD (nanga) is consulted. Such witch doctors are thought to have got magical powers inwards add-on to divining skills as well as tin seat spells on people, who believe that they tin boot the bucket unless they are cleansed past times the nanga who cast the original spell.
Ceremonies
Ceremonies usually are accompanied past times chanting, singing, music, as well as dancing. Rites of passage are important, peculiarly the passage from childhood into adulthood. They are conducted every bit a serial of initiation ceremonies at the historic period of time of puberty for boys as well as girls. Such ceremonies are separate, except for the finally one, the domba, inwards which the sexes come upward together for certainly rituals. Births, marriages, as well as funerals are ceremonial occasions involving families, but at that spot also are ceremonies to ensure the fertility of the land, skillful harvests, skillful rains, as well as the well-being of Vhavenda society. The woman mortal initiation as well as rite of passage has similar cultural pregnant to musevhetho as well as murundu within the Vha-Venda culture. Murundu is circumcision rites for boys. In some other areas it is called mula/hogo. The Vha-Venda people reported that this ceremony is attended past times ordinary people non members of the majestic family. It is said that the foremost mortal to live admitted is the boy of the traditional MD inwards accuse of it. The ground why members of the majestic household unit of measurement do non attend is because it is seen every bit having the Vhalemba origin.
Boys Initiation: The Thondo - Morundu Initiation School:
Two distinctly different initiation schools existed inwards Venda. The Thondo is the older of the two, which each Venda man child should laissez passer on through to accomplish manhood. Elaborate ritual governed the setting up, edifice as well as maintenance of the school, nether the dictates of a traditional healer. It was a highly clandestine schoolhouse where boys were trained inwards the self discipline, endurance, manners as well as tribal etiquette.
Venda boys were circumcised at the Murundu or Morundu initiation school. The murundu circumcision is considered to live preparatory stage for boys to manhood as well as perceived every bit a preventative mensurate against sexually transmitted diseases. Murundu is hosted during wintertime inwards the bush far from the village. Milubi, (2000), states that boys at murunduni are taught certainly behavioural expectations that the guild volition have got on them every bit adult men. It is said that after boys have got been circumcised, the elders tell them that they have got sharpened the “spear” (spear refers to circumcised penis) as well as with the pike they would live able to strike the “thulo”/girl. This agency that such a man child has permission to have got sexual intercourse. This is understood every bit a way of preparing initiates for the future.
Vhahwira - Muwhira: Circumcision as well as vhahwira costumes were introduced past times the North Sotho, which include the Ba Roka as well as Lobedu.
The costume to the left represents the same supernatural Vhahwira, who is known every bit the recruiter. Deaf as well as dumb, he communicates past times whistling as well as swishing a wand. The grapheme is made upward of reeds as well as trunk parts of hawks, owls as well as hammerhead birds. It was collected inwards the Sekororo Area past times J. Witt during the early on 1960's. Later it became the belongings of the Potchefstroom University Collection. Few examples are known, every bit these were often burned at the cease of Thondo.
Musevhetho
Musevhetho is the initiation rite for girls that initiates a immature lady from a infant to the stage of puberty (i.e., before the immature lady starts menstruating) (Milubi, 2000). This rite is referred to every bit “u kwevha”, it involves elongation of the girls’ labia minora, which is sometimes called sungwi, as well as said to live equivalent to the murundu. Musevhetho initiation comes from the Bapedi tribe wherein the immature lady should perform the exercise of labia minora. The role of this initiation schoolhouse amidst the Tsonga or Shangaan, according to Xitlhabana, cited inwards Milubi (2000), is referred to every bit “mileve” (i.e. sexual appetizer). This is said to harness men into a fulfilling relationship.
Women who have got elongated labia minora are perceived as well as perceive themselves every bit having attained a higher flat than those who have got not. They perceive themselves every bit having an payoff of acquiring spousal human relationship as well as tin sexually satisfy men improve than those who have got non elongated. Thus, those who have got non elongated are ever ridiculed past times those who have got elongated past times calling them names such every bit shuvhuru, master-mistress as well as also through the usage of generic terminology (Milubi, 2000).
According to Stayt (1968), musevhetho has been introduced into Vha-Venda past times the neighbouring Basotho, where it is called ‘mula’. The musevhetho is really pop amidst a little department of the people; peculiarly where vhusha or circumcision has the strongest influence inwards educating immature girls as well as boys regarding the culture. Musevhetho is believed to play an of import role inwards reducing early on sexual engagement amongst immature girls as well as boys (informant). For example, girls who are non virgins are ostracized at ‘musevhetho’ initiation school. The practise is believed to encourage girls to abstain from sexual activity as well as discourage girls non to lose their virginity before marriage. At these schools, girls’ virginity status is checked past times the older women (vhomazwale). Musevhetho is believed to play an of import role inwards preventing unplanned teenage pregnancies.
South Africa, Venda, June 2001. Young "maidens" take portion inwards the Domba dance. The domba is portion of an initiation process, some already have got children though traditionally they are meant to live virgins
The most of import portion of the proceedings is the operation, which all the initiates must undergo. It is said past times Vha-Venda people that children of all ages must attend as well as quite immature children are brought to the ceremony past times their mothers. The functions are held inwards a little hut exterior the hamlet known every bit ‘nonyana’, which is the spirit of the ‘musevhetho’. The boys are sent all exactly about as well as trip the lite fantastic to perform antics for the entertainment of the people. This is a fascinating event, because these boys never speak to whatever person, but ship on all communications betwixt each other as well as non with those who did non graduate from the
ceremony (Stayt, 1968).
According to Stayt (1968), the girls often attend at nonyana’s hut for a twenty-four hours as well as a night. They volition consider the spirit as well as live returned to their homes until they are considered to live plenty initiates to warrant the operation. On the appointed day, they are taken to a secluded seat on the river bank, where an old adult woman performs the functioning of cutting the clitoris. At the same time, the girls are branded with a grade on the exterior of the thigh. The create is similar 2 inverted U’s joined together or sometimes it may live 2 circular dots. The create is seen every bit a password for the initiate to have got access to attend when these ceremonies are taking place. Without beingness questioned if a mortal qualifies for entry, the create serves every bit a proof for the owner that she has undergone the operation.
Hali, Sangiwi (female circumcision)
The circumcision rite for girls is called past times the Vha-Venda people every bit “Hali,Sungwi.” Female genital mutilation may live inwards the shape of surgical removal of the clitoris called clitoridectomy. The procedures were i time commonly referred to every bit woman mortal circumcision (FC) as well as are said to live at nowadays dominant throughout the international community.
After the circumcision ceremonies at the river, the girls should proceed to the kraal of the headman who has sanctioned the proceedings. Hence, the girls are given permission to socialise with the boys who went through murundu. The feast begins where dancing as well as singing; with beer drinking; feasting as well as sexual licence continues for a fortnight. After the festival, the girls are taken to the river banking company as well as smothered with fatty as well as red-ochre, as well as brought i time again to the kraal for a few days to rest, but later on homecoming to the river where they are
washed, except the brand. The initiates mentoring the initiands would accompany the girls to their respective homes where the celebration continues (Stayt, 1968). The senior elders are elders who stand upward for tradition as well as wisdom of the past times as well as their role is to learn as well as prepare the initiates (responsible for the initiation ritual).
Stayt (1968), states that the Vha-Venda transitional period of time supplements the teachings of the “vhutambo” “vhutuka as well as the vhusha for socializing girls as well as women. It is said that those who have got taken portion are total members of the tribe as well as are fully prepared for immediate marriage. However, the finally human activity of these ceremonies is identical. All cease with the washing at the river, combined with the cutting of pilus as well as fresh adornment of the body. In this way, it is perceived every bit a graduation of the severance betwixt the old status as well as the novel status.
Girls Initiation – “There are iii phases of initiation for Venda girls; Vhusha,
Tshikanda, as well as the Domba.
Circa 1949 Domba initiation school. - Barbara Tyrrell / Peter Jurgens
Vhusha: Vhusha is the initiation for girls. The ceremony is sanctioned past times the majestic family, because it is seen every bit the foremost initiation ceremony because it is held at the majestic place, different musevhetho, which is attended past times the commoners/vhasiwana. Stayt (1968) states this is i of the ceremonies that is attended past times grown upward females or matured girls. This ceremony takes seat during wintertime as well as summertime as well as during the schoolhouse holidays. The VhaVenda girls are expected to attend inwards monastic say to larn skillful manners as well as regain their identity
(Jeannerat, 1997).
Vhusha was attended every bit presently every bit possible after a girl’s foremost menses as well as and then Tshikanda as well as Domba shortly before they were married. It could live held several times a twelvemonth inwards the head-quarters of whatever district headman, but Tshikanda as well as Domba were held only at intervals of iii to v years at the head-quarters of chiefs as well as certainly senior headman as well as for girls of several districts. At Vhusha, girls were introduced to the clandestine milayo laws, meant to prepare them for their futurity roles every bit wives as well as mothers.”
Tshikanda: According to Stayt (1931) as well as Van Warmelo (1932), tshikanda is portion of the domba premarital initiation schoolhouse for boys as well as girls, which takes seat shortly before domba. The ceremony lasts for i nighttime at the get-go of domba. The ceremony is performed to render the girls of the ruling families the chance to larn certainly songs as well as dances.Considerable fourth dimension was spent practicing ndayo exercises.
Ndayo is a dance, but to a greater extent than of a physical exercise, at that spot to create the girls endure as well as honour the old ones. The movements reinforce the pattern of seniority. Dances are also employed inwards the handling of people with certainly conditions such every bit demon possession. This trip the lite fantastic usually takes seat inwards the courtyard of the king, who often supplies the musical instruments. During the initiation, the girls pass the whole calendar week with "luvhundi” all over their bodies as well as do non wash, fifty-fifty when they eat.
Domba: The domba is a pre-marital initiation. The preparations are made past times the families for the girls to live ready as well as to prepare what is necessary to attend the ceremony. Entrance fee is paid before the girl’s admission.
The Vha-Venda people believe that the ceremony has deep meanings, as well as it is non possible to witness what is happening within (teaching, ritual performance as well as bath) since it is a clandestine ceremony.
Historically, girls used to remain with the primary for the entire duration of the initiation school, which ranged betwixt 3 months to 3 years. Nowadays girls only pass weekends at the ruler’s kraal, due to schooling.
The Vha-Venda people believe that “domba” opens the door to total participation inwards the society. Seniority of historic period of time is an of import regulation amongst the Vha-Venda social organization, as well as every bit women grow older they go to a greater extent than powerful, respected as well as play a leading role inwards rituals as well as ceremonies, as well as are given a status as, “mme a domba” (the woman parent of the ceremony). Many people are of the sentiment that domba should live ‘set up’ during the fourth dimension of reaping, when at that spot is an economical surplus, as well as maintain until the planting flavor of the next year, but others insisted that it should live both ‘set up’ as well as ‘burnt’ at a fourth dimension when the maize is get-go to sprout (Young ,1965).
Circa 1949 Domba initiation school. - Barbara Tyrrell / Peter Jurgens
Domba Dance
The groovy Domba trip the lite fantastic is regularly held inwards the evenings, from dusk to dawn, exactly about a ritual fire. Girls shape a long chain as well as displace inwards a clockwise direction.
The trip the lite fantastic symbolized the mystical human activity of sexual communion, conception, the growth of the fetus as well as kid birth. The successive performances of the trip the lite fantastic during the months the schoolhouse was inwards progress symbolized the edifice of the fetus.
The girls began to trip the lite fantastic with a monotonous response to the Pb singer; as well as then they brake into the ecstatic tivha khulo trend of vocal hocketting.
At the cease of the trip the lite fantastic the girls stopped moving as well as would lean over inwards respect.
They lay downward inwards fetal positions every bit one
Barbara Tyrrell wrote inwards Tribal Peoples: Traditionally they danced nude, but today their clothes is the shedu cloth, passed betwixt the legs forming an apron flap inwards front end as well as a panel at the back. The girls get together inwards the python line, unopen together, dorsum into the next front end as well as hands gripping the preceding elbows. The chief's immature lady leads, her arms gratis as well as weaving against the nighttime prevarication the heads of 2 serpents.
Many metallic bracelets as well as anklets glint every bit the domba line shuffles forward, inwards slow, rocking movement, to a drowsy tempo as well as the line of arms ripples upward as well as down, similar the python fertility god whom they revere as well as represent. All dancing is accompanied past times chanting, some inwards the shape of inquiry as well as answer. High pitched voices reply to the booming phonation of their teacher, a adult man who today is clad inwards European clothes with perhaps a leopard peel cloak as well as feathers on his head. He capers on a wooden platform or runs along the line of dancer switching anyone who is out of fourth dimension or, with some other switch, driving away evil spirits.
Initiates lying down. Photographed past times Peter Jurgens
Arts
Itinerant musicians known every bit zwilombe locomote from hamlet to hamlet as well as tin live found where beer is available. Their songs comment on life inwards full general but oft are really critical of chiefs as well as politicians, often voicing what the people experience but are afraid to say aloud. These musicians are considered slightly insane as well as thence are protected from retribution. The instruments used are single-string bows with calabashes every bit resonators as well as the pollex piano.
Groups play a variety of drums, including the large ngoma drum with its throbbing bass sound; flutes made from special reeds that must live ritually cut; trumpets made from creature horns; stringed instruments; as well as rattles that usually are attached to the legs of dancers. The most unusual musical instrument is the large wooden xylophone (mbila).
Circa 1949. Xylophones were called mbila and are claimed to live the finest musical musical instrument of the Venda. They were made from wood, calabashes as well as flora fibre. The "keys" were 3 to 4 inches wide, made of diverse thicknesses as well as beautifully decorated with incised designs. Calabashes served every bit sounding boards as well as were attached inwards graduated sizes with flora fibre. Small apertures were closed past times sparse membranes.
Various rituals are particular to the Venda as well as certainly aspects are kept clandestine as well as non discussed with westerners, however, it is known that the python dance, conducted at the woman mortal coming of historic period of time ceremony (iconic to the Limpopo region) is usually where the primary chooses a wife. Girls as well as boys trip the lite fantastic fluidly, similar a snake, to the trounce of a drum, spell forming a chain past times holding the forearm of the mortal inwards front. Once a married adult woman has been chosen a laid of courtship as well as grooming rituals take seat over a number of days.
The python trip the lite fantastic of immature women during the domba is good known; the dancers displace i behind the other, with the hands resting on the hips of the immature lady inwards front, emulating the movements of a snake.
Tsikona dance: Most ceremonies are accompanied past times dancing. The tshikona is a majestic dance, each sovereign or primary has his ain tshikona band. Tshikona is played at diverse occasions for funerals, nuptials or religious ceremonies, this tin live considered every bit the Venda 'national music / dance', which is particular to Venda inwards South Africa.
The tshikona is also traditionally a virile mortal trip the lite fantastic inwards which each participant has a pipage made out of a special indigenous type of bamboo growing only inwards few places exactly about Sibasa as well as Thohoyandou (which no longer exists). Each participant has i complaint to play, which has to live played inwards turn, inwards such a way every bit to build a melody. Tshikona is oft performed to welcome of import visitors (including tourists) to villages.
Venda all virile mortal dance,Tsikona.
The tshigombela is a woman mortal trip the lite fantastic usually performed past times married women, this is a festive (winter months) trip the lite fantastic sometimes played at the same fourth dimension every bit the reed flute trip the lite fantastic of the men (tshikona). Tshifhasi is similar to tshigombela but performed past times immature single girls (khomba).
Venda Tsigombela dance
Phala-phala's were made from the horns of kudu or sable antelopes as well as used to telephone scream upward the people together for diverse gatherings. Each horn produced it's ain "note" as well as according to Duggan-Cronin, weird tunes were the result.
Venda drums are considered sacred as well as come upward inwards 2 forms. The smaller narrow illustration is held betwixt the legs. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 far larger circular shape usually has 4 elegantly carved handles where it is often attached to a pole or tree. Both types are called Ngoma, a generic call for drums over a large swath of Africa.
Pottery utensils made past times women as well as wooden utensils carved past times men have got go curios for the tourist trade. This merchandise has led to men becoming sculptors, creating a variety of nontraditional sculptures for the lucrative overseas fine art market.
Medicine
Traditional medicines are made from a variety of plants whose leaves, bark, roots, as well as juice are used for that purpose. These materials are combined with creature fat, brains, entrails, or genitals. Exceptionally powerful medicine is made past times replacing the creature ingredients with ingredients from human beings. Herbalists piece of work only with plants, spell witch doctors utilization all of these ingredients. Modern clinics are found inwards most villages. When Western medicine does non render the desired results, people resort to traditional medicines.
Death as well as Afterlife
The traditional belief is that after decease a mortal enters the world of the spirits every bit long every bit he or she has undergone the initiation rites that create persons total members of adult society. The highest status after decease is that of an ancestor (when the deceased has had children), as well as it is usually the ancestor spirits of the mother's household unit of measurement that have got the greatest influence over the living. The spirit world to a greater extent than often than non is perceived every bit beingness below, nether the ground, inwards caves, or nether deep pools of H2O such every bit Lake Fundudzi, where certainly clans believe at that spot is a consummate hamlet nether the H2O where on a still, dark nighttime the household fires tin live seen as well as singing as well as dancing tin live heard every bit good every bit the sounds of cattle as well as sheep.
Venda adult woman holding beads
Venda Traditional Dress
Traditionally inwards the Venda culture, the Venda wore only vesture made of skins which were obtained past times hunting.
The Vendas believe inwards the ancestors living with the living, so clothes that are believed to live sacred, stand upward for these ancestors. Around the cervix of a Venda lady, a serial of beads as well as amulets may live worn, often really old, each of which is associated with an ancestral spirit. These are passed downward through generations every bit sacred trust as well as to portion with i is to chance immediate retribution from the ancestral realm.
Venda Culture: Infants
According to Venda culture, the infant has no specific attire as well as remains naked, but for a string of wild cotton, (ludede) which is tied exactly about its waist until the weaning stage when they are given the tshideka.
The tshideka is a basic garment, worn past times both sexes, as well as consists of a slice of foursquare cloth sewn on the Ludede to comprehend the private parts, notwithstanding the buttocks remain uncovered. Two squares tin live used, i for the front end as well as the other for the back. When an infant is immunized it is given the lukunda to live worn circular the wrist as well as talocrural articulation to protect them against evil spirits.
As the kid is weaned, clothes are used to differentiate sex, the man child puts on the Tsindi, as well as girls a Shedo.
Venda kids inwards traditional dress
Venda Culture: Male Dress
The tsindi is a triangular slice of soft peel roofing the front, passed betwixt the legs as well as tied at the dorsum as well as a virile mortal volition maintain to have on variations of this throughout his life.
Venda virile mortal dancers from Republic of Zimbabwe wearing traditional Venda dress
The primary traditionally wore an creature peel headband as well as a karos or sila over his shoulders.
Venda Culture: Female Dress
Girls start with a shedo, a little foursquare of cloth sewn onto a broad strip which hangs downward inwards front end every bit a little apron. When a immature lady develops breasts she wears a nwenda at the waist or exactly to a higher seat the breasts.
Meanings are attached to the embroidery done on the Nwenda. When a single line of embroidery is done, it is an indication that i is non yet engaged, spell those who are engaged have got a Minwenda with many lines of embroidery.
Around their ankles girls have on grass anklets, Mutate, before they are engaged; these are removed when she receives existent anklets from her betrothed.
Mapala beads are worn past times girls as well as immature women as well as advertise “I am silent immature as well as lovely exactly similar a bloom which attracts bees. I tin comport children for yous since I am silent fertile.”
The khomba is a immature lady at a marriageable age, she volition silent have on a shedo but at nowadays alone every bit an nether garment as well as wears the Nwenda tucked on the waist or to a higher seat the breast, unless she is performing her initiation rites. Vhukunda (anklets as well as bangles) is a sign of beingness engaged, hence the Venda saying: ‘Mmbwa ire na mune ivhonala nga tshiangaladzi’. Meaning ‘the domestic dog which has the master copy is known every bit such past times a cervix collar.’
The bathroom towel, Thaulo, is an of import garment of the Venda female. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman is said to live good dressed when she emphasizes her hips with a little towel. These days adult woman have on the towel when they attend the Tshisevhesevhe ceremonies. When a immature lady is engaged the hubby buys a towel for her to comprehend her confront with inwards instance she meets i of her betrothed.
Married ladies clothes inwards a dignified manner, thus demanding honor from the community. She wears the Tshirivha –which is made from the peel of sheep or caprine animal as well as is good decorated. The ears of the caprine animal are made upward into little studs as well as fastened at the shoulder portion of the peel on the decorated side, where they human activity every bit the eyes of the Tshirivha.
Old women, past times kid bearing, have on a peel similar to the Tshirivha but made with caprine animal peel consummate with caput as well as neck. This garment Phale is stretched lengthwise instead of broad wise. This skin, when properly prepared, reaches nearly to the ankles.
Vavenda old women
Venda Culture: Status Clothes
In Venda culture, at that spot are some clothes that are worn only past times specific people indicating their status, rank or power.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride of the king, headman or primary wears the Thau indicating her status of beingness married to the royals. When she confides, instead of wearing the tshirivha (goatskin) witch is worn past times commoners, she puts on the Gwana (sheep skin).Her accessories also differ from those of the commoners.
The traditional healers, who are most unopen to the gods, tin never perform their duties without putting on the Palu, which is a bluish cloth with many white or coloured spots as well as stripes as well as it is associated with ancestors. Accessories such every bit the beads Tsilu la Ndou are worn exactly about her neck; crossing over her thorax are white beads, Mpakato; on her arms, copper or brass bracelet Mulinga tin live seen as well as terra cotta beads of ancient root all announce the divine powers given to her past times the ancestors. It is felt that the ancestors volition non live able to communicate with her if she is non totally clad inwards this attire.
The Malombe (those possessed past times ancestral spirits) during the Malombo trip the lite fantastic also have on the Palu. Should it non live included the ancestors volition problem the Venda people. Palu stands for Nwali - "God himself”.
The Malombe dancers volition also have on the Matongo, pieces of cloth of different colours, which have got a meaning. Red stands for soil or God, blueish for the sky, which brings rain, dark stands for darkness or the dead as well as white for happiness.
Venda dress
Venda Culture: Dance Groups:
Dancers have on a Tshithuza which is a beaded or crocheted skirt decorated at the hem past times tassels or pompoms. Around the calves they have on Thuzwu or Tshwayo. When the mutuzwu fruits are dry, the seeds are taken out as well as they are filled with trivial stones. As they perform Venda civilization dances they create a dissonance exactly similar a rattle, thus complementing the beat of the drum as well as the song.
Venda Proverbs
Proverbs are a combination of words to create a particular meaning. This pregnant tin seldom live guessed from one’s knowledge of the private words making upward the proverb(Underhill 1980:39). According to Dalfovo (1997:42), “Proverbs may live described every bit sayings originating from experience, beingness expressed inwards a pithy, fixed as well as metaphorical linguistic communication as well as conveying a message”. The pregnant developed inwards a saying differs from the literal pregnant of the words used. Learners of Tshivenḓa, as well as non-native speakers learning Tshivenḓa inwards particular, may notice it hard to translate proverbs if these are non explained to them. Although proverbs lack inwards transparency, they limited reality as well as thus reverberate reality inwards communities inwards which they are
spoken as well as are of import inwards documenting archaic words, i.e. words that are no longer inwards regular utilization but which may occur occasionally inwards particular contexts. Zgusta (1971:153) notes that the of import thing inwards this connector is that apart from other formal characteristics, nosotros oft notice that proverbs have got every bit their constituent parts obsolete words as well as expressions which are non used elsewhere. Proverbs also create a comment on the civilization of the linguistic communication community.
Proverbs are an of import aspect of communication inwards African societies. They are used inwards everyday conversations. Regarding this importance of proverbs, Mkunchu (1997:107) writes:
"Proverbs tin live used inwards formal or informal settings. Informal situations may live ordinary
day-to-day conversations to advise, rebuke as well as instruct. Proverbs tin also live used in
formal gatherings or special occasions. Such gatherings tin live a ceremony to grade the
cease of a period of time of mourning, a coming together called to polish over a disagreement/conflict, or
the payment of dowry as well as initiation rites."
Here are some Venda proverbs as well as their interpretations:
1. Prov. U anetshelwa ndi u dzimiwa “To live told is to live stinted”. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 study ever leaves something out; improve go as well as notice out yourself.
2. Prov: Musadzi wa muluki u hwala nga tshiteto “The basket-maker’s married adult woman has to ship her things inwards a worn-out winnow”. The tailor’s married adult woman goes inwards rags.
3. Prov: Dza musanda dzi ṱahula tshene “Royal cattle (don’t impairment crops, they merely) clitoris upward weeds”. Children & others from the chief’s seat tin do no wrong.
4. Prov: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 hu na muthu a faho a si na tsevhi “Nobody dies without having been warned past times someone”. One ever gets a hint of impending trouble. The difficulty lies inwards acting on it.
5. Prov: Hu ambuwa vhuṅanga; vhukololo a vhu ambuwi “The medicine-man who crosses a river [into unusual territory] takes his arts and crafts with him, but majestic rank cannot live taken abroad.” Away from dwelling theater high nascence does non count.
6. Prov: Hu ambuwa vhuṅanga; vhukololo a vhu ambuwi “Professional status crosses rivers but majestic descent does not,” i.e. a MD is silent a MD inwards a unusual the world but a prince who crosses the frontier becomes a nobody.
7. Prov: Mutsinda ndi khwine, shaka ndi bulayo “A non-relative is better; a relative is murder”. Relations create to a greater extent than problem than other people.
8. Prov: Mutsinda ndi khwine, shaka ndi bulayo “A stranger is improve than a relative; a kinsman may live the decease of one.”
9. Prov: Mukange a fa, vhana vha Mukange vha a fhalala “When Mr Republic of Guinea Fowl dies, his chicks scatter”, i.e. when a groovy adult man dies, his children as well as dependents disperse as well as the household is broken up.
10. Prov: Thakha ndi mulambo, a i lengi u fhalala “Wealth (property) is similar a river (in flood), it goes downward quickly.”
11. Prov: Zwivhuya a zwi ḓali, zwa ḓala zwi a fhalala “Good things are non common, as well as when they do appear they presently vanish again.”
12. Prov: Ḓuvha ḽa maḓumbu dzi lala na mavhoḓa adzo “When at that spot are storms the cows are allowed to have got their calves with them for the night”. Circumstances alter cases. Necessity knows no law.
13. Prov: Muḓinḓa ha huli, “A messenger never grows old.” He is silent sent on errands when old.
14. Prov: Munwe muthihi a u ṱusi mathuthu “One finger cannot take boiled mealies from the pot,” i.e. i should maintain skillful relations with others, since lone i is powerless.
Leshiba wilderness construction of venda people.
Musangwe: Venda Bare knuckle combat
In northern South Africa, men of the Venda tribe maintain the centuries-old tradition of musangwe, a shape of bare-knuckle boxing that helps immature men deal with present-day challenges.
Musangwe is Venda combat that is said to have got started inwards the belatedly 1800s. Musangwe has ever pitted villages such every bit Gaba, Tshifudi, Tshaulu, Ha-Lambani, as well as Tshidzini. There are no prizes awarded to the winners. The fighters fighting for personal pride as well as the bragging rights for their villages. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 fighter enters the band as well as holds his arm out with a clenched fist.
He circles the gathered men, waiting for someone to take him on. Soon some other adult man holds out his fist as well as the fighting is on.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 quiet falls over the spectators - all of them are men or boys, women are non allowed close the musangwe band - every bit the 2 opponents circle each other warily.
Musangwe has grown to live i of Limpopo's most watched cultural events. It is held annually everyday betwixt 16th Dec as well as 1st January. It is held at Tshifudi hamlet next to the cattle deep.
The basis where Musangwe takes seat is prepared with charms as well as herbs obtained from Maine (traditional healer). The grooming with herbs as well as charms is done past times the president of Musangwe. The ancestors are told that the Musangwe tournament is officially on. It is said that only i fighter has died inwards a Musangwe tournament since the tournament started inwards the belatedly 1800s. The unfortunate fighter died inwards 1929, as well as his spirit is summoned at the commencement of each tournament to protect all participants.
Sources:http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-02192004-141105/unrestricted/02chapter2.pdf
http://uzspace.uzulu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10530/595/NK?sequence=1
http://www.ezakwantu.com
The Makhadzi - Defenders of the Sacred Sites
Venda, inwards Limpopo Province, South Africa is famous for its biodiversity as well as cultural richness. Its sacred sites are watched over past times special custodians, the elderberry women of the community, known every bit Makhadzi. These women have got come upward to live known every bit the "rainmakers" of South Africa, due to the capacity of their cultural rituals to invite pelting to the area. For the people of Venda, practices such every bit these play a vital role inwards maintaining the wellness as well as integrity of their local ecosystems as well as of the wider community.
The Makhadzi are the matriarchal spiritual leaders of the community. The Venda people have got come upward to sympathise their the world through a philosophy called Mupo - pregnant all natural creation, all that is non man-made. Mupo refers to a groovy monastic say of things, of which human beings are exactly i little part. Mphatheleini Makhaulule of The Mupo Foundation explains "Mupo is a give-and-take that describes the root of creation, of all creation, of the Universe. When nosotros appear at Nature, it's Mupo."
Today, the traditions as well as practices of the Makhadzi are coming nether increasing threat every bit the sites within which they ship out their traditional practices - as well as have got done for hundreds of years - are at nowadays beingness brutalised past times construction projects. During 2007-2008 a route was built across a sacred stone as well as the river close to the Phiphidi Falls. Phiphidi Falls is i of the sacred sites where the Makhadzi ship out their rainmaking rituals as well as their celebrations exactly about the fertile, life giving qualities of seed. The sacred stone was broken upward inwards monastic say to create way for the road, as well as most recently, a serial of chalets for tourists have got been constructed beside the falls. The Makhadzi are deeply pained past times the devastation of their traditional territory as well as especially their sacred sites.
In lite of these increasing threats to the traditional Venda way of life, the Makhadzi as well as a number of members of the community came together to shape a community organisation. They named it Dzomo la Mupo or Voices from the Earth.
In 2009, inwards monastic say to assist rebuild the confidence of the community as well as their release energy to fighting for their rights as well as their sacred spaces, an eco-cultural mapping exercise was carried out with the Dzomo la Mupo. Makhadzi were joined past times representatives from across the Venda sacred sites network as well as past times indigenous groups from every bit far away every bit the Altai as well as Republic of Colombia - at that spot inwards solidarity having been through similar processes inwards their ain cultural contexts. The eco-cultural mapping physical care for was co-facilitated past times The Gaia Foundation as well as marked a important turning dot for the community. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 renewal of confidence as well as identity, the mapping physical care for restored the communities faith inwards the demand to stand upward up against the forces which threatened them.
Venda tribe woman
Origin Stories as well as Burial Modes
Traditionalists amidst the Singo Venda believe that ever since the termination of the early on period of time they tin only access the supernatural through ritual as well as libations (Mudau 1940). Even though Singo traditionalists
believe inwards a definite intermission from the supernatural past, they consider the supernatural every bit keeping upward with the present; the sacred unremarkably intersects with the profane during annual ritual occasions (Blacking 1969). In terms of this underlying logic of cyclical sacred time, the final supernatural trial inwards fourth dimension would reflect the first (Figure 11.1a); many traditionalists amidst the Singo Venda believe inwards a millenarian fashion that Nwali would emerge from his mount birthplace to reestablish the Singo Empire when the world comes to an cease (Gottschling 1905; Stayt 1931).
Golden Rhino - Mapungubwe
Like traditionalists elsewhere, traditional Venda people maintain that the distant past times cannot live understood inwards terms of everyday processes that are known to operate inwards linear time.
Venda autonomy was terminated past times the get-go of the twentieth century with the military machine subjugation of the finally independent Singo ruler, primary Mpephu. Missionaries have got had diverse degrees of success inwards converting traditionalist Venda to Christianity (Beuster 1879; Grundler 1899; Ralushai 1977). It mightiness live erroneously assumed that conversions introduced a consummate intermission from traditional organized religious belief conceptions. Moreover,
population shifts as well as underdevelopment brought almost past times conquest, crop failures, epidemics, as well as migrant labor may live interpreted every bit introducing novel religious notions amidst the Venda. For example, some scholars
maintain that the Singo Venda peoples’ business organisation human relationship of their early on history was influenced past times other traditions as well as religions, ranging from Republic of Malaŵi root stories (Wilson 1969) to the biblical business organisation human relationship of Exodus (Wessmann
1908). According to these views the European subjugation of the Venda people brought almost a alter of catastrophic events that drove a wedge betwixt the ethnographic nowadays as well as the pre-conquest past. One outflow of such perspectives is that archaeologists tin never promise to sympathise the proto- or prehistoric organized religious belief of the Venda. However, widespread similarities inwards center religious concepts amidst the Venda as well as neighboring groups, peculiarly the Shona of Republic of Zimbabwe as well as the Northern Sotho, advise considerable antiquity. This is supported past times similarities inwards religious customs every bit documented inwards accounts that predate mission work, conquest, as well as migrant labor (e.g., Beuster 1879; Da Silva Rego as well as Baxter 1962;
Liesegang 1977).
Venda clans, or mitupo (singular mutupo), distinguish betwixt themselves primarily past times referring to their seat of root as well as past times the way inwards which they bury their chiefs (Ralushai 1977). In this newspaper the next iii mitupo are used every bit examples (simply because their practices as well as archeology are best documented): the ruling Singo mutupo that inhabits the south-central, central, as well as southeastern Soutpansberg; the Mianzwi
Mbedzi mutupo that inhabits the eastern Soutpansberg; as well as the Dzivhani Ngona neighbors of the Mianzwi Mbedzi.
The prominent Singo mutupo, whose members variously claim to come upward from Matangoni Mountain (Mudau 1940) or from Mbelengwa Mountain (Mudau 1940) inwards Zimbabwe, bury their chiefs within a mountain, or thavha. Prior to the 1900s this burial location was within a mount cave. After their conquest past times the Boers, the Singo placed their deceased chiefs inwards a hut that is located on comparatively high basis behind the chief’s stone-walled majestic compound. Whether they bury their chiefs inwards a cave or inwards a hut, the Singo separate majestic burial into distinct stages. An of import constituent of all majestic burials is to dehydrate the bodies of the
deceased chiefs on a specially constructed platform as well as and then collect the bones for fi nal placement inwards the high-lying cave or hut (Ralushai 1977). It is said that a novel primary has to swallow a river pebble that dropped from his dehydrated predecessor’s stomach. According to tradition, this pebble initially came from a crocodile’s stomach. The transmission of the pebble inwards this fashion symbolizes continuity of chieftainship.
The Mianzwi Mbedzi rainmaking mutupo, most of whose members claim to come upward from Manaledzi Pool inwards the key Mutale River valley, also bury their rulers inwards this pool. The Mbedzi fi rst seat the trunk of their
deceased ruler inwards a shallow grave. After a spell they exhume the bones as well as throw these straight into Manaledzi Pool. Other prominent mitupowith roughly equal status every bit the Mbedzi, such every bit the Tavhatsindi as well as Famadi, fi rst cremate their deceased rulers before scattering the ashes into specific river pools, or thivha. In lite of their root stories as well as burial practices, it is perhaps non surprising that these people claim that they do non have got a mountain; they claim that their mount is a river pool
(Ralushai 1977).
Venda people generally, as well as the Singo inwards particular, fearfulness as well as essay to avoid the Dzivhani Ngona mutupo from the Mutale River area. Dzivhani Ngona people do non similar to verbalize almost their seat of root as well as have got no laid burial mode for their leaders. Deceased Dzivhani rulers are typically placed inwards a hut or sacred grove exterior their settlement. These locales are feared as well as avoided, especially past times non-Ngona mitupo. Like other so-called Ngona groups inwards the Soutpansberg, these people have got the lowest status amidst the Venda, but are nevertheless feared every bit powerful sorcerers (Ralushai 1977). Such Ngona groups are also known every bit “dry ones,” or zwiomo.
Great Republic of Zimbabwe postdates the Mapungubwe ruins.
The Dual Powers of Venda Chiefs every bit Expressed inwards Royal Settlements, Artifacts, as well as Oral Traditions
As a divine ruler who enjoys the supernatural sanction of the ancestor spirits, the decease of a Singo primary is considered disruptive to the natural order. For this ground a chief’s divergence is kept clandestine from his followers (Mudau 1940). Hidden behind the stone walls that enclose the majestic chemical compound from the commoners’ gaze farther downslope, the majestic household unit of measurement as well as their functionaries essay their utmost to conduct burial rites as well as succession disputes inwards private. Only i time the divergence of a deceased primary becomes known to the full general world as well as a successor is chosen, do the royalty block the entrance to the high-lying majestic residence as well as create a novel i within the stone wall barrier.
Khami Ruins - Zimbabwe
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Singo Venda primary has dual powers; i is political as well as the other ritual. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 primary non only has ultimate command over political determination making, but he also officiates at annual renewal rituals (e.g., Kuper 1982). Political intrigue as well as determination making primarily occur on the comparatively private “mountain,” or thavha, which is the high-lying expanse characterized past times a labyrinthine network of stone walls (Figure 11.3). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 public annual ancestral dedication ceremony, or renewal ritual, known every bit tshikona, occurs inwards the assembly area
within a walled enclosure that is below as well as inwards front end of the chief’s “mountain.” The assembly area, or khoro, is also known every bit a “pool,” or thivha. It is hither that premarital initiates are reborn during the domba (python) dance, really similar the apical ancestors during creation (Blacking 1969).
In Venda as well as Shona cosmology a mount is seen every bit male, hard, isolated, as well as consumptive (e.g., Lan 1985; Van Warmelo as well as Phophi 1948). The same people view a puddle every bit female, soft, populated, as well as generative. The juxtaposition of the political/male sphere as well as the ritual/female sphere within the majestic settlement, or musanda, is thus a spatial appear of a chief’s dual powers. These dual powers are also alluded to inwards stories almost exterior threats to the security of the primary as well as his musanda.
Medicated sticks or bullfrogs buried below the entrance to the assembly expanse are intended to deter malicious outsiders from entering the musanda (e.g., Davison 1984; Du Plessis 1945). These medicines are supposed to turn the assembly expanse into a puddle that magically hides the chief’s mount within. However, if the intruder proves to live besides strong for the medicines, the chief’s mount mightiness disappear permanently within the pool.
This business organisation human relationship is a metaphorical allusion to the fact that the primary tin utilization his ritual potency to play tricks his enemies as well as so retain his political power. However, if the enemy proves besides strong, the primary loses his “mountain,”
or political power, but retains his “pool,” or ritual status.The duality betwixt politics/mountain as well as rituals/pool evident inwards majestic settlements was also expressed at the much smaller physical scale of a royal
artifact. This artifact is a carved wooden divination bowl (ndilo) that was stored within the chief’s majestic “mountain” quarters (Nettleton 1984). Use of such bowls apparently ceased inwards the early on twentieth century. These bowls were used inwards public only when a large calamity threatened the good beingness of the entire chiefdom, such every bit during severe droughts or after a decease caused past times lightning. Venda informants say that when the chief’s specially appointed diviner (mungoma) fi lled the bowl with water, as well as then it represented a puddle hiding the majestic musanda; the submerged knob inwards the centre of the bowl signifi ed the chief’s compound, or “mountain.” Bas-relief motifs carved on the bottom of the bowl represented areas within the upper-case missive of the alphabet town (Figure 11.4a), such every bit the cattle byre. Relief motifs on the exterior rim represented the different Venda clans. It is said that most people within the chiefdom, royals as well as commoners, were nowadays inwards the public assembly
when the bowl was used to divine the create of misfortune. Zigzag as well as concentric rings carved on the underside of the bowl represented ancestor spirits who lived inwards the underworld below the assembly area, or “pool.”
Mapungubwe sandstone formation
Just every bit when outsiders threaten the musanda, a divination bowl filled with H2O marks a crisis occasion when the chief’s ritual, or “pool” role predominated over his political, or “mountain” role. The self-similarity
betwixt the majestic settlement as well as the majestic bowl demonstrates the ubiquity of the symbolic opposition betwixt mountain-related politics as well as pool-related rituals. Soapstone bowl fragments with zebra as well as cattle motifs carved exactly about the exterior of bowls from the 700-year-old colina ruins of Great Republic of Zimbabwe (Summers 1971) are reminiscent of the divination bowls of Venda royals (Figure 11.4b). The regain of these fragments within prehistoric majestic quarters suggests that divination as well as associated beliefs have got considerable antiquity. It is interesting that ceramic similarities as well as Venda oral histories strongly advise a link betwixt the Singo chiefs as well as vestiges of the Republic of Zimbabwe empire of Shona-speakers.
The dual powers of powerful Venda chiefs, or kings, are also expressed inwards oral traditions of the early on supernatural period of time recalled past times Singo traditionalists. Like powerful Shona chiefs, the powerful Singo king
Dimbanyika subjugated the indigenous Soutpansberg communities past times stepping similar a giant from i mount top to the next (Blacking 1969). When the ambitious Dimbanyika “overstepped” at Tshiendeulu Mountain (Figure 11.5a) as well as incurred the wrath of his sons, it is said that he disappeared inwards the mount (some say that his resentful sons trapped him inwards the cave). Whether the mount spontaneously fell on the virile mortal monarch or whether ambitious princes laid a trap (Dzivhani 1940; Motenda 1940), this story is reminiscent of euphemistic references amidst the Shona as well as Venda to the decease of a primary every bit “the mount has fallen.” Some Venda insist that Dimbanyika silent lives within a cave inwards the mountain, as well as similar his virile mortal parent Nwali, would i twenty-four hours emerge to reestablish Singo hegemony. Certain caves that formed inwards weathered sandy as well as clayey sedimentary layers within the quartzite formations of the Soutpansberg contain streams as well as pools. Such mountains with pools are indeed apt natural models of chiefl y political powerfulness that contains ritual potency.
claim that their sometime chiefs were buried on Tshilavhulu Mountain is true, as well as then the burials must predate the settlement of the Mbedzi immigrants on the mountain. Judging from the ceramic as well as radiocarbon record
at Tswingoni, Dzivhani line of piece of work must live associated with Mapungbwe ceramics that predate the sixteenth century. Historians as well as linguists associate Mapungubwe ceramics with really old Shona-speaking inhabitants of the Soutpansberg area, as well as the so-called Ngona people such every bit the Dzivhani are descendants of these autochthones (Beach 1980; Ehret 1972). The to a greater extent than prominent Mapungubwe sites inwards the part have got yielded evidence of “mountain” burials, assembly areas, as well as long-distance merchandise items from the coastal merchandise (Loubser 1991). Even though Mapungbwe period of time walls are comparatively scarce as well as simple, the mountain/pool dichotomy silent seems to live nowadays within Mapungbwe settlements that appointment dorsum to the middle of the 12th century. Prior to this date, which marks the get-go of a fully fl edged long-distance trading empire centered on Mapungubwe Hill, mount burials seem to live absent (Gardiner 1963).
Status Misrepresented every bit Stasis
Variants of the mountain/pool symbolism every bit outlined to a higher seat are nowadays amidst most Bantu-speaking groups inwards sub-Equatorial Africa, but this dichotomy is perhaps nowhere every bit pronounced as well as elaborate every bit among
the Venda as well as Shona-speaking peoples of far northern South Africa as well as Zimbabwe. According to the archaeological tape this belief scheme tin live traced dorsum for nine centuries inwards the Soutpansberg. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 alter inwards the burial location from mount to puddle tin live interpreted every bit indicative of a alter inwards belief, however. Yet, the ethnographic tape unequivocally shows that the 2 burial modes are portion of the same belief scheme that is acted out on the landscape; mount burials demonstrate ancestrally sanctioned political power, whereas puddle burials accentuate religious potency. Internal logic, oral historical recollections, as well as archaeological evidence exhibit that this is non a static scheme but a dynamic process. This physical care for non only accentuates the ruling group’s electrical flow status as well as presents it every bit eternal, but it also masks the previous status of subverted groups.
The puddle within the mount signifies the religious potential of a political ruler; a defeated primary without a mount retains or fifty-fifty enlarges his/her puddle status as well as unremarkably becomes an of import ritual functionary
for a novel ruler (Figure 11.8a). The mount within the puddle signifies the political potential of the conquered chief; through renewed alliances with the electrical flow rulers a ritual functionary tin ever piece of work his/her way back
upward the political scheme to regain mount status. The instance of the Mianzwi Mbedzi woman mortal rainmaker dynasty is but i of the improve documented examples that illustrate this notion. However, a ruler without a mountain
or a puddle is exterior this scheme as well as has no potential for upward mobility. The leaders of the Dzivhani Ngona are i of many such ambivalent figures inwards the Soutpansberg who live exterior the periphery of the Venda
political system. Yet, these seemingly powerless as well as impotent rulers, also known every bit “dry ones,” or zwiomo, are feared as well as avoided past times mount as well as puddle leaders. One ground for this honor for the weak lies inwards changing political fortunes during historic as well as prehistoric times.
Archaeological evidence as well as certainly oral testimonies call for that the ancestors of the Dzivhani Ngona i time occupied at to the lowest degree 2 prominent mountain-slope settlements inwards the Mutale River valley—Tshilavhulu
Mountain as well as Tswingoni Mountain. Based on the comparatively large size of these Dzivhani settlements as well as recollections of their chiefs beingness buried inwards these mount locations, the Dzivhani in all probability were i time powerful rulers inwards the part (Figure 11.8b). Dzivhani dominion lasted until the Mbedzi immigrants from Republic of Zimbabwe settled inwards the Mutale valley some 500 years ago. Subjugated past times the Mbedzi, the Tshilavhulu Mountain of
the Dzivhani changed into a “pool of water.” The Mbedzi fi rst ruled from Tshilavhulu as well as later on from Tswingoni Mountain until they inwards turn were subjugated past times the eastern Singo Tshivhase dynasty inwards the nineteenth century. With their loss of political powerfulness as well as mount status, the Mbedzi rulers were relegated to puddle status. At the same fourth dimension the Dzivhani lost their puddle status to go the “dry ones.”
When traditionalists view status grades inwards terms of cyclical fourth dimension alone, without consideration of politico-religious physical care for or linear time, status grades appear every bit divinely ordained juxtaposed units (Figure 11.8a).
However, viewed inwards terms of politico-religious physical care for as well as punctuated linear time, status grades resemble stratified geological layers with an underlying dynamic (Figure 11.8b). In the latter sense, status grades amidst the Venda mitupo are a business office of relative antiquity; those at the bottom of the hierarchy are the oldest. But the oldest are also inwards a feel the most potent, considering that they have got the most intricate link with the the world as well as its spirits. Perhaps inwards tacit recognition of the Dzivhani Ngona’s previous power, the ruling Singo people honor as well as fearfulness these autochthonous people. Another ground why the Singo as well as their allies fearfulness the diverse Ngona groups is that these ousted people no longer autumn within commonly recognized politico-religious boundaries. Metaphorical allusions amidst the Venda emphasize the notion of socially acceptable boundaries; inwards the courtroom linguistic communication of Singo royals a primary is called a crocodile that does non leave of absence its pool, whereas Ngona rulers are to a greater extent than often than non seen every bit anomalous crocodiles, or sorcerers, wandering almost on dry out the world (Nettleton 1984).
Such allusions to mountains, pools, as well as crocodiles are indeed ancient; they are portion of the same religious scheme that has informed the settlement layouts as well as burial practices of peoples that have got lived on both sides
of the Limpopo River for the finally 900 years.
source: http://www.stratumunlimited.com/uploads/4/8/1/5/4815662/venda_paper.pdf
Domba dance
Beautiful Venda women from South Africa wearing their traditional dress
The Venda or Ba venda (Vhavhenda or Vhavgona) are an amalgamation of Bantu-speaking Southern African people living mostly close the South African-Zimbabwean border. The Vhavenda or the "Venda" every bit they are popularly called, are perhaps the only Black nation southward of the Vhembe River (Limpopo River), whose the world was non named after the people. The call "Venda" agency the world or country. It has no prefix or suffix to call for that it is a the world inhabited past times a certainly people. That is why its inhabitants are Vhavenda or the Venda, pregnant the people of Venda. The the world became a kingdom when Dambanyika, established himself at Lwandali inwards 1688. He consolidated the kingdom as well as became the foremost Thovhele of the modern Venda society. This happened at a fourth dimension when most, if non all, Black nations inwards the sub-continent were silent living inwards scattered communities.
When the bantustan of Venda received nominal independence inwards 1973, their population stood at 200,000. Currently, at that spot are almost 3.5 1000000 Venda speaking people inwards South Africa according to 2011 census whilst at that spot are almost 600,000 venda people inwards Zimbabwe.
Venda tribe old women from Republic of Zimbabwe inwards their traditional dress
GEOGRAPHY
The Vhavenda people are located on the North as well as West of Makhado inwards the Limpopo province of South Africa. The part they inhabit borders Republic of Zimbabwe as well as it is where the Shashe as well as Vhembe rivers meet. The give-and-take Vhavenda as well as Venda are used interchangeably when referring to the Vhavenda people, notwithstanding the give-and-take Vhavenda improve describes the people, whilst Venda refers to a greater extent than to the language. The Venda also lives inwards Republic of Zimbabwe close the border with South Africa. “The Venda traditionally occupy an expanse inwards as well as exactly about the Soutpansberg Mountains inwards the northeastern department of South Africa's Northern Province, unopen to the borders with Mozambique as well as Zimbabwe.”
Venda landscape
“Their novel dwelling theater is a beautiful seat with fertile soil as well as rolling hills thickly wooded with forests of
subtropical wild fig as well as stinkhout trees as well as indigenous ferns as well as flowers. The mount itself is often
shrouded inwards mist as well as whereas the surrounding countryside is hot as well as dry, the mountains receives an
annual rainfall of nearly 2,000 millimetres inwards places.”
Largest Baobab tree inwards the world.Venda metropolis of Limpopo
Settlements
Attacks past times marauders inwards the foremost portion of the nineteenth century changed settlement patterns. Most chiefs as well as headmen relocated their villages from the low-lying regions to areas high on the mount slopes, straight nether cliffs.
Venda Homestead
For protective purposes the chief's residence was located at the highest dot of the hamlet nether the cliffs, majestic households were placed instantly inwards front, as well as the houses of the commoners spread out lower downward as well as inwards front. This pattern continued good into the 1900s, when diminished hostilities as well as novel forms of authorities management allowed the homecoming of villages to the valleys; the old ones nether the cliffs gradually became deserted.
Venda homestead photographed at Mbilwe prior to 1928. Duggan-Cronin wrote: The piece of work of cutting as well as erecting the poles of the hut is done past times men, the plastering is done past times women, every bit is the thatching. The trivial wall exactly about the veranda is usually really skillfully ornamented, with diverse colours obtained from the different-coloured earths inwards the region.
Villages are built exactly about the musanda, or majestic residence. Adjacent to the musanda is the public coming together seat (khoro) where visitors are met as well as courtroom meetings, dances, as well as other social events are held. Houses are traditionally wattle-and-daub constructions with thatched roofs. Several houses are linked together with mud brick walls as well as arranged exactly about an opened upward key courtyard with a key fireplace where the household unit of measurement sits inwards skillful weather. Traditionally, homesteads were partitioned off past times hedgerows, wooden palisade fences, or stone walls. Most of the older settlements are reminiscent of miniature Great Republic of Zimbabwe ruins with their walls, stones steps, passageways, as well as terraces.
Modern edifice materials have got replaced traditional ones inwards many instances. Customary homesteads are beingness replaced past times houses of Western design, as well as settlement layout favors a grid scheme instead of the haphazard organisation of the past. Most villages have got access to electricity, piped water, as well as telephone communications.
Venda Language
The Venda language, TshiVenda or LuVenda, is a Bantu language. It emerged every bit a distinct dialect inwards the 16th Century. The bulk of Venda speakers live inwards the northern portion of South Africa's Limpopo Province, but almost 10% of its speakers live inwards Zimbabwe. The Venda linguistic communication is related to Kalanga (Western Shona, different from Shona, official linguistic communication of Zimbabwe) which is spoken inwards Republic of Botswana as well as Zimbabwe. During the Apartheid era of South Africa, the bantustan of Venda was laid upward to comprehend the Venda speakers of South Africa.
Beautiful Venda adult woman inwards her traditional attire
In the 20th Century, the TshiVenda vocabulary was similar to SeSotho through association, but the grammer shares similarities with Shona dialects, which are spoken inwards Zimbabwe. Today almost 875 000 people inwards South Africa speak Tshivenda. The Tshipani variety of Tshivenda is used every bit the standard.
The bulk of Venda speakers live inwards South Africa, where "Venda" is an official authorities language, but at that spot are also speakers inwards Zimbabwe. Before South Africa became a democratic country, the Bantustan of Venda was laid upward to comprehend the Venda speakers of South Africa. Throughout this area, variants of Tshivenda are spoken.
The Venda Language, spoken past times almost 6,00,000 Africans. As a outcome of inhabiting different regions, diverse dialects have got evolved. This variation has also effected the customs as well as rituals, though the difference is non besides conspicuous.
THE DIALECTICAL VARIATIONS OF VENDA LANGUAGE
Tshiilafuri = Western Venda with traces of Sotho
Tshimanda = Central Venda, used past times the Luonde as well as Lwamondo
Venda proper = found inwards Tshivhase as well as Mphaphuli's areas.
Tshimbedzi = Eastern Venda
Tshilembethu = North Eastern Venda
Extreme Eastern Venda = influenced past times Karanga from Zimbabwe.
Tshironga = Southern Venda
South Eastern Venda = shows influence of Tonga as well as Sotho
Here are some of Basic Venda words
Family (Muta)
Father Khotsi
Mother Mme
Brother Mukomana
Sister Khaladzi
Grand parents Makhulu
Greeting (U lumelisa)
Good morn Ndi Matsheloni
Afternoon Ndi masiari
Hello(Male) Nnda!
Hello(Female) Aa!
Day to twenty-four hours words (Maipfi a duvha na duvha)
foods Zwiliwa
Water Madi
hunger Ndala(I am hungry-Ndi na ndala)
House Nndu
Gate Gethe
Love Lufuno(I honey you- Ndi a ni funa)
Keep visiting Ni dale hafhu
Venda tribe elder
History/Origin
The Venda of today are descendants of many heterogeneous groupings as well as clans such as:
Dzindou dza Vharundwa / Dza Mitshetoni /Dza Manenzhe
Vhadau;
Vhakwevho;
Vhambedzi;
Vhafamadi;
Vhania;
Vhagoni;
Vhalea;
Vhaluvhu;
Vhatavhatsindi;
Vhatwanamba;
Vhanzhelele/Vhalembethu;
VhaDzanani
Vhanyai;
Vhalaudzi;
Masingo; and
Vhalemba.
Vhadau, Vhakwevho, Vhafamadi, Vhania, Vhangona, Vhalea, as well as Vhaluvhu were collectively known every bit Vhangona. The Vhangona as well as Vhambedzi are considered to live the original inhabitants of Venda.
The the world of Vhangona was later on settled past times Karanga-Rodzvi clans from Zimbabwe: Vhatwanamba, Vhanyai, Vhatavhatsindi, as well as Vhalembethu. Masingo, Vhalaudzi, as well as Vhalemba are belatedly arrivals inwards Venda.
According to i version of Vhangona oral history the upper-case missive of the alphabet of Vhangona was Mapungubwe with the Raphulu Royal House every bit the most senior majestic theater of the Vhangona. According to this version the Vhangona Kingdom had +-145 chiefdoms as well as a King (Thovhele). It is said that the Kingdom was divided into 7 districts:
Dzanani;
Mbilwi;
Tswime;
Tshiendeulu;
Tshakhuma;
Tshamanyatsha; and
Thulamela.
These districts were ruled past times District Chiefs (Mahosi):
Mudzanani/Nesongozwi Dzanani);
Nembilwi (Mbilwi);
Netswime (Tswime);
Netshiendeulu (Tshiendeulu);
Netshakhuma (Tshakhuma);
Netshamanyatsha (Tshamanyantsha); and
Makhahani (Thulamela).
Each district had Vhamusanda (Junior Chiefs) who paid tribute to Mahosi. This tradition states that i of the Vhangona Kings was King Shiriyadenga whose majestic kraal was at Mapungubwe. It is non clear if this Shiriyadenga is the same Shiriyedenga of the Sanga dynasty, a Karanga-Rodzvi branch. The Sanga dynasty, inwards Zimbabwe’s eastern highlands, was founded past times Chiphaphami Shiriyedenga who died inwards 1672. Could it live that at i dot the Karanga-Rodzvi Empire extended beyond the Vhembe (Limpopo) River, as well as that the
Vhangona, though non Karanga speaking, were at i dot nether Karanga-Rodzvi rule.
Mapungubwe Hills
The other version of Vhangona history disputes that the Vhangona were ever united nether i primary or King. It says that the Vhangona had different independent chiefdoms as well as that the Vhangona primary of Nzhelele valley was Tshidziwelele of the Mudau clan. What is clear, however, is that the Vhatwanamba, who were of Karanga-Rodzvi origin, conquered Vhangona clans who lived inwards Mapungubwe, Musina, Ha-Tshivhula, Ha-Lishivha, HaMatshete, Ha-Mulambwane, as well as Ha-Madzhie (the areas of Ha-Tshivhula, Ha-Lishivha, HaMatshete, as well as Ha-Mulambwane are known today every bit Alldays as well as Waterpoort).
One of the most interesting as well as distinct groups of people who later on joined the Venda are the African Semites, the Lemba. They are believed to live the descendants of Semitic (Arab) traders who entered Africa exactly about 696AD. The Lemba believe themselves to live Black Jews, descendants of the lost tribe of Israel. They maintain to themselves, only conjoin within their ain grouping as well as sometimes refer to themselves every bit Vhalungu, which agency 'non-Negroid' or 'respected foreigner'.
Venda adult man from Lemba tribe,Zimbabwe
The beads they brought with them from these far-off countries are silent treasured to this twenty-four hours as well as are used inwards divination as well as other magical ceremonies. The Lemba were really skillful traders as well as artisans. They were also famous, for their metalwork as well as pottery. The foremost contact betwixt the Venda as well as the whites occurred when the Voortrekker leader, Louis Trichardt came to the expanse inwards 1836.
Mapungubwe was the centre of a kingdom with almost 5000 people living at its center. Mapungubwe every bit a merchandise centre lasted betwixt 1030 as well as 1290 AD. The people of Mapungubwe mined as well as smelted copper, Fe as well as gold, spun cotton, made drinking glass as well as ceramics, grew millet as well as sorghum, as well as tended cattle, goats as well as sheep. The people of Mapungubwe had a sophisticated knowledge of the stars, as well as astronomy played a major role non only inwards their tradition as well as culture, but also inwards their day-to-day lives. Mapungubwe traded with ancient Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia through the ports of Adulis on the Red Sea as well as the ports of Raphta (now Quelimani) as well as Zafara (now Sofala) inwards Mozambique.
Mapungubwe predates the settlements at Great Zimbabwe, Thulamela as well as Dzata. It is believed that that people left Mapungubwe for Great Republic of Zimbabwe because Great Republic of Zimbabwe was judged to have got a to a greater extent than suitable climate.
From 800AD, the Mapungubwe Kingdom emerged, stretching from the Soutpansberg inwards the south, across the Limpopo River to the Matopos inwards the north. The Mapungubwe Kingdom declined from 1240, as well as the centre of powerfulness as well as merchandise moved northward to the Great Republic of Zimbabwe Kingdom.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 shifting of focus to Zimbabwe's Khami as well as Rozwi empires followed, but the civilization did non come upward to a standstill. South of the Limpopo Shona-Venda as well as Venda pottery styles developed inwards the 14th as well as 15th Centuries. There are no stonewalled ruins comparable inwards size to Great Republic of Zimbabwe inwards the northeastern portion of Northern Province, but those inwards the mountains exhibit a link.
Accompanying the evolution of these centres, from almost 1400, waves of Shona-speaking migrants from modern Republic of Zimbabwe (known past times the Venda every bit Thavatsindi) settled across the Lowveld.
The Venda are to a greater extent than often than non regarded every bit i of the finally dark groups to have got entered the expanse southward of the Limpopo River. Their history is closely related to the history of their successive captains’ houses, especially those who were descended from their legendary ancestor, Thoho-ya-Ndou (Head of the Elephant).
Venda Young woman. Circa 1929
While some historical accounts have got maintained that the Venda (also called theBaVenda) came from the Congo region, others insist that they migrated from the Great Lakes of Central Africa over a one 1000 years agone as well as moved towards the southern portion of Africa (BERCD 1979:17). Venda history is complex as well as the dependent of unending dispute amidst different parties as well as dynastic groups that inhabit the territory. Writing almost the 1930s, Stayt argued that the Venda are ‘a composite people’ (Stayt 1968:9). Others have got agreed with this view inwards the 1990s such every bit Loubser who contended that the Venda ‘do non consider themselves every bit a culturally homogeneous or politically united nation’ (Loubser 1990:13;also consider Ralushai 1977:46). Oral tradition suggests that most of the of import migrations to the territory known today every bit Venda came from northward of the Limpopo River inwards the 17th as well as 18th centuries.
Venda man. Circa 1929
Among these migrations, 2 are peculiarly important inwards thehistory of the area. The Vhatavhatsinde grouping arrived first, followed past times the MaKhwinde from what is todayknown every bit southern Zimbabwe. Early ethnographers have got showed that i of the major differences betwixt the Vhatavhatsinde as well as other Venda groups is their method of disposing of the dead. While other groups bury their dead permanently, the Vhatavhatsinde exhume the corpse after several months as well as sack the bones inwards a ritual ceremony after which the ashes are scattered inwards specified rivers. The latter grouping (MaKhwinde) is said to have got found the Ngona grouping ‘a non-warlike rather disorganized people, who allowed the invaders to settle peacefully amidst them’ (Stayt 1968:10). It is claimed that the Ngona are the original inhabitants of the territory. After their leader was subjugated past times the Makhwinde invaders, the Ngona primary became a high priest of their deity as well as was oft invited past times their conquerors to serve every bit a medium betwixt Ngona ancestral spirits as well as the MaKhwinde invaders.
Venda girls going to draw water. Circa 1928
According to Singo Venda traditionalists, this distant past times is replete with supernatural events, starting when a puddle within a mount cave gave nascence to their first king, Nwali. The legendary Singo virile mortal monarch Dimbanyika, boy of Nwali, migrated southward from Republic of Zimbabwe as well as crossed the Limpopo River to conquer Venda-speaking chiefdoms inwards the Soutpansberg Mountains. By beating a magical drum, known every bit Ngoma-Lungundu, the early on warrior virile mortal monarch of the Singo generated a audio that killed those autochthonous Venda people who dared resist this invasion (Mudau 1940). Ngomalungundu. This was a sacred drum of Mwali (Mwari), the Great God of the Singo. Ngomalungundu was the pike as well as shield of the Singo. Their virile mortal monarch is believed to have got worked miracles with this drum which had magic as well as killing powers. In fearfulness of Ngomalungundu, other groupings surrendered to or fled from the Singo killing powers. Through conquest the Vhangona came to revere as well as fearfulness this greatest musical instrument. They regarded this drum every bit the Voice of their Great God, Raluvhimba, the Lord of all their ancestor spirits, the musical instrument of the Royal Ancestral spirits. By the belatedly 19th century Vhavenda had to come upward to think of Raluvhimba as well as Mwali every bit interchangeable names for the same deity, although they had i time been separate.
Mashovhela Rock Pool: (Mashovhela, “the seat where the drums tin live heard”, is the second-most-sacred seat inwards Venda culture. This sacred site is silent used occasionally past times Sangomas inwards rain-making ceremonies, similar a few years agone - shortly after which Venda had the heaviest rains as well as most devastating floods inwards living memory. According to Venda tradition the legendary as well as powerful Venda King, Thohoiyanda, had a mystical drum, Ngoma Lungundo, "drum of the dead". As his enemies approached, this drum was played as well as the foe exactly dropped dead.One night, King Thohoiyanda as well as the sacred drum mysteriously disappeared from his majestic kraal. Neither were ever seen again. It was believed he disappeared into the Western Soutpansberg, where Mashovhela Lodge is situated. Tradition has it that it is this sacred drum that tin sometimes live heard inwards the echoes from the stone cliffs of Mashovhela pool).
After the MaKhwinde migrated to Vendaland, led past times their leader Dimbanyika, they presently dominated the entire the world as well as settled at Tshieundeulu, where the Vhatavhatsinde had established their capital. Dimbanyika placed his sons as well as other kinsmen every bit petty chiefs throughout the villages as well as gradually incorporated the other groups nether his hegemony. Dimbanyika’s reign did non finally long every bit he died inwards circa.1720, after subjugating the other groups.
Although the way of his decease is highly contentious amidst the Venda. Stayt as well as others maintain that the decease of Dimbanyika is a favourite myth amidst the Venda. While some accounts take hold that Phophi killed his father, others insist that Dimbanyika went hunting inwards a cave as well as spell he was inside, a stone fell as well as covered the entrance, thereby entombing him alive.
Oral tradition holds that at the fourth dimension of his decease Dimbanyika had 4 adult sons of whom Phophi was the oldest. He had appointed them every bit petty chiefs inwards satellite villages: Phophi (Thohoyandou) ruled inwards Nzhelele, Tshisebe inwards Makonde, Tshivhase inwards Phiphidi, as well as Bele inwards Vuba. However, it is undisputed that Dimbanyika`s oldest son, Phophi, succeeded him as well as chose to telephone scream upward himself, Thoho-ya-ndou (Head of the Elephant) given that his father, the ‘elephant,’ had died. He as well as then moved his upper-case missive of the alphabet to Dzata, which today is‘regarded every bit the ancestral dwelling theater of the BaVenda’ (Stayt 1968:12).
After Thohoyandou’s decease the other brothers declared their villages independent of the capital. Loubser (1990) estimates that this trial may have got taken seat betwixt 1750 as well as 1800. Although Thohoyandou’s son, Tshikalanga was appointed to take over from his father, Venda was already disintegrating into several, autonomous chiefdoms. This fragmentation was exacerbated past times the advent of European invaders as well as colonialists.
Of the several lines of descent of Dimbanyika, the Mphephu as well as Tshivhase are the most numerous as well as powerful. The Mphephu leadership traces its descent from Tshikalanga as well as has established its upper-case missive of the alphabet at Nzhelele where Thohoyandou had ruled before becoming the King of the Venda. Other chiefdoms that were recognised past times the colonial as well as apartheid authorities are the chiefdoms of Senthumele, Khuthama as well as Rambuda. The Mphaphuli expanse is the 3rd most populated Venda territory, though its history is shrouded inwards a spider web of complexity.
Stayt (1968) has described Thohoyandou’s reign every bit the golden historic period of time of the BaVenda. This is because all the chiefdoms were united nether his leadership. But after his death, household unit of measurement disputes as well as ‘internecine warfare’ precipitated the disintegration as well as sectionalisation of the kingdom. It is believed that the drum magical drum of the Singo royalty retained its magical properties every bit long every bit it was kept suspended to a higher seat the ground. Singo hegemony over a vast expanse southward of the Limpopo River crumbled when this drum accidentally touched the
basis during infighting betwixt virile mortal monarch Thoho-ya-Ndou as well as his brothers.
This catastrophic trial inwards early on Venda history is believed to have got angered the ancestor spirits, including Nwali, so much that they withdrew from their everyday involvement inwards the affairs of the Singo royalty. The dropping of the drum, Thoho-ya-Ndou’s defeat inwards battle past times the hands of his brothers, as well as his disappearance into Lake Fundudzi grade the termination of the supernatural period of time inwards Venda history
The Sacred Lake Fundudzi: the most sacred spot of all inwards Venda Culture is the enchanted trunk of H2O known every bit Lake Fundudzi inwards the Thathe Vondo Forest, inwards Venda as well as is the dwelling theater to the mythical python as well as white crocodile. Lake Fundudzi, the only natural lake of its form inwards South Africa, was originally formed past times a landslide, according to scientists. But the local people consider it inwards a far to a greater extent than mysterious way. They'll dot out that iii rivers flow into the lake, yet it never overflows as well as at that spot is no obvious outlet.
The rivalry that followed King Thohoyandou’s decease led to the sectionalisation of the Venda kingdom into iii different kingdoms as well as numerous independent chiefdoms. The iii kingdoms were Ramabulana with its base of operations at Tshirululuni (present twenty-four hours Makhado town), Tshivhase with its base of operations at Dopeni as well as later on Phiphidi, as well as Ravhura with its base of operations at Makonde. The Mphaphuli as well as Rambuda houses later on split from the Tshivhase theater as well as founded their ain dynasties with their bases at Tshitomboni as well as Dzimauli respectively.
Historians believe that the geography of Venda was non inwards favour of unity as well as that the temptation for Ravhura as well as Tshivhase houses to convert autonomy into independence must have got been besides strong. The Singo rulers had tried to counterbalance the temptation past times favouring certainly houses that could non succeed to the supreme title, such every bit the Ndalamo as well as Mphaphuli.
Thohoyandou’s sons were Mandiwana, Munzhedzi, as well as Ratombo. Munzhedzi became the novel virile mortal monarch of Ha-Ramabulana as well as ruled from Tshirululuni. Mandiwana settled inwards the Nzhelele valley, spell Ratombo settled at Ha-Ratombo inwards the Luvuvhu valley. Both Mandiwana as well as Ratombo paid tribute to their brother, Munzhedzi. Raluswielo, Thohoyandou’s brother, also known every bit Tshivhasa Midiyavhathu, established a dynasty known every bit Ha-Tshivhasa. It is non clear when the Mphaphuli theater split from the Tshivhase house. It is, however, of import to advert that the Mphaphulis dispute that they were i time ruled past times the Tshivhases, spell the Tshivhases insist that the Mphaphulis used to herd their cattle.
Ravhura established his dynasty inwards the Mutale valley with its base of operations at Makonde. It is, however, non clear whether the Vhandalamo of Ha-Tshikundamalema as well as Vhalembethu of Ha-Mutele as well as Thulamela were nether Ravhura. Today Makonde is portion of Ha-Tshivhasa.
The Tshivhase dynasty, which has dominated the eastern department of the Venda territory. After the decease of his older blood brother Thohoyandou, Tshivhase declared himself independent. He became a wealthy as well as powerful primary as well as was succeeded past times his son, Mukesi Tshivhase. Stayt (1968:16) contends that Mukesi’s reign was marked past times frequent skirmishes with his neighbours, especially Chief Mphaphuli, an independent primary living unopen to him. When Mukesi died, he was succeeded past times his boy Legegisa, who moved his upper-case missive of the alphabet from Miluwani to Mukumbani - the nowadays Tshivhase capital. His son, Ramaremisa Tshivhase succeeded him as well as was inwards turn succeeded past times Ratshimphi Tshivhase (circa 1931).
Ratshimphi was a powerful as well as wealthy primary who is, until the present, a legendary figure amidst the Tshivhase people. Local accounts take hold that he resisted Boer encroachment into his territory so resolutely that it cost him his life. Some people maintain that during his reign Ratshimphi joined the Communist Party inwards the 1930s, as well as was arrested past times the province for fearfulness that he would turn his chiefdom into a communist stronghold. He was incarcerated inwards Pretoria where he died inwards 1946 as well as was succeeded past times Thohoyandou Tshivhase, the virile mortal parent of the nowadays chief, Kennedy Tshivhase.
Modern local authorities began inwards Venda inwards 1913, when the authorities of the Union of South Africa demarcated specific territories every bit ‘reserves’ for dark people. The Native Affairs Act, 23 of 1920 provided for the institution of local councils as well as a Native Commission to advise the South African authorities on issues that affected dark people. The most important legislation was the Bantu Authorities Act 68 of 1951, which provided for the creation of ‘tribal’, regional as well as territorial authorities. As a outcome of this Act, 25 tribal authorities, iii regional authorities as well as i territorial say-so were established inwards the Venda expanse (BERCD 1979:41).
Phiphidi Waterfalls: Phiphidi village, Ha-Tshivhasa
Given its obsession with ethnic difference, the apartheid authorities emphasised that each ethnic grouping or people was endowed with the inalienable right to go self-governing inwards its ain territory as well as to grade out the path of its ain historical destiny. In the lite of this ideology, the Venda were recognised non only every bit distinct from non-Venda, but also every bit a single people, or ‘volk’, which should commence the physical care for of becoming an entity with its ain territorial state. This led to the formation of the Thohoyandou Territorial Authority inwards 1962 headed past times Chief Patrick Mphephu. According to this development, 2 or to a greater extent than members represented each of the 25 tribal authorities inwards a regional authority, i of whom was the primary or headman. The regional authorities were represented inwards the Territorial Authority past times their chairmen as well as other members depending on population size as well as the number of taxpayers (BERCD 1979:42).
After the issuing of annunciation R.168 of 20 June 1969, the Thohoyandou Territorial Authority became known every bit the Venda Territorial Authority. This led to several changes inwards the shape of representation. Each tribal say-so was represented at the Territorial Authority past times its primary or chairman as well as some other member, elected past times the tribal say-so from amidst its councillors. The Territorial Authority was also granted to a greater extent than powers to conduct its ain affairs with less direct command from the South African government. This evolution was farther strengthened inwards June 1971 when the Black US Constitution Act No. 21 was passed. This Act provided for the creation of so-called Legislative Assemblies, i of which was constituted inwards Venda inwards Feb 1973, thereby making Venda a ‘self-governing territory’. The legislative assembly was made upward of lx members, 42 of whom had to live traditional leaders. The remaining xviii were elected past times the residents of Venda every bit good every bit Venda citizens who were resident exterior Venda territory. Eventually inwards 1979 Venda received ‘independence’ from the Republic of South Africa but the international community refused to recognise this novel status (BERCD 1979:42).
Of the 25 tribal authorities that create upward Venda, Tshivhase is the most populated as well as largest inwards the world area. This notwithstanding, at that spot is an on-going disputation amidst the 25 tribal authorities (each of which constitutes a separate chiefdom), especially betwixt the Mphephu as well as Tshivhase chiefdoms, which are, inwards genealogical terms, the ‘senior’ Venda chiefdoms. Although the Tshivhase silent engage inwards some grade of rivalry with the neighbouring Mphaphuli chiefdom, the human relationship betwixt the 2 is less contentious that that betwixt Tshivhase as well as Mphephu.
One of the reasons for this rivalry is that the Tshivase perceive the Mphephu every bit having been to a greater extent than accommodating to the colonisers than they were. This is a referenceboth to the Mphephu role inwards the wars
against the Boers betwixt 1867 as well as 1899 as well as to their collaboration with the apartheid regime. The Tshivhase also perceive the Mphephu grouping every bit to a greater extent than ‘acculturated’ owing to their geographical proximity to the white settlements of Louis Trichardt as well as Schoemansdal. In particular the Tshivhase resent the fact that Patrick Mphephu lorded it over their chiefdom inwards his endeavour to revive the Venda kingdom during the homeland period. The finally factor should live taken into business organisation human relationship inwards monastic say to sympathise electrical flow chiefdom politics inwards Venda. The Tshivhase maintain to consider themselves every bit the ‘embodiment’ of the fighting spirit of the Venda every bit expressed inwards their call - Tshivhase, pregnant ‘one who burned as well as conquered the houses of the others’. The relative wealth as well as prestige of the Tshivhase chiefs also contributed significantly to this perception that the Tshivhase were the most powerful Venda chiefs. To add together to this catalogue is the claim that the granddad of the nowadays primary was a staunch fellow member of the Communist Party as well as had personally known Nelson Mandela inwards the 1940s prior to his decease every bit a captive of the state. The Tshivhase thence claim a legacy of association with resistance as well as liberation, although some historians have got disputed this.
It is likely that the main obstruction to Mphephu’s dream of extending his hegemony beyond his chiefdom was the reputation as well as powerfulness of the Tshivhase chiefs. It is thence likely that the abrupt decease of Chief Thohoyandou Tshivhase inwards 1966 played inwards Mphephu’s favour. Although Kennedy Tshivhase was installed inwards 1970 every bit heir to the throne of the Tshivhase, his uncle, John Tshivhase was set inwards seat every bit regent until it was deemed appropriate for Kennedy Tshivhase to assume effective office.
In 1979 Venda became a so-called independent province as well as was known every bit the Republic of Venda. Thovhele Ramaano Patrick Mphephu Ramabulana was elected the foremost president of the Republic of Venda. This Banana Republic was, however, only recognised past times its creators, apartheid South Africa, as well as beau banana republics: Transkei, Bophuthatswana as well as Ciskei.
Between 1970 as well as 1990, Kennedy Tshivhase stayed with his woman parent as well as attended schoolhouse inwards Polokwane (formerly Pietersburg). While he was away from the chiefdom, major developments took seat that changed the landscape of politics inwards Venda. The most of import of these was the independence of Venda inwards 1979 nether the leadership of Chief Patrick Mphephu. Mphephu was a shrewd politico who collaborated closely with the apartheid regime inwards Pretoria. His Venda National Party (VNP) dominated the political scene inwards Venda, leaving the Venda Independence People’s Party (VIPP) inwards permanent opposition. During the 1980s, Patrick Mphephu co-opted almost all the major chiefs inwards the other dynasties including John Tshivhase, the Regent of the Tshivhase chiefdom. Chief Mphephu declared himself president for life of the Republic of Venda. It was popularly believed that he also nursed the ambition of reuniting the entire Venda territory every bit a kingdom nether his leadership. But he favoured the recruitment of his Mphephu subjects into the civil service as well as it was rumoured that people from other chiefdoms, especially the Tshivhase, were discriminated against. But such discrimination was concealed past times the co-optation of influential members of the Tshivhase majestic household unit of measurement into his government. One of themwas Kennedy Tshivhase’s uncle, A. A. Tshivhase, who was appointed to a key ministerial post service inwards Mphephu’s government. A. A. Tshivhase had opposed Kennedy’s selection every bit heir to the throne of Tshivhase. By virtue of his influential post service inwards the government, he became the dominant political figure inwards the Tshivhase family, choosing which direction the household unit of measurement was to follow. During election periods, the Tshivhase Tribal Authority, headed past times John Tshivhase, used to elbow grease for the VNP. Following his decease inwards 1989, Patrick Mphephu was succeeded every bit President of Venda past times Khosi Nndwakhulu Frank Ravele of Mauluma, a unopen kinsman as well as ally.
Ravele took over powerfulness at a fourth dimension when at that spot was increasing demand for an cease to apartheid dominion as well as the abandonment of the homelands. The rising of civic associations inwards villages, advocating an cease to the dwelling theater the world system, had enormous impact on the stability of the authorities inwards Venda. In 1989 - 1990 witchcraft accusations as well as murders became the monastic say of the twenty-four hours inwards Venda, as well as Ravele’s failure to quell the murders or maintain peace triggered a full general feel of anger. Furthermore, his failure to pay civil servants as well as his poor direction of the province led to a military machine coup inwards 1990, led past times Brigadier Gabriel Ramushwana.
In the early on 1990s, the Tshivhase Royal Council was divided into 2 camps: those who supported Kennedy’s right to the throne as well as those who ardently opposed it. The influence of the notorious A. A. Tshivhase, the
Regent as well as his unopen allies embarked on a elbow grease to distort history, as well as nowadays Kennedy Tshivhase every bit an upstart who desired to usurp powerfulness from the elders through unorthodox means. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 important number of
headmen opposed Kennedy Tshivhase’s claim to the throne, especially those who owed their seat to the apartheid scheme as well as the Venda authorities inwards particular.
Meanwhile, although Kennedy Tshivhase did non publicly seat himself with the ANC, he was known amidst the youth as well as the civics every bit the legitimate heir to the throne as well as a comrade. Those who supported his homecoming made strenuous efforts to spread the notion that Kennedy was simply reclaiming what was rightfully his. A photograph of the 1970 installation was available to testify that at that spot had been no distortion of historical fact. When he eventually won the legal suit against his uncle as well as assumed business office inwards 1993, pop conjecture almost his political affiliation was confirmed. Both the military machine leader, Gabriel Ramushwana as well as the ANC stalwart,
Walter Sisulu were conspicuously nowadays at his installation inwards Mukumbani. Sisulu was given an chance to address the people. By 1993 it became clear that Chief Kennedy Tshivhase was an ANC fellow member who had played his cards cleverly inwards the1980s.
Contrary to expectations that he would seek to depose the headmen who had opposed his struggle for the throne, he called instead for peace as well as unity amidst the Tshivhase people. He also appealed to the divided Royal Council to bury the hatchet as well as unite to build a strong chiefdom.
Kennedy Tshivhase also extended a manus of reconciliation to the Mphephu dynasty. Kennedy Tshivhase was quite friendly with Dimbanyika Mphephu, Patrick’s successor every bit chief. This did non halt him launching a legal suit to reclaim a number of Tshivhase villages that had been incorporated into the Mphephu territory during Patrick Mpephu’s presidency. When Dimbanyika Mphephu died inwards a motorcar accident inwards 1998, Chief Tshivhase participated actively at the funeral as well as delivered a speech. He disapproved of Dimbanyika’s successor, however, as well as this has strained relations betwixt the 2 major Venda dynasties i time more.
Towns as well as major centres found inwards Venda include Makhado (former Louis Trichardt), ElimMpheni, Vuwani, Dzanani (Tshituni), Musina, Tshipise, Thohoyandou, Shayandima, Sibasa, Masisi, Tshikondeni, as well as Tshilamba.
Beautiful Venda girl
Economy
Venda's economic scheme is reportedly dependent on agriculture as well as forestry but the bulk of the people, 70 per cent, piece of work within South Africa. Most households inwards the villages maintain gardens during the summertime months to grow the staple crop, maize. Other crops include pumpkins, sweetness potatoes, groundnuts, sorghum, as well as finger millet, with the latter 2 grains oft used to create beer.
Vegetable gourds (marankas) are grown for utilization every bit containers, scoops, or spoons. Communal land, which is held inwards trust past times chiefs as well as headmen, may live used for summertime crop production if permission is given. After the foremost as well as subsequent rains, women gather the novel leaves as well as flowers of certainly plants to live used every bit a vegetable relish (maroho). There are fruit trees inwards most gardens; the most commonly grown fruits are mangoes, papayas, avocados, bananas, as well as plantains. The Venda may have got been primarily herders inwards the past. During the 20th century their cattle holdings—especially the herds of their chiefs—increased from a few to an appreciable number; they also maintain goats, sheep, pigs, as well as fowl. Venda also has rich deposits of coal, fertile soils as well as plenty of rainfall. Cattle ranching as well as production of sub-tropical fruit are reported to live areas of high economical potential.
Commercial Activities. Commercial irrigation farms have got developed on a little to medium scale along many of the rivers; on those farms, vegetables are grown as well as orchards of mangoes, avocados, litchis, as well as citrus flourish. Tea is good suited to the climate as well as soils of the eastern mist belt of the Soutpansberg Mountains, as well as exactly about 2,200,000 pounds (1 1000000 kilograms) of tea is produced annually for blending with imported Ceylon teas. Informal markets be inwards the main towns as well as along the major roads where women sell fruit as well as vegetables that are produced inwards Venda or come upward from the neighboring Levubu commercial farms. Animal husbandry was traditionally limited but is on the increase, with many majestic families edifice upward large herds of cattle as well as goats.
Tourism is becoming a major currency earner, as well as the unique civilization of the Venda as well as the beautiful scenery are attracting many overseas visitors. The early on Zimbabwe-style stone-walled archaeological sites are peculiarly pop with tourists.
Industrial Arts
Woodcarving, traditional pottery, baskets, as well as beadwork are the main Venda handicrafts as well as are sold locally to tourists or sent to the major cities inwards South Africa, where at that spot are large markets for these items.
Venda art
Mat weaving past times manus using traditional motifs is commercially practiced. The traditional brightly colored vesture of Venda women has go a dwelling theater manufacture inwards many villages.
Venda Pottery work
Division of Labor
As a full general rule, women piece of work with clay as well as soil as well as men piece of work with animals as well as wood, but at that spot are exceptions, such every bit women collecting firewood every bit portion of their domestic duties. Hand hoeing of the world inwards grooming for planting as well as keeping the the world clear of weeds are the piece of work of women, but inwards commercial operations the mechanical grooming of the world past times agency of cattle-drawn plows or tractors is a man's job, every bit is crop spraying.
Land Tenure
All the world is communal nether the trusteeship of the chief, who allocates the utilization of the world inwards the interests of his community. The fact that these chiefs do non have got championship deeds to the the world that they traditionally claim has led the authorities to province that such communal the world is state-owned as well as that the province demand non pay royalties to the primary as well as his community for using resources on communal property.
Kinship
Kin Groups as well as Descent. Descent is unilineal through the virile mortal line, with i complicated as well as rare exception: In cases where a adult woman has married a married adult woman or wives as well as children are born (fathered past times the spouse's hubby or other men she has allowed to slumber with her wives), technically, descent is on the woman mortal side. However, inwards practise the spouse is metaphorically seen every bit the "husband" because she married the wives as well as thus is addressed every bit "father" past times the children; descent thence is silent on the "male" side.
Venda kids
Marriage as well as Family
Venda groom as well as his bride
Marriage
Cross-cousin marriages are preferred but non compulsory, as well as a immature man's selection of a married adult woman may differ from that of his parents. If a immature lady vehemently dislikes the adult man to whom she is betrothed, dependent to the consent of the man, the betrothal may live broken as well as other arrangements made. Bargaining, usually through a 3rd person, almost the bride-price as well as spousal human relationship arrangements tin take a long time.
With to a greater extent than immature persons moving to the major industrial towns as well as cities, traditional spousal human relationship practices are diminishing, with immature men as well as women marrying for love. Cross-cultural marriages have got go to a greater extent than common.
Beautiful Venda lady
Polygyny is practiced; the number of wives depends on the wealth as well as status of the husband. The higher a man's traditional status is, the to a greater extent than wives he tin marry. Chiefs as well as headmen to a greater extent than often than non are wealthier than commoners, as well as for them caring for multiple wives is seldom a problem, with headmen having upward to 6 wives as well as chiefs beingness entitled to many more. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 wealthy commoner may conjoin to a greater extent than than i wife, every bit tends to occur with businessmen. Men past times the historic period of time of 50 oft take a immature adult woman every bit a married adult woman to comport children as well as take aid of them inwards their old age.
Venda women inwards their nuptials attire
An unusual shape of spousal human relationship occurs when a wealthy woman, unremarkably a headwoman, marries a married adult woman or wives. She usually is already married to a man. Her hubby or other chosen men may live the biological fathers of the children who are born, but metaphorically she is the "father" of those children. The children must address her every bit "father," spell her biological children telephone scream upward her their mother.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 novel married adult woman is expected to live with her mother-in-law, who teaches her almost her husband's likes as well as dislikes as well as his family. This continues until the nascence of the foremost child, when she moves into her ain theater unopen by. Marital residence thus is patrilocal.
Venda married women
Domestic Unit
A household has i married adult woman as well as her offspring, who part a single hearth as well as swallow together. In polygynous marriages each married adult woman is given her ain theater as well as courtyard, which is physically separate from those of the other wives. The hubby has his ain sleeping expanse (pfamo), which is usually next to the household of the senior wife, who keeps monastic say amidst the other wives. The husband's relatives to a greater extent than often than non live inwards the surrounding homesteads, as well as this scheme gives children access to their aunts as well as uncles.
Inheritance
Traditionally, all the world is communal, nether the trusteeship of the chief. However, every adult man has indisputable rights to the the world he occupies as well as uses. His sons are entitled to the utilization of his the world but may also enquire the local headman to allocate fresh portions of land. Movable property—livestock, household utensils, as well as the proceeds of agriculture as well as trade—passes to the oldest boy or, inwards the instance of a polygynous marriage, the oldest boy of the senior wife. This boy becomes the undisputed caput of the household unit of measurement unless he has disgraced himself inwards the eyes of the family, inwards which instance the boy next inwards line is appointed past times the deceased's oldest sis with the consent of his brothers.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman may possess property, unremarkably the surplus proceeds of her labors, as well as may dispose of it freely. Usually inwards the instance of her death, her youngest boy inherits. In a polygynous marriage, if the senior married adult woman does non have got a virile mortal heir, the oldest immature lady is recognized every bit the legal heir but may non go the caput of the family; that duty usually passes to her belatedly father's oldest surviving brother. An exception to this practise occurs when a adult woman marries wives as well as no virile mortal heir is born; as well as then the oldest immature lady becomes the caput of that family. Brothers may inherit the wives of a deceased man.
Beautiful Venda ladies from South Africa
Socialization
Infants as well as children are looked after past times their parents as well as grandparents every bit good every bit past times uncles as well as aunts who oft assume the duties of parents inwards loco. Children oft refer to these relatives every bit their virile mortal parent as well as mother. Children are introduced to responsibleness as well as grooming for their later on roles inwards life at an early on age, with boys beingness sent out to herd goats at almost the historic period of time of v as well as girls accompanying their mothers or aunts to collect H2O or firewood or caring for their infant brothers or sisters spell the woman parent is working on the land. There is ever sufficient fourth dimension for play after the allotted tasks are correctly done. Corporal penalisation is rare.
Sociopolitical Organization
Social Organization. Positions of traditional leadership are hereditary, passing unremarkably from the virile mortal parent to the oldest boy of the senior wife. At the decease of the father, it is the duty of his oldest sis (makhadzi) to innovate the heir to the household unit of measurement or advise a novel heir if that boy proves to live incapable. If the heir is besides immature to go the caput of the family, she fulfills that role every bit a regent.
Venda people
The makhadzi of a majestic household unit of measurement is oft i of the main advisers to her brother, the chief. She may human activity every bit a regent inwards his absence or after his death. Her participation inwards many of the traditional rituals is essential for the well-being as well as prosperity of the community. For many activities, the chief's younger blood brother or oldest surviving uncle may appear on his behalf.
Venda woman
Access to chiefs past times those who are non household unit of measurement members is unremarkably difficult, as well as persons with problems have got to piece of work their way through a hierarchy of counselors before beingness granted an audience with the chief. This is a remnant of the scheme used to guard divine leaders inwards the past.
Political Organization
After 1910 Venda was governed past times the key authorities of the Union of South Africa (later the Republic of South Africa) nether a scheme of commissioners until it received independence from the South African authorities inwards September 1979. Independence was rescinded inwards 1994, when all homelands as well as independent states created past times the apartheid authorities became portion of the democratically elected authorities of South Africa.
Venda is divided into thirty-two chieftaincies with different status levels, of which several are disputed, with these chieftaincies having been created inwards the past times for political expediency as well as the smoother running of an "independent" Venda. Traditionally, the status levels were paramount primary (khosikhulu), senior chiefs, petty chiefs, as well as headmen. During the dark liberation struggle as well as peculiarly since the belatedly 1980s, traditional leadership has been undermined past times resistance organizations, because traditional leaders were considered puppets of the white nationalist government. Civic organizations developed inwards many towns as well as villages as well as ruled through intimidation. In the early on twenty-first century a scheme of mutual tolerance is maintained betwixt Venda traditional leaders as well as civic organizations. Villages as well as towns have got been combined to shape local councils to bargain with issues relating to local government.
Social Control
In the past times persons involved inwards antisocial activities were taken to the courtroom of the headman for pocket-size infringements or to the courtroom of the primary for serious issues, where usually a fine would live imposed. The size of the fine depended on the seriousness of the transgression every bit good every bit the numbers of previous offences committed past times the accused. Witchcraft usually was punished past times death, as well as murder past times banishment or death. When the defendant was pronounced innocent, the plaintiff would live fined.
As the concepts of Roman-Dutch law became entrenched inwards Venda society, many issues were no longer taken to traditional courts but instead were reported to the police. Today a mortal defendant of a serious criminal offense is apprehended, imprisoned, brought to trial, as well as sentenced, usually with a term of imprisonment. Judicial courts are becoming to a greater extent than sympathetic toward mutual law, as well as judgments may live based on fundamental traditional norms as well as values rather than purely on Roman-Dutch law.
Venda women inwards their traditional outfit
Conflict
Although at that spot is evidence of internecine warfare inwards the past, physical conflict betwixt clans no longer occurs. However, people seen every bit opponents have got been killed nether the guise of ritual murder. Between 1820 as well as 1850 many raids past times BaPedi (Sotho), Swazi, as well as Zulu marauders took place. The coming of the foremost white colonialists was met with resistance, including the burning of the foremost white town inwards the Soutpansberg part inwards 1867. Further clashes with traders as well as authorities administrators continued until exactly about 1900. Since 1994 many Vhavenda have got been dissatisfied with the activities of the predominantly Sotho authorities of the Northern Province, as well as periodically verbalize of creating a separate province occurs.
Religious Belief
Unlike many ethnic groups, the Venda race has mostly retained retained their original native organized religious belief as well as thrived on indigenous customs as well as traditions to Pb a unopen knit community life. The Venda people believe inwards a supreme or high God called RALUVHIMBA.The call is composed of the prefix Ra-, which is honorific as well as perhaps connected with the thought of 'Father'; luvhimba is the eagle, the plane that soars aloft. It symbolizes the groovy powerfulness which travels through the cosmos, using the heavenly phenomena every bit its instruments.
Venda Sangoma initiation sacrifice to Raluvhimba
'Raluvhimba is connected with the get-go of the world as well as is supposed to live somewhere inwards the heavens as well as to live connected with all astronomical as well as physical phenomena. . . . Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 shooting star is Raluvhimba traveling; his phonation is heard inwards the thunder; comets, lightning, meteors, earthquakes, prolonged drought, floods, pests, as well as epidemics- inwards fact, all the natural phenomena which touching on the people every bit a whole- are revelations of the groovy god. In thunderstorms he appears every bit a groovy sack close the chief's kraal, whence he booms his desires to the primary inwards a phonation of thunder; this sack ever disappears before whatever mortal tin gain it. At these visitations the primary enters the hut and, addressing Raluvhimba every bit Makhalu [Grandfather], converses with him, the phonation of god replying either from the thatch of the hut or from a tree nearby; Raluvhimba as well as then passes on inwards farther clap of thunder. Occasionally he is angry with the primary as well as takes revenge on the people past times sending them a drought or a flood, or perchance past times opening an enormous cage inwards the heavens as well as letting loose a swarm of locusts on the land.' (H.A. Stayt, The Bavenda, Oxford, 1931, p.236)
Raluvhimba, it is said, was wont to manifest himself past times appearing from fourth dimension to fourth dimension every bit a groovy flame on a platform of stone to a higher seat a certainly cave. With the flame at that spot came a audio every bit of clanking irons on hearing which the people shouted with joy as well as their cries passed on throughout the country. The Chief mounted to the platform where he called upon Raluvhimba, thanked him for revealing himself as well as prayed on behalf of his people for rain, felicity as well as peace.
He is at times greeted spontaneously past times the whole people inwards a way that is most unusual amongst the southern Bantu. The Rev. G. Westphal of the Berlin Mission relates that inwards 1917 a shooting star flare-up inwards the middle of the twenty-four hours making a unusual humming audio followed past times a thunder-like crash. This portent was greeted past times the people, non with terror but with cries of joy. Another Missionary, the Rev. McDonald, tells how after a slight tremor of the basis the was an extraordinary clamour amidst the people, the lululuing of women, clapping of hands as well as shouting 'The whole tribe was greeting Raluvhimba who was passing through the country.' People say that during an earthquake they listen a dissonance inwards the sky similar to thunder. Then they clap their hands to welcome the mysterious god as well as pray: 'Give us rain! Give us health.'
Dr H.A. Junod says that Raluvhimba is regarded every bit the maker as well as sometime of everything as well as every bit the rain-giver. If pelting is scarce as well as starvation threatens, people complain: 'Raluvhimba wants to destroy us,' they say the same if floods spoil their fields. Prayers as well as sacrifices are offered inwards times of drought. There is some notion of Raluvhimba every bit Providence. He takes aid no only of the tribe every bit a whole but of private members. When a adult man has narrowly escaped drowning he volition say: 'I have got been salve past times Raluvhimba, Mudzimu.'
Raluvhimba is identified with Mwari (or Nwali) whose earthly abode (like Yahwe's on Mount Sinai) is inwards the Matopo Hills of Southern Rhodesia. Every twelvemonth the Venda used to send a special messenger (whose business office was hereditary) with a dark ox as well as a slice of dark cloth every bit an offering to Mwari. The dark ox was laid gratis inwards the wood to bring together the god's large herd which had accumulated there.
They also believe zwidutwane, (water spirits), which live at the bottom of waterfalls. These beings are only half-visible; they have got only i eye, i leg, as well as i arm. One one-half tin live seen inwards this world as well as the other one-half inwards the spirit world. The Venda would take offerings of nutrient to them because the zwidutwane cannot grow things underwater.
For the average person, skillful or sick fortune, including sickness, often is controlled past times his or her immediate ancestors. When at that spot is problem or an unexplained decease inwards the family, a diviner (mungome) is consulted, the magical divining die are thrown, as well as a prognosis is made. In many cases the interpretation volition live that i of the ancestors must live appeased, usually through the ritual sacrifice of a dark caprine animal for commoners or a sheep for royals at the grave of the troublesome ancestor.
Beautiful Venda Sangoma dress
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 mungome uses an intricately carved wooden divining bowl (ndilo) to regain witches. Belief inwards witchcraft is really prevalent fifty-fifty amidst the educated, as well as although the killing of witches is considered murder, it occurs regularly. When the diviner is unsuccessful, a witch MD (nanga) is consulted. Such witch doctors are thought to have got magical powers inwards add-on to divining skills as well as tin seat spells on people, who believe that they tin boot the bucket unless they are cleansed past times the nanga who cast the original spell.
Ceremonies
Ceremonies usually are accompanied past times chanting, singing, music, as well as dancing. Rites of passage are important, peculiarly the passage from childhood into adulthood. They are conducted every bit a serial of initiation ceremonies at the historic period of time of puberty for boys as well as girls. Such ceremonies are separate, except for the finally one, the domba, inwards which the sexes come upward together for certainly rituals. Births, marriages, as well as funerals are ceremonial occasions involving families, but at that spot also are ceremonies to ensure the fertility of the land, skillful harvests, skillful rains, as well as the well-being of Vhavenda society. The woman mortal initiation as well as rite of passage has similar cultural pregnant to musevhetho as well as murundu within the Vha-Venda culture. Murundu is circumcision rites for boys. In some other areas it is called mula/hogo. The Vha-Venda people reported that this ceremony is attended past times ordinary people non members of the majestic family. It is said that the foremost mortal to live admitted is the boy of the traditional MD inwards accuse of it. The ground why members of the majestic household unit of measurement do non attend is because it is seen every bit having the Vhalemba origin.
Boys Initiation: The Thondo - Morundu Initiation School:
Two distinctly different initiation schools existed inwards Venda. The Thondo is the older of the two, which each Venda man child should laissez passer on through to accomplish manhood. Elaborate ritual governed the setting up, edifice as well as maintenance of the school, nether the dictates of a traditional healer. It was a highly clandestine schoolhouse where boys were trained inwards the self discipline, endurance, manners as well as tribal etiquette.
Venda man child initiates
Venda boys were circumcised at the Murundu or Morundu initiation school. The murundu circumcision is considered to live preparatory stage for boys to manhood as well as perceived every bit a preventative mensurate against sexually transmitted diseases. Murundu is hosted during wintertime inwards the bush far from the village. Milubi, (2000), states that boys at murunduni are taught certainly behavioural expectations that the guild volition have got on them every bit adult men. It is said that after boys have got been circumcised, the elders tell them that they have got sharpened the “spear” (spear refers to circumcised penis) as well as with the pike they would live able to strike the “thulo”/girl. This agency that such a man child has permission to have got sexual intercourse. This is understood every bit a way of preparing initiates for the future.
Vhahwira - Muwhira: Circumcision as well as vhahwira costumes were introduced past times the North Sotho, which include the Ba Roka as well as Lobedu.
ex / Potcheftroom - J. Witt Collection A. M. Duggan-Cronin - Circa 1928
The photograph to the to a higher seat right was taken past times Duggan-Cronin. He wrote: These Vhahwira are inwards the Thondo school, which is a continuation of the Morundu or circumcision school. Their really effective disguise is composed of a serial of grass mats wrapped circular them. One is carrying a typical old-fashioned Venda battle-axe.The costume to the left represents the same supernatural Vhahwira, who is known every bit the recruiter. Deaf as well as dumb, he communicates past times whistling as well as swishing a wand. The grapheme is made upward of reeds as well as trunk parts of hawks, owls as well as hammerhead birds. It was collected inwards the Sekororo Area past times J. Witt during the early on 1960's. Later it became the belongings of the Potchefstroom University Collection. Few examples are known, every bit these were often burned at the cease of Thondo.
Musevhetho
Musevhetho is the initiation rite for girls that initiates a immature lady from a infant to the stage of puberty (i.e., before the immature lady starts menstruating) (Milubi, 2000). This rite is referred to every bit “u kwevha”, it involves elongation of the girls’ labia minora, which is sometimes called sungwi, as well as said to live equivalent to the murundu. Musevhetho initiation comes from the Bapedi tribe wherein the immature lady should perform the exercise of labia minora. The role of this initiation schoolhouse amidst the Tsonga or Shangaan, according to Xitlhabana, cited inwards Milubi (2000), is referred to every bit “mileve” (i.e. sexual appetizer). This is said to harness men into a fulfilling relationship.
Domba initiate dance
Women who have got elongated labia minora are perceived as well as perceive themselves every bit having attained a higher flat than those who have got not. They perceive themselves every bit having an payoff of acquiring spousal human relationship as well as tin sexually satisfy men improve than those who have got non elongated. Thus, those who have got non elongated are ever ridiculed past times those who have got elongated past times calling them names such every bit shuvhuru, master-mistress as well as also through the usage of generic terminology (Milubi, 2000).
According to Stayt (1968), musevhetho has been introduced into Vha-Venda past times the neighbouring Basotho, where it is called ‘mula’. The musevhetho is really pop amidst a little department of the people; peculiarly where vhusha or circumcision has the strongest influence inwards educating immature girls as well as boys regarding the culture. Musevhetho is believed to play an of import role inwards reducing early on sexual engagement amongst immature girls as well as boys (informant). For example, girls who are non virgins are ostracized at ‘musevhetho’ initiation school. The practise is believed to encourage girls to abstain from sexual activity as well as discourage girls non to lose their virginity before marriage. At these schools, girls’ virginity status is checked past times the older women (vhomazwale). Musevhetho is believed to play an of import role inwards preventing unplanned teenage pregnancies.
South Africa, Venda, June 2001. Young "maidens" take portion inwards the Domba dance. The domba is portion of an initiation process, some already have got children though traditionally they are meant to live virgins
The most of import portion of the proceedings is the operation, which all the initiates must undergo. It is said past times Vha-Venda people that children of all ages must attend as well as quite immature children are brought to the ceremony past times their mothers. The functions are held inwards a little hut exterior the hamlet known every bit ‘nonyana’, which is the spirit of the ‘musevhetho’. The boys are sent all exactly about as well as trip the lite fantastic to perform antics for the entertainment of the people. This is a fascinating event, because these boys never speak to whatever person, but ship on all communications betwixt each other as well as non with those who did non graduate from the
ceremony (Stayt, 1968).
Venda girl. Circa 1928
According to Stayt (1968), the girls often attend at nonyana’s hut for a twenty-four hours as well as a night. They volition consider the spirit as well as live returned to their homes until they are considered to live plenty initiates to warrant the operation. On the appointed day, they are taken to a secluded seat on the river bank, where an old adult woman performs the functioning of cutting the clitoris. At the same time, the girls are branded with a grade on the exterior of the thigh. The create is similar 2 inverted U’s joined together or sometimes it may live 2 circular dots. The create is seen every bit a password for the initiate to have got access to attend when these ceremonies are taking place. Without beingness questioned if a mortal qualifies for entry, the create serves every bit a proof for the owner that she has undergone the operation.
Venda initiates
Hali, Sangiwi (female circumcision)
The circumcision rite for girls is called past times the Vha-Venda people every bit “Hali,Sungwi.” Female genital mutilation may live inwards the shape of surgical removal of the clitoris called clitoridectomy. The procedures were i time commonly referred to every bit woman mortal circumcision (FC) as well as are said to live at nowadays dominant throughout the international community.
After the circumcision ceremonies at the river, the girls should proceed to the kraal of the headman who has sanctioned the proceedings. Hence, the girls are given permission to socialise with the boys who went through murundu. The feast begins where dancing as well as singing; with beer drinking; feasting as well as sexual licence continues for a fortnight. After the festival, the girls are taken to the river banking company as well as smothered with fatty as well as red-ochre, as well as brought i time again to the kraal for a few days to rest, but later on homecoming to the river where they are
washed, except the brand. The initiates mentoring the initiands would accompany the girls to their respective homes where the celebration continues (Stayt, 1968). The senior elders are elders who stand upward for tradition as well as wisdom of the past times as well as their role is to learn as well as prepare the initiates (responsible for the initiation ritual).
Stayt (1968), states that the Vha-Venda transitional period of time supplements the teachings of the “vhutambo” “vhutuka as well as the vhusha for socializing girls as well as women. It is said that those who have got taken portion are total members of the tribe as well as are fully prepared for immediate marriage. However, the finally human activity of these ceremonies is identical. All cease with the washing at the river, combined with the cutting of pilus as well as fresh adornment of the body. In this way, it is perceived every bit a graduation of the severance betwixt the old status as well as the novel status.
Girls Initiation – “There are iii phases of initiation for Venda girls; Vhusha,
Tshikanda, as well as the Domba.
Circa 1949 Domba initiation school. - Barbara Tyrrell / Peter Jurgens
(Jeannerat, 1997).
Vhusha was attended every bit presently every bit possible after a girl’s foremost menses as well as and then Tshikanda as well as Domba shortly before they were married. It could live held several times a twelvemonth inwards the head-quarters of whatever district headman, but Tshikanda as well as Domba were held only at intervals of iii to v years at the head-quarters of chiefs as well as certainly senior headman as well as for girls of several districts. At Vhusha, girls were introduced to the clandestine milayo laws, meant to prepare them for their futurity roles every bit wives as well as mothers.”
Tshikanda: According to Stayt (1931) as well as Van Warmelo (1932), tshikanda is portion of the domba premarital initiation schoolhouse for boys as well as girls, which takes seat shortly before domba. The ceremony lasts for i nighttime at the get-go of domba. The ceremony is performed to render the girls of the ruling families the chance to larn certainly songs as well as dances.Considerable fourth dimension was spent practicing ndayo exercises.
Ndayo is a dance, but to a greater extent than of a physical exercise, at that spot to create the girls endure as well as honour the old ones. The movements reinforce the pattern of seniority. Dances are also employed inwards the handling of people with certainly conditions such every bit demon possession. This trip the lite fantastic usually takes seat inwards the courtyard of the king, who often supplies the musical instruments. During the initiation, the girls pass the whole calendar week with "luvhundi” all over their bodies as well as do non wash, fifty-fifty when they eat.
Domba: The domba is a pre-marital initiation. The preparations are made past times the families for the girls to live ready as well as to prepare what is necessary to attend the ceremony. Entrance fee is paid before the girl’s admission.
The Vha-Venda people believe that the ceremony has deep meanings, as well as it is non possible to witness what is happening within (teaching, ritual performance as well as bath) since it is a clandestine ceremony.
Historically, girls used to remain with the primary for the entire duration of the initiation school, which ranged betwixt 3 months to 3 years. Nowadays girls only pass weekends at the ruler’s kraal, due to schooling.
The Vha-Venda people believe that “domba” opens the door to total participation inwards the society. Seniority of historic period of time is an of import regulation amongst the Vha-Venda social organization, as well as every bit women grow older they go to a greater extent than powerful, respected as well as play a leading role inwards rituals as well as ceremonies, as well as are given a status as, “mme a domba” (the woman parent of the ceremony). Many people are of the sentiment that domba should live ‘set up’ during the fourth dimension of reaping, when at that spot is an economical surplus, as well as maintain until the planting flavor of the next year, but others insisted that it should live both ‘set up’ as well as ‘burnt’ at a fourth dimension when the maize is get-go to sprout (Young ,1965).
Circa 1949 Domba initiation school. - Barbara Tyrrell / Peter Jurgens
Domba Dance
The groovy Domba trip the lite fantastic is regularly held inwards the evenings, from dusk to dawn, exactly about a ritual fire. Girls shape a long chain as well as displace inwards a clockwise direction.
The trip the lite fantastic symbolized the mystical human activity of sexual communion, conception, the growth of the fetus as well as kid birth. The successive performances of the trip the lite fantastic during the months the schoolhouse was inwards progress symbolized the edifice of the fetus.
The girls began to trip the lite fantastic with a monotonous response to the Pb singer; as well as then they brake into the ecstatic tivha khulo trend of vocal hocketting.
At the cease of the trip the lite fantastic the girls stopped moving as well as would lean over inwards respect.
They lay downward inwards fetal positions every bit one
Barbara Tyrrell wrote inwards Tribal Peoples: Traditionally they danced nude, but today their clothes is the shedu cloth, passed betwixt the legs forming an apron flap inwards front end as well as a panel at the back. The girls get together inwards the python line, unopen together, dorsum into the next front end as well as hands gripping the preceding elbows. The chief's immature lady leads, her arms gratis as well as weaving against the nighttime prevarication the heads of 2 serpents.
Many metallic bracelets as well as anklets glint every bit the domba line shuffles forward, inwards slow, rocking movement, to a drowsy tempo as well as the line of arms ripples upward as well as down, similar the python fertility god whom they revere as well as represent. All dancing is accompanied past times chanting, some inwards the shape of inquiry as well as answer. High pitched voices reply to the booming phonation of their teacher, a adult man who today is clad inwards European clothes with perhaps a leopard peel cloak as well as feathers on his head. He capers on a wooden platform or runs along the line of dancer switching anyone who is out of fourth dimension or, with some other switch, driving away evil spirits.
Initiates lying down. Photographed past times Peter Jurgens
Arts
Itinerant musicians known every bit zwilombe locomote from hamlet to hamlet as well as tin live found where beer is available. Their songs comment on life inwards full general but oft are really critical of chiefs as well as politicians, often voicing what the people experience but are afraid to say aloud. These musicians are considered slightly insane as well as thence are protected from retribution. The instruments used are single-string bows with calabashes every bit resonators as well as the pollex piano.
Groups play a variety of drums, including the large ngoma drum with its throbbing bass sound; flutes made from special reeds that must live ritually cut; trumpets made from creature horns; stringed instruments; as well as rattles that usually are attached to the legs of dancers. The most unusual musical instrument is the large wooden xylophone (mbila).
Circa 1949. Xylophones were called mbila and are claimed to live the finest musical musical instrument of the Venda. They were made from wood, calabashes as well as flora fibre. The "keys" were 3 to 4 inches wide, made of diverse thicknesses as well as beautifully decorated with incised designs. Calabashes served every bit sounding boards as well as were attached inwards graduated sizes with flora fibre. Small apertures were closed past times sparse membranes.
Various rituals are particular to the Venda as well as certainly aspects are kept clandestine as well as non discussed with westerners, however, it is known that the python dance, conducted at the woman mortal coming of historic period of time ceremony (iconic to the Limpopo region) is usually where the primary chooses a wife. Girls as well as boys trip the lite fantastic fluidly, similar a snake, to the trounce of a drum, spell forming a chain past times holding the forearm of the mortal inwards front. Once a married adult woman has been chosen a laid of courtship as well as grooming rituals take seat over a number of days.
The python trip the lite fantastic of immature women during the domba is good known; the dancers displace i behind the other, with the hands resting on the hips of the immature lady inwards front, emulating the movements of a snake.
Tsikona dance: Most ceremonies are accompanied past times dancing. The tshikona is a majestic dance, each sovereign or primary has his ain tshikona band. Tshikona is played at diverse occasions for funerals, nuptials or religious ceremonies, this tin live considered every bit the Venda 'national music / dance', which is particular to Venda inwards South Africa.
The tshikona is also traditionally a virile mortal trip the lite fantastic inwards which each participant has a pipage made out of a special indigenous type of bamboo growing only inwards few places exactly about Sibasa as well as Thohoyandou (which no longer exists). Each participant has i complaint to play, which has to live played inwards turn, inwards such a way every bit to build a melody. Tshikona is oft performed to welcome of import visitors (including tourists) to villages.
Venda all virile mortal dance,Tsikona.
The tshigombela is a woman mortal trip the lite fantastic usually performed past times married women, this is a festive (winter months) trip the lite fantastic sometimes played at the same fourth dimension every bit the reed flute trip the lite fantastic of the men (tshikona). Tshifhasi is similar to tshigombela but performed past times immature single girls (khomba).
Venda Tsigombela dance
Phala-phala's were made from the horns of kudu or sable antelopes as well as used to telephone scream upward the people together for diverse gatherings. Each horn produced it's ain "note" as well as according to Duggan-Cronin, weird tunes were the result.
Venda drums are considered sacred as well as come upward inwards 2 forms. The smaller narrow illustration is held betwixt the legs. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 far larger circular shape usually has 4 elegantly carved handles where it is often attached to a pole or tree. Both types are called Ngoma, a generic call for drums over a large swath of Africa.
Venda drum.It was believed that the Singo virile mortal monarch could protect his people from assault past times their enemies past times beating a special drum called the Lungundo, "drum of the dead". According to legend, the audio of the drum would strike terror inwards the hearts of the enemy as well as they would flee.
Pottery utensils made past times women as well as wooden utensils carved past times men have got go curios for the tourist trade. This merchandise has led to men becoming sculptors, creating a variety of nontraditional sculptures for the lucrative overseas fine art market.
Pottery piece of work of Venda people
Medicine
Traditional medicines are made from a variety of plants whose leaves, bark, roots, as well as juice are used for that purpose. These materials are combined with creature fat, brains, entrails, or genitals. Exceptionally powerful medicine is made past times replacing the creature ingredients with ingredients from human beings. Herbalists piece of work only with plants, spell witch doctors utilization all of these ingredients. Modern clinics are found inwards most villages. When Western medicine does non render the desired results, people resort to traditional medicines.
Death as well as Afterlife
The traditional belief is that after decease a mortal enters the world of the spirits every bit long every bit he or she has undergone the initiation rites that create persons total members of adult society. The highest status after decease is that of an ancestor (when the deceased has had children), as well as it is usually the ancestor spirits of the mother's household unit of measurement that have got the greatest influence over the living. The spirit world to a greater extent than often than non is perceived every bit beingness below, nether the ground, inwards caves, or nether deep pools of H2O such every bit Lake Fundudzi, where certainly clans believe at that spot is a consummate hamlet nether the H2O where on a still, dark nighttime the household fires tin live seen as well as singing as well as dancing tin live heard every bit good every bit the sounds of cattle as well as sheep.
Venda adult woman holding beads
Venda Traditional Dress
Traditionally inwards the Venda culture, the Venda wore only vesture made of skins which were obtained past times hunting.
Post-initiate of Bomba wears "the feather" as well as her woman's backskirt. She stands respectfully, awaiting gifts. Circa 1948
The Vendas believe inwards the ancestors living with the living, so clothes that are believed to live sacred, stand upward for these ancestors. Around the cervix of a Venda lady, a serial of beads as well as amulets may live worn, often really old, each of which is associated with an ancestral spirit. These are passed downward through generations every bit sacred trust as well as to portion with i is to chance immediate retribution from the ancestral realm.
Circa 1928
Venda Culture: Infants
According to Venda culture, the infant has no specific attire as well as remains naked, but for a string of wild cotton, (ludede) which is tied exactly about its waist until the weaning stage when they are given the tshideka.
Venda infant girl`s dress
The tshideka is a basic garment, worn past times both sexes, as well as consists of a slice of foursquare cloth sewn on the Ludede to comprehend the private parts, notwithstanding the buttocks remain uncovered. Two squares tin live used, i for the front end as well as the other for the back. When an infant is immunized it is given the lukunda to live worn circular the wrist as well as talocrural articulation to protect them against evil spirits.
As the kid is weaned, clothes are used to differentiate sex, the man child puts on the Tsindi, as well as girls a Shedo.
Venda kids inwards traditional dress
Venda Culture: Male Dress
The tsindi is a triangular slice of soft peel roofing the front, passed betwixt the legs as well as tied at the dorsum as well as a virile mortal volition maintain to have on variations of this throughout his life.
Venda virile mortal dancers from Republic of Zimbabwe wearing traditional Venda dress
The primary traditionally wore an creature peel headband as well as a karos or sila over his shoulders.
Venda Culture: Female Dress
Girls start with a shedo, a little foursquare of cloth sewn onto a broad strip which hangs downward inwards front end every bit a little apron. When a immature lady develops breasts she wears a nwenda at the waist or exactly to a higher seat the breasts.
Meanings are attached to the embroidery done on the Nwenda. When a single line of embroidery is done, it is an indication that i is non yet engaged, spell those who are engaged have got a Minwenda with many lines of embroidery.
Venda women inwards their traditional dress
Around their ankles girls have on grass anklets, Mutate, before they are engaged; these are removed when she receives existent anklets from her betrothed.
Mapala beads are worn past times girls as well as immature women as well as advertise “I am silent immature as well as lovely exactly similar a bloom which attracts bees. I tin comport children for yous since I am silent fertile.”
The khomba is a immature lady at a marriageable age, she volition silent have on a shedo but at nowadays alone every bit an nether garment as well as wears the Nwenda tucked on the waist or to a higher seat the breast, unless she is performing her initiation rites. Vhukunda (anklets as well as bangles) is a sign of beingness engaged, hence the Venda saying: ‘Mmbwa ire na mune ivhonala nga tshiangaladzi’. Meaning ‘the domestic dog which has the master copy is known every bit such past times a cervix collar.’
The bathroom towel, Thaulo, is an of import garment of the Venda female. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 adult woman is said to live good dressed when she emphasizes her hips with a little towel. These days adult woman have on the towel when they attend the Tshisevhesevhe ceremonies. When a immature lady is engaged the hubby buys a towel for her to comprehend her confront with inwards instance she meets i of her betrothed.
Married ladies clothes inwards a dignified manner, thus demanding honor from the community. She wears the Tshirivha –which is made from the peel of sheep or caprine animal as well as is good decorated. The ears of the caprine animal are made upward into little studs as well as fastened at the shoulder portion of the peel on the decorated side, where they human activity every bit the eyes of the Tshirivha.
Venda women
Old women, past times kid bearing, have on a peel similar to the Tshirivha but made with caprine animal peel consummate with caput as well as neck. This garment Phale is stretched lengthwise instead of broad wise. This skin, when properly prepared, reaches nearly to the ankles.
Vavenda old women
Venda Culture: Status Clothes
In Venda culture, at that spot are some clothes that are worn only past times specific people indicating their status, rank or power.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bride of the king, headman or primary wears the Thau indicating her status of beingness married to the royals. When she confides, instead of wearing the tshirivha (goatskin) witch is worn past times commoners, she puts on the Gwana (sheep skin).Her accessories also differ from those of the commoners.
The traditional healers, who are most unopen to the gods, tin never perform their duties without putting on the Palu, which is a bluish cloth with many white or coloured spots as well as stripes as well as it is associated with ancestors. Accessories such every bit the beads Tsilu la Ndou are worn exactly about her neck; crossing over her thorax are white beads, Mpakato; on her arms, copper or brass bracelet Mulinga tin live seen as well as terra cotta beads of ancient root all announce the divine powers given to her past times the ancestors. It is felt that the ancestors volition non live able to communicate with her if she is non totally clad inwards this attire.
The Malombe (those possessed past times ancestral spirits) during the Malombo trip the lite fantastic also have on the Palu. Should it non live included the ancestors volition problem the Venda people. Palu stands for Nwali - "God himself”.
The Malombe dancers volition also have on the Matongo, pieces of cloth of different colours, which have got a meaning. Red stands for soil or God, blueish for the sky, which brings rain, dark stands for darkness or the dead as well as white for happiness.
Venda dress
Thahu were worn every bit adornment. It is suggested they were specifically at that spot to promote fertility. The article Musidzana wa Tshirova makes farther proposition that these phallic objects are the representation of a virile mortal genital organ as well as the tassels, semen, the latter most likely no to a greater extent than than the authors fantasy and/or fake discovery.
Venda women wore extraordinary beaded belts, snuff tins as well as blanket pins. Beaded tin panels were worn on the thorax as well as called "Khambana Ya Fola".
Bead colours chosen as well as beading techniques used resembled those of the Venda's North Sotho as well as Shangaan neighbours. However, on closer inspection details are easily identifiable to live Venda.
Venda Culture: Dance Groups:
Dancers have on a Tshithuza which is a beaded or crocheted skirt decorated at the hem past times tassels or pompoms. Around the calves they have on Thuzwu or Tshwayo. When the mutuzwu fruits are dry, the seeds are taken out as well as they are filled with trivial stones. As they perform Venda civilization dances they create a dissonance exactly similar a rattle, thus complementing the beat of the drum as well as the song.
Venda Proverbs
Proverbs are a combination of words to create a particular meaning. This pregnant tin seldom live guessed from one’s knowledge of the private words making upward the proverb(Underhill 1980:39). According to Dalfovo (1997:42), “Proverbs may live described every bit sayings originating from experience, beingness expressed inwards a pithy, fixed as well as metaphorical linguistic communication as well as conveying a message”. The pregnant developed inwards a saying differs from the literal pregnant of the words used. Learners of Tshivenḓa, as well as non-native speakers learning Tshivenḓa inwards particular, may notice it hard to translate proverbs if these are non explained to them. Although proverbs lack inwards transparency, they limited reality as well as thus reverberate reality inwards communities inwards which they are
spoken as well as are of import inwards documenting archaic words, i.e. words that are no longer inwards regular utilization but which may occur occasionally inwards particular contexts. Zgusta (1971:153) notes that the of import thing inwards this connector is that apart from other formal characteristics, nosotros oft notice that proverbs have got every bit their constituent parts obsolete words as well as expressions which are non used elsewhere. Proverbs also create a comment on the civilization of the linguistic communication community.
Proverbs are an of import aspect of communication inwards African societies. They are used inwards everyday conversations. Regarding this importance of proverbs, Mkunchu (1997:107) writes:
"Proverbs tin live used inwards formal or informal settings. Informal situations may live ordinary
day-to-day conversations to advise, rebuke as well as instruct. Proverbs tin also live used in
formal gatherings or special occasions. Such gatherings tin live a ceremony to grade the
cease of a period of time of mourning, a coming together called to polish over a disagreement/conflict, or
the payment of dowry as well as initiation rites."
Here are some Venda proverbs as well as their interpretations:
1. Prov. U anetshelwa ndi u dzimiwa “To live told is to live stinted”. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 study ever leaves something out; improve go as well as notice out yourself.
2. Prov: Musadzi wa muluki u hwala nga tshiteto “The basket-maker’s married adult woman has to ship her things inwards a worn-out winnow”. The tailor’s married adult woman goes inwards rags.
3. Prov: Dza musanda dzi ṱahula tshene “Royal cattle (don’t impairment crops, they merely) clitoris upward weeds”. Children & others from the chief’s seat tin do no wrong.
4. Prov: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 hu na muthu a faho a si na tsevhi “Nobody dies without having been warned past times someone”. One ever gets a hint of impending trouble. The difficulty lies inwards acting on it.
5. Prov: Hu ambuwa vhuṅanga; vhukololo a vhu ambuwi “The medicine-man who crosses a river [into unusual territory] takes his arts and crafts with him, but majestic rank cannot live taken abroad.” Away from dwelling theater high nascence does non count.
6. Prov: Hu ambuwa vhuṅanga; vhukololo a vhu ambuwi “Professional status crosses rivers but majestic descent does not,” i.e. a MD is silent a MD inwards a unusual the world but a prince who crosses the frontier becomes a nobody.
7. Prov: Mutsinda ndi khwine, shaka ndi bulayo “A non-relative is better; a relative is murder”. Relations create to a greater extent than problem than other people.
8. Prov: Mutsinda ndi khwine, shaka ndi bulayo “A stranger is improve than a relative; a kinsman may live the decease of one.”
9. Prov: Mukange a fa, vhana vha Mukange vha a fhalala “When Mr Republic of Guinea Fowl dies, his chicks scatter”, i.e. when a groovy adult man dies, his children as well as dependents disperse as well as the household is broken up.
10. Prov: Thakha ndi mulambo, a i lengi u fhalala “Wealth (property) is similar a river (in flood), it goes downward quickly.”
11. Prov: Zwivhuya a zwi ḓali, zwa ḓala zwi a fhalala “Good things are non common, as well as when they do appear they presently vanish again.”
12. Prov: Ḓuvha ḽa maḓumbu dzi lala na mavhoḓa adzo “When at that spot are storms the cows are allowed to have got their calves with them for the night”. Circumstances alter cases. Necessity knows no law.
13. Prov: Muḓinḓa ha huli, “A messenger never grows old.” He is silent sent on errands when old.
14. Prov: Munwe muthihi a u ṱusi mathuthu “One finger cannot take boiled mealies from the pot,” i.e. i should maintain skillful relations with others, since lone i is powerless.
Leshiba wilderness construction of venda people.
Musangwe: Venda Bare knuckle combat
In northern South Africa, men of the Venda tribe maintain the centuries-old tradition of musangwe, a shape of bare-knuckle boxing that helps immature men deal with present-day challenges.
Musangwe is Venda combat that is said to have got started inwards the belatedly 1800s. Musangwe has ever pitted villages such every bit Gaba, Tshifudi, Tshaulu, Ha-Lambani, as well as Tshidzini. There are no prizes awarded to the winners. The fighters fighting for personal pride as well as the bragging rights for their villages. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 fighter enters the band as well as holds his arm out with a clenched fist.
He circles the gathered men, waiting for someone to take him on. Soon some other adult man holds out his fist as well as the fighting is on.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 quiet falls over the spectators - all of them are men or boys, women are non allowed close the musangwe band - every bit the 2 opponents circle each other warily.
Musangwe has grown to live i of Limpopo's most watched cultural events. It is held annually everyday betwixt 16th Dec as well as 1st January. It is held at Tshifudi hamlet next to the cattle deep.
The basis where Musangwe takes seat is prepared with charms as well as herbs obtained from Maine (traditional healer). The grooming with herbs as well as charms is done past times the president of Musangwe. The ancestors are told that the Musangwe tournament is officially on. It is said that only i fighter has died inwards a Musangwe tournament since the tournament started inwards the belatedly 1800s. The unfortunate fighter died inwards 1929, as well as his spirit is summoned at the commencement of each tournament to protect all participants.
Sources:http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-02192004-141105/unrestricted/02chapter2.pdf
http://uzspace.uzulu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10530/595/NK?sequence=1
http://www.ezakwantu.com
The Makhadzi - Defenders of the Sacred Sites
Venda, inwards Limpopo Province, South Africa is famous for its biodiversity as well as cultural richness. Its sacred sites are watched over past times special custodians, the elderberry women of the community, known every bit Makhadzi. These women have got come upward to live known every bit the "rainmakers" of South Africa, due to the capacity of their cultural rituals to invite pelting to the area. For the people of Venda, practices such every bit these play a vital role inwards maintaining the wellness as well as integrity of their local ecosystems as well as of the wider community.
The Makhadzi are the matriarchal spiritual leaders of the community. The Venda people have got come upward to sympathise their the world through a philosophy called Mupo - pregnant all natural creation, all that is non man-made. Mupo refers to a groovy monastic say of things, of which human beings are exactly i little part. Mphatheleini Makhaulule of The Mupo Foundation explains "Mupo is a give-and-take that describes the root of creation, of all creation, of the Universe. When nosotros appear at Nature, it's Mupo."
Today, the traditions as well as practices of the Makhadzi are coming nether increasing threat every bit the sites within which they ship out their traditional practices - as well as have got done for hundreds of years - are at nowadays beingness brutalised past times construction projects. During 2007-2008 a route was built across a sacred stone as well as the river close to the Phiphidi Falls. Phiphidi Falls is i of the sacred sites where the Makhadzi ship out their rainmaking rituals as well as their celebrations exactly about the fertile, life giving qualities of seed. The sacred stone was broken upward inwards monastic say to create way for the road, as well as most recently, a serial of chalets for tourists have got been constructed beside the falls. The Makhadzi are deeply pained past times the devastation of their traditional territory as well as especially their sacred sites.
In lite of these increasing threats to the traditional Venda way of life, the Makhadzi as well as a number of members of the community came together to shape a community organisation. They named it Dzomo la Mupo or Voices from the Earth.
In 2009, inwards monastic say to assist rebuild the confidence of the community as well as their release energy to fighting for their rights as well as their sacred spaces, an eco-cultural mapping exercise was carried out with the Dzomo la Mupo. Makhadzi were joined past times representatives from across the Venda sacred sites network as well as past times indigenous groups from every bit far away every bit the Altai as well as Republic of Colombia - at that spot inwards solidarity having been through similar processes inwards their ain cultural contexts. The eco-cultural mapping physical care for was co-facilitated past times The Gaia Foundation as well as marked a important turning dot for the community. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 renewal of confidence as well as identity, the mapping physical care for restored the communities faith inwards the demand to stand upward up against the forces which threatened them.
Origin Stories as well as Burial Modes
Traditionalists amidst the Singo Venda believe that ever since the termination of the early on period of time they tin only access the supernatural through ritual as well as libations (Mudau 1940). Even though Singo traditionalists
believe inwards a definite intermission from the supernatural past, they consider the supernatural every bit keeping upward with the present; the sacred unremarkably intersects with the profane during annual ritual occasions (Blacking 1969). In terms of this underlying logic of cyclical sacred time, the final supernatural trial inwards fourth dimension would reflect the first (Figure 11.1a); many traditionalists amidst the Singo Venda believe inwards a millenarian fashion that Nwali would emerge from his mount birthplace to reestablish the Singo Empire when the world comes to an cease (Gottschling 1905; Stayt 1931).
Golden Rhino - Mapungubwe
Like traditionalists elsewhere, traditional Venda people maintain that the distant past times cannot live understood inwards terms of everyday processes that are known to operate inwards linear time.
Venda autonomy was terminated past times the get-go of the twentieth century with the military machine subjugation of the finally independent Singo ruler, primary Mpephu. Missionaries have got had diverse degrees of success inwards converting traditionalist Venda to Christianity (Beuster 1879; Grundler 1899; Ralushai 1977). It mightiness live erroneously assumed that conversions introduced a consummate intermission from traditional organized religious belief conceptions. Moreover,
population shifts as well as underdevelopment brought almost past times conquest, crop failures, epidemics, as well as migrant labor may live interpreted every bit introducing novel religious notions amidst the Venda. For example, some scholars
maintain that the Singo Venda peoples’ business organisation human relationship of their early on history was influenced past times other traditions as well as religions, ranging from Republic of Malaŵi root stories (Wilson 1969) to the biblical business organisation human relationship of Exodus (Wessmann
1908). According to these views the European subjugation of the Venda people brought almost a alter of catastrophic events that drove a wedge betwixt the ethnographic nowadays as well as the pre-conquest past. One outflow of such perspectives is that archaeologists tin never promise to sympathise the proto- or prehistoric organized religious belief of the Venda. However, widespread similarities inwards center religious concepts amidst the Venda as well as neighboring groups, peculiarly the Shona of Republic of Zimbabwe as well as the Northern Sotho, advise considerable antiquity. This is supported past times similarities inwards religious customs every bit documented inwards accounts that predate mission work, conquest, as well as migrant labor (e.g., Beuster 1879; Da Silva Rego as well as Baxter 1962;
Liesegang 1977).
Venda clans, or mitupo (singular mutupo), distinguish betwixt themselves primarily past times referring to their seat of root as well as past times the way inwards which they bury their chiefs (Ralushai 1977). In this newspaper the next iii mitupo are used every bit examples (simply because their practices as well as archeology are best documented): the ruling Singo mutupo that inhabits the south-central, central, as well as southeastern Soutpansberg; the Mianzwi
Mbedzi mutupo that inhabits the eastern Soutpansberg; as well as the Dzivhani Ngona neighbors of the Mianzwi Mbedzi.
The prominent Singo mutupo, whose members variously claim to come upward from Matangoni Mountain (Mudau 1940) or from Mbelengwa Mountain (Mudau 1940) inwards Zimbabwe, bury their chiefs within a mountain, or thavha. Prior to the 1900s this burial location was within a mount cave. After their conquest past times the Boers, the Singo placed their deceased chiefs inwards a hut that is located on comparatively high basis behind the chief’s stone-walled majestic compound. Whether they bury their chiefs inwards a cave or inwards a hut, the Singo separate majestic burial into distinct stages. An of import constituent of all majestic burials is to dehydrate the bodies of the
deceased chiefs on a specially constructed platform as well as and then collect the bones for fi nal placement inwards the high-lying cave or hut (Ralushai 1977). It is said that a novel primary has to swallow a river pebble that dropped from his dehydrated predecessor’s stomach. According to tradition, this pebble initially came from a crocodile’s stomach. The transmission of the pebble inwards this fashion symbolizes continuity of chieftainship.
The Mianzwi Mbedzi rainmaking mutupo, most of whose members claim to come upward from Manaledzi Pool inwards the key Mutale River valley, also bury their rulers inwards this pool. The Mbedzi fi rst seat the trunk of their
deceased ruler inwards a shallow grave. After a spell they exhume the bones as well as throw these straight into Manaledzi Pool. Other prominent mitupowith roughly equal status every bit the Mbedzi, such every bit the Tavhatsindi as well as Famadi, fi rst cremate their deceased rulers before scattering the ashes into specific river pools, or thivha. In lite of their root stories as well as burial practices, it is perhaps non surprising that these people claim that they do non have got a mountain; they claim that their mount is a river pool
(Ralushai 1977).
Venda people generally, as well as the Singo inwards particular, fearfulness as well as essay to avoid the Dzivhani Ngona mutupo from the Mutale River area. Dzivhani Ngona people do non similar to verbalize almost their seat of root as well as have got no laid burial mode for their leaders. Deceased Dzivhani rulers are typically placed inwards a hut or sacred grove exterior their settlement. These locales are feared as well as avoided, especially past times non-Ngona mitupo. Like other so-called Ngona groups inwards the Soutpansberg, these people have got the lowest status amidst the Venda, but are nevertheless feared every bit powerful sorcerers (Ralushai 1977). Such Ngona groups are also known every bit “dry ones,” or zwiomo.
Great Republic of Zimbabwe postdates the Mapungubwe ruins.
The Dual Powers of Venda Chiefs every bit Expressed inwards Royal Settlements, Artifacts, as well as Oral Traditions
As a divine ruler who enjoys the supernatural sanction of the ancestor spirits, the decease of a Singo primary is considered disruptive to the natural order. For this ground a chief’s divergence is kept clandestine from his followers (Mudau 1940). Hidden behind the stone walls that enclose the majestic chemical compound from the commoners’ gaze farther downslope, the majestic household unit of measurement as well as their functionaries essay their utmost to conduct burial rites as well as succession disputes inwards private. Only i time the divergence of a deceased primary becomes known to the full general world as well as a successor is chosen, do the royalty block the entrance to the high-lying majestic residence as well as create a novel i within the stone wall barrier.
Khami Ruins - Zimbabwe
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Singo Venda primary has dual powers; i is political as well as the other ritual. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 primary non only has ultimate command over political determination making, but he also officiates at annual renewal rituals (e.g., Kuper 1982). Political intrigue as well as determination making primarily occur on the comparatively private “mountain,” or thavha, which is the high-lying expanse characterized past times a labyrinthine network of stone walls (Figure 11.3). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 public annual ancestral dedication ceremony, or renewal ritual, known every bit tshikona, occurs inwards the assembly area
within a walled enclosure that is below as well as inwards front end of the chief’s “mountain.” The assembly area, or khoro, is also known every bit a “pool,” or thivha. It is hither that premarital initiates are reborn during the domba (python) dance, really similar the apical ancestors during creation (Blacking 1969).
In Venda as well as Shona cosmology a mount is seen every bit male, hard, isolated, as well as consumptive (e.g., Lan 1985; Van Warmelo as well as Phophi 1948). The same people view a puddle every bit female, soft, populated, as well as generative. The juxtaposition of the political/male sphere as well as the ritual/female sphere within the majestic settlement, or musanda, is thus a spatial appear of a chief’s dual powers. These dual powers are also alluded to inwards stories almost exterior threats to the security of the primary as well as his musanda.
Medicated sticks or bullfrogs buried below the entrance to the assembly expanse are intended to deter malicious outsiders from entering the musanda (e.g., Davison 1984; Du Plessis 1945). These medicines are supposed to turn the assembly expanse into a puddle that magically hides the chief’s mount within. However, if the intruder proves to live besides strong for the medicines, the chief’s mount mightiness disappear permanently within the pool.
This business organisation human relationship is a metaphorical allusion to the fact that the primary tin utilization his ritual potency to play tricks his enemies as well as so retain his political power. However, if the enemy proves besides strong, the primary loses his “mountain,”
or political power, but retains his “pool,” or ritual status.The duality betwixt politics/mountain as well as rituals/pool evident inwards majestic settlements was also expressed at the much smaller physical scale of a royal
artifact. This artifact is a carved wooden divination bowl (ndilo) that was stored within the chief’s majestic “mountain” quarters (Nettleton 1984). Use of such bowls apparently ceased inwards the early on twentieth century. These bowls were used inwards public only when a large calamity threatened the good beingness of the entire chiefdom, such every bit during severe droughts or after a decease caused past times lightning. Venda informants say that when the chief’s specially appointed diviner (mungoma) fi lled the bowl with water, as well as then it represented a puddle hiding the majestic musanda; the submerged knob inwards the centre of the bowl signifi ed the chief’s compound, or “mountain.” Bas-relief motifs carved on the bottom of the bowl represented areas within the upper-case missive of the alphabet town (Figure 11.4a), such every bit the cattle byre. Relief motifs on the exterior rim represented the different Venda clans. It is said that most people within the chiefdom, royals as well as commoners, were nowadays inwards the public assembly
when the bowl was used to divine the create of misfortune. Zigzag as well as concentric rings carved on the underside of the bowl represented ancestor spirits who lived inwards the underworld below the assembly area, or “pool.”
Mapungubwe sandstone formation
Just every bit when outsiders threaten the musanda, a divination bowl filled with H2O marks a crisis occasion when the chief’s ritual, or “pool” role predominated over his political, or “mountain” role. The self-similarity
betwixt the majestic settlement as well as the majestic bowl demonstrates the ubiquity of the symbolic opposition betwixt mountain-related politics as well as pool-related rituals. Soapstone bowl fragments with zebra as well as cattle motifs carved exactly about the exterior of bowls from the 700-year-old colina ruins of Great Republic of Zimbabwe (Summers 1971) are reminiscent of the divination bowls of Venda royals (Figure 11.4b). The regain of these fragments within prehistoric majestic quarters suggests that divination as well as associated beliefs have got considerable antiquity. It is interesting that ceramic similarities as well as Venda oral histories strongly advise a link betwixt the Singo chiefs as well as vestiges of the Republic of Zimbabwe empire of Shona-speakers.
The dual powers of powerful Venda chiefs, or kings, are also expressed inwards oral traditions of the early on supernatural period of time recalled past times Singo traditionalists. Like powerful Shona chiefs, the powerful Singo king
Dimbanyika subjugated the indigenous Soutpansberg communities past times stepping similar a giant from i mount top to the next (Blacking 1969). When the ambitious Dimbanyika “overstepped” at Tshiendeulu Mountain (Figure 11.5a) as well as incurred the wrath of his sons, it is said that he disappeared inwards the mount (some say that his resentful sons trapped him inwards the cave). Whether the mount spontaneously fell on the virile mortal monarch or whether ambitious princes laid a trap (Dzivhani 1940; Motenda 1940), this story is reminiscent of euphemistic references amidst the Shona as well as Venda to the decease of a primary every bit “the mount has fallen.” Some Venda insist that Dimbanyika silent lives within a cave inwards the mountain, as well as similar his virile mortal parent Nwali, would i twenty-four hours emerge to reestablish Singo hegemony. Certain caves that formed inwards weathered sandy as well as clayey sedimentary layers within the quartzite formations of the Soutpansberg contain streams as well as pools. Such mountains with pools are indeed apt natural models of chiefl y political powerfulness that contains ritual potency.
Dimbanyika’s son, commonly remembered every bit Thoho-ya-Ndou, expanded Singo dominion throughout the Soutpansberg as well as beyond. His jealous brothers opposed his dominion as well as with the assistance of local Venda chiefs they created a unified front end that proved besides powerful for Thoho-ya-Ndou. In a legendary battle close Lake Fundudzi (Figure 11.5b), they defeated Thoho-ya-Ndou as well as he reputedly disappeared into the lake. His watery decease is a variation of Shona as well as Venda stories of chiefs, or “mountains,” who are overcome past times pools as well as so lose their dominant political seat but retain their ritual potency. It is interesting to complaint that Lake Fundudzi was genuinely formed when a mount next to the Mutale River valley collapsed along an unstable fault-line as well as so blocked the fl ow of the river. This little lake, or large river pool, is an apt landscape metaphor for political decline as well as retention of ritual status. Like at specific river pools elsewhere inwards the Soutpansberg, the mount within Lake Fundudzi is said to rising to a higher seat H2O flat during
annual tshikona ceremonies (e.g., Stayt 1931). Descendants who see these pools non only claim to consider the old upper-case missive of the alphabet town of their sometime chiefs on the rising mountain, but also listen the sounds of drums, flutes, as well as sheep. Overall, at these annual ceremonies on the border of river pools or within abandoned assembly areas, participants appear to commemorate as well as reactivate the sometime glory of their ancestors.
Mapungubwe Hill viewed from the north
Although Thoho-ya-Ndou’s divergence marked the cease of an extensive Singo trade-based polity centered on Dzata inwards the Nzhelele Valley, this did non cease Singo political expansion inwards the Soutpansberg, bearing inwards heed that Thoho-ya-Ndou’s brothers established their ain dynasties inwards different portions of the region. Based on majestic genealogies recalled inwards oral histories, the collapse of the Singo Empire occurred exactly about AD 1750 (Loubser 1990). Descendants of the Tshivhase Singo dynasty inwards the eastern Soutpansberg eventually conquered the Mianzwi Mbedzi nether the Luvhimbi dynasty of rainmakers inwards the nineteenth century (Ralushai 1978). Prior to the Singo conquest, the Luvhimbi chiefs were prominent players inwards long-distance merchandise with the Indian Ocean. After the Singo conquest the main sis of the finally Luvhimbi primary took over every bit leader of the Mianzwi Mbedzi. This sis became an infl uential rainmaker for the Tshivhase Singo chiefs as well as also a ritual functionary at Singo premarital domba ceremonies. It is said that when they were conquered past times the Singo, the Mbedzi musanda turned into a puddle (Blacking 1969). Ever since the decease of the finally virile mortal Luvhimbi chief, his sis as well as her descendants, known collectively past times the dynastic call of Tshisinavhute, were buried inwards Manaledzi Pool, non far from their musanda inwards the Mutale River valley.
Tthe as well as then electrical flow headwoman Tshisinavhute has revealed that her virile mortal ancestors were buried inwards a sacred grove on Tswingoni Mountain (Figure 11.6) as well as non within Manaledzi Pool every bit mentioned inwards documented oral histories. The Tshisinavhute, who was married to a Tshivhase Singo chief, had political ambitions as well as wished to live buried inwards the mount grove of her Luvhimbi virile mortal ancestors instead of Manaledzi Pool of her woman mortal predecessors.
Nalatale Ruins - Republic of Zimbabwe
On the opposite, southern side of Tswingoni Mountain, descendants of the Dzivhani Ngona claimed that they i time lived close Tswingoni as well as Tshilavhulu Mountains inwards the Mutale River valley. It is intriguing that the
Dzivhani think Tshilavhulu Mountain every bit “the puddle of water” as well as every bit a sometime burial seat of their early on chiefs. The ruins of the earliest recalled musanda of the early on Mbedzi Luvhimbi primary inwards the Soutpansberg is also located on Tshilavhulu Mountain. Although non mentioned explicitly past times informants, this implies that the Mbedzi replaced the Ngona at the Tshilavhulu Mountain settlement. Moreover, certainly published Mianzwi Mbedzi oral histories claim that they did non originate from the local Manaledzi Pool, but came from the to a greater extent than distant Malungudzi Mountain inwards Republic of Zimbabwe to the northward of the Limpopo River (Ralushai 1978).
On closer scrutiny then, Dzivhani as well as Mbedzi informants acknowledge origins as well as burial locales that differ from commonly mentioned ones. It is argued hither that this ostensible incompatibility inwards traditions actually
reflects changes inwards political powerfulness as well as ritual status of the Mbedzi as well as Dzivhani. The archaeological record, furthermore, reflects these changes as well as gives dates every bit to when they most likely occurred.
The Archaeological Record
According to the “long chronology” of the most detailed majestic Singo genealogies (e.g., Van Warmelo 1932), the Singo rulers had settled inwards the Nzhelele River valley of the key Soutpansberg past times the belatedly seventeenth
century AD (Loubser 1991). Radiocarbon dates from Dzata, the first Singo upper-case missive of the alphabet town inwards the Soutpansberg as well as centre of the Singo trading empire, back upward the “long chronology.” Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 few Khami type ceramics with diagnostic chevron designs occur at Dzata as well as its satellite towns inwards the Soutpansberg (Figure 11.7). These ceramics are similar to seventeenth century ceramics made past times Shona-speaking communities inwards Zimbabwe.
The appearance of the Khami ceramics with indigenous Letaba-type
ceramics at Dzata as well as contemporary sites inwards the Soutpansberg accordingly implies an infl ux of people from the northward as well as thence supports those Singo accounts that claim origins inwards Zimbabwe. It is during their
reign at Dzata that the Singo buried their powerful kings inwards Tshiendeulu Mountain. The abnormally large size of Dzata (20 hectares) as well as the concentration of ivory as well as other long-distance merchandise items at the site support
oral recollections of it beingness a prominent upper-case missive of the alphabet town. The large assembly expanse suggests that it was an of import ritual centre every bit well. The concentration of walls at the dorsum as well as higher portion of the settlement represented the “mountain” where the Singo virile mortal monarch resided, whereas the clean-swept assembly expanse lower downward the gradual gradient represented the “pool” where subjects from across a widespread expanse attended rituals such every bit tshikonaand domba.
The Letaba trend pots found at Dzata as well as its satellite towns developed locally inwards the Soutpansberg expanse from existing Shona as well as Sotho ceramic traditions. The earliest Letaba pots come upward from sites such every bit Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni, sometime upper-case missive of the alphabet town of the Luvhimbi Mbedzi dynasty. According to radiocarbon assays of associated charcoal, the earliest Letaba ceramics appointment to the mid-sixteenth century AD (Figure 11.7).
Since Letaba ceramics are closely associated with sites known to have got been occupied past times Venda speakers as well as are silent made past times Venda-speaking potters today, the evolution of these ceramics most in all probability marks the emergence of the Venda linguistic communication every bit it is spoken today (Letaba pots combine elements of Soutpansberg Shona motifs as well as Sotho shapes, the Venda linguistic communication combines elements of Shona grammer as well as Sotho vocabulary). The presence of Letaba pots at the Mbedzi upper-case missive of the alphabet exhibit that they in all probability spoke Venda prior to the arrival of the Singo, every bit indeed mentioned inwards some oral histories (Motenda 1940; Mudau 1940). But the Republic of Zimbabwe trend ruins of Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni also contain Khami type pottery from Zimbabwe, features that back upward those root stories that advert the Mbedzi every bit migrating from northward of the Limpopo River (Ralushai 1978). Located on the comparatively steep gradient of Tswingoni Mountain, the walls of Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni contain a “mountain” residence for the primary as well as his functionaries as well as an assembly “pool” expanse that is slightly lower downward (Figure 11.7). The mid-sixteenth-century appointment for the stonewalled upper-case missive of the alphabet is in all probability later on than the arrival of the Luvhimbi dynasty from Zimbabwe, since the earliest Luvhimbi chiefs lived at Tshilavulu Mountain prior to their construction of Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni.
Deposits straight underneath the stone walls as well as associated Khami as well as Letaba ceramics at Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni contain an before ceramic trend known every bit Mapungubwe. These Mapungubwe ceramics occur inwards layers that have got been dated to betwixt the belatedly thirteenth as well as mid-sixteenth centuries. The layers have got far fewer walls than the Mbedzi period of time line of piece of work but some terraced walls lower downward the gradient appointment to the Mapungubwe period of time line of piece of work of Tswingoni Mountain (Figure 11.7). As at other prominent Mapungubwe period of time sites inwards the Soutpansberg as well as Limpopo River valley, terraced walls separate the assembly expanse from the majestic expanse on the uphill side (e.g., Huffman 1986).
The Dzivhani Ngona people are the most likely candidates to have got lived at Tswingoni Mountain prior to the arrival of the Mbedzi, including on Tshilavulu Mountain non far northward of Tswingoni Mountain. If the Dzivhaniannual tshikona ceremonies (e.g., Stayt 1931). Descendants who see these pools non only claim to consider the old upper-case missive of the alphabet town of their sometime chiefs on the rising mountain, but also listen the sounds of drums, flutes, as well as sheep. Overall, at these annual ceremonies on the border of river pools or within abandoned assembly areas, participants appear to commemorate as well as reactivate the sometime glory of their ancestors.
Mapungubwe Hill viewed from the north
Although Thoho-ya-Ndou’s divergence marked the cease of an extensive Singo trade-based polity centered on Dzata inwards the Nzhelele Valley, this did non cease Singo political expansion inwards the Soutpansberg, bearing inwards heed that Thoho-ya-Ndou’s brothers established their ain dynasties inwards different portions of the region. Based on majestic genealogies recalled inwards oral histories, the collapse of the Singo Empire occurred exactly about AD 1750 (Loubser 1990). Descendants of the Tshivhase Singo dynasty inwards the eastern Soutpansberg eventually conquered the Mianzwi Mbedzi nether the Luvhimbi dynasty of rainmakers inwards the nineteenth century (Ralushai 1978). Prior to the Singo conquest, the Luvhimbi chiefs were prominent players inwards long-distance merchandise with the Indian Ocean. After the Singo conquest the main sis of the finally Luvhimbi primary took over every bit leader of the Mianzwi Mbedzi. This sis became an infl uential rainmaker for the Tshivhase Singo chiefs as well as also a ritual functionary at Singo premarital domba ceremonies. It is said that when they were conquered past times the Singo, the Mbedzi musanda turned into a puddle (Blacking 1969). Ever since the decease of the finally virile mortal Luvhimbi chief, his sis as well as her descendants, known collectively past times the dynastic call of Tshisinavhute, were buried inwards Manaledzi Pool, non far from their musanda inwards the Mutale River valley.
Tthe as well as then electrical flow headwoman Tshisinavhute has revealed that her virile mortal ancestors were buried inwards a sacred grove on Tswingoni Mountain (Figure 11.6) as well as non within Manaledzi Pool every bit mentioned inwards documented oral histories. The Tshisinavhute, who was married to a Tshivhase Singo chief, had political ambitions as well as wished to live buried inwards the mount grove of her Luvhimbi virile mortal ancestors instead of Manaledzi Pool of her woman mortal predecessors.
Nalatale Ruins - Republic of Zimbabwe
On the opposite, southern side of Tswingoni Mountain, descendants of the Dzivhani Ngona claimed that they i time lived close Tswingoni as well as Tshilavhulu Mountains inwards the Mutale River valley. It is intriguing that the
Dzivhani think Tshilavhulu Mountain every bit “the puddle of water” as well as every bit a sometime burial seat of their early on chiefs. The ruins of the earliest recalled musanda of the early on Mbedzi Luvhimbi primary inwards the Soutpansberg is also located on Tshilavhulu Mountain. Although non mentioned explicitly past times informants, this implies that the Mbedzi replaced the Ngona at the Tshilavhulu Mountain settlement. Moreover, certainly published Mianzwi Mbedzi oral histories claim that they did non originate from the local Manaledzi Pool, but came from the to a greater extent than distant Malungudzi Mountain inwards Republic of Zimbabwe to the northward of the Limpopo River (Ralushai 1978).
On closer scrutiny then, Dzivhani as well as Mbedzi informants acknowledge origins as well as burial locales that differ from commonly mentioned ones. It is argued hither that this ostensible incompatibility inwards traditions actually
reflects changes inwards political powerfulness as well as ritual status of the Mbedzi as well as Dzivhani. The archaeological record, furthermore, reflects these changes as well as gives dates every bit to when they most likely occurred.
Venda woman
The Archaeological Record
According to the “long chronology” of the most detailed majestic Singo genealogies (e.g., Van Warmelo 1932), the Singo rulers had settled inwards the Nzhelele River valley of the key Soutpansberg past times the belatedly seventeenth
century AD (Loubser 1991). Radiocarbon dates from Dzata, the first Singo upper-case missive of the alphabet town inwards the Soutpansberg as well as centre of the Singo trading empire, back upward the “long chronology.” Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 few Khami type ceramics with diagnostic chevron designs occur at Dzata as well as its satellite towns inwards the Soutpansberg (Figure 11.7). These ceramics are similar to seventeenth century ceramics made past times Shona-speaking communities inwards Zimbabwe.
The appearance of the Khami ceramics with indigenous Letaba-type
ceramics at Dzata as well as contemporary sites inwards the Soutpansberg accordingly implies an infl ux of people from the northward as well as thence supports those Singo accounts that claim origins inwards Zimbabwe. It is during their
reign at Dzata that the Singo buried their powerful kings inwards Tshiendeulu Mountain. The abnormally large size of Dzata (20 hectares) as well as the concentration of ivory as well as other long-distance merchandise items at the site support
oral recollections of it beingness a prominent upper-case missive of the alphabet town. The large assembly expanse suggests that it was an of import ritual centre every bit well. The concentration of walls at the dorsum as well as higher portion of the settlement represented the “mountain” where the Singo virile mortal monarch resided, whereas the clean-swept assembly expanse lower downward the gradual gradient represented the “pool” where subjects from across a widespread expanse attended rituals such every bit tshikonaand domba.
The Letaba trend pots found at Dzata as well as its satellite towns developed locally inwards the Soutpansberg expanse from existing Shona as well as Sotho ceramic traditions. The earliest Letaba pots come upward from sites such every bit Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni, sometime upper-case missive of the alphabet town of the Luvhimbi Mbedzi dynasty. According to radiocarbon assays of associated charcoal, the earliest Letaba ceramics appointment to the mid-sixteenth century AD (Figure 11.7).
Since Letaba ceramics are closely associated with sites known to have got been occupied past times Venda speakers as well as are silent made past times Venda-speaking potters today, the evolution of these ceramics most in all probability marks the emergence of the Venda linguistic communication every bit it is spoken today (Letaba pots combine elements of Soutpansberg Shona motifs as well as Sotho shapes, the Venda linguistic communication combines elements of Shona grammer as well as Sotho vocabulary). The presence of Letaba pots at the Mbedzi upper-case missive of the alphabet exhibit that they in all probability spoke Venda prior to the arrival of the Singo, every bit indeed mentioned inwards some oral histories (Motenda 1940; Mudau 1940). But the Republic of Zimbabwe trend ruins of Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni also contain Khami type pottery from Zimbabwe, features that back upward those root stories that advert the Mbedzi every bit migrating from northward of the Limpopo River (Ralushai 1978). Located on the comparatively steep gradient of Tswingoni Mountain, the walls of Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni contain a “mountain” residence for the primary as well as his functionaries as well as an assembly “pool” expanse that is slightly lower downward (Figure 11.7). The mid-sixteenth-century appointment for the stonewalled upper-case missive of the alphabet is in all probability later on than the arrival of the Luvhimbi dynasty from Zimbabwe, since the earliest Luvhimbi chiefs lived at Tshilavulu Mountain prior to their construction of Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni.
Deposits straight underneath the stone walls as well as associated Khami as well as Letaba ceramics at Tshitaka-tsha-Makoleni contain an before ceramic trend known every bit Mapungubwe. These Mapungubwe ceramics occur inwards layers that have got been dated to betwixt the belatedly thirteenth as well as mid-sixteenth centuries. The layers have got far fewer walls than the Mbedzi period of time line of piece of work but some terraced walls lower downward the gradient appointment to the Mapungubwe period of time line of piece of work of Tswingoni Mountain (Figure 11.7). As at other prominent Mapungubwe period of time sites inwards the Soutpansberg as well as Limpopo River valley, terraced walls separate the assembly expanse from the majestic expanse on the uphill side (e.g., Huffman 1986).
claim that their sometime chiefs were buried on Tshilavhulu Mountain is true, as well as then the burials must predate the settlement of the Mbedzi immigrants on the mountain. Judging from the ceramic as well as radiocarbon record
at Tswingoni, Dzivhani line of piece of work must live associated with Mapungbwe ceramics that predate the sixteenth century. Historians as well as linguists associate Mapungubwe ceramics with really old Shona-speaking inhabitants of the Soutpansberg area, as well as the so-called Ngona people such every bit the Dzivhani are descendants of these autochthones (Beach 1980; Ehret 1972). The to a greater extent than prominent Mapungubwe sites inwards the part have got yielded evidence of “mountain” burials, assembly areas, as well as long-distance merchandise items from the coastal merchandise (Loubser 1991). Even though Mapungbwe period of time walls are comparatively scarce as well as simple, the mountain/pool dichotomy silent seems to live nowadays within Mapungbwe settlements that appointment dorsum to the middle of the 12th century. Prior to this date, which marks the get-go of a fully fl edged long-distance trading empire centered on Mapungubwe Hill, mount burials seem to live absent (Gardiner 1963).
Status Misrepresented every bit Stasis
Variants of the mountain/pool symbolism every bit outlined to a higher seat are nowadays amidst most Bantu-speaking groups inwards sub-Equatorial Africa, but this dichotomy is perhaps nowhere every bit pronounced as well as elaborate every bit among
the Venda as well as Shona-speaking peoples of far northern South Africa as well as Zimbabwe. According to the archaeological tape this belief scheme tin live traced dorsum for nine centuries inwards the Soutpansberg. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 alter inwards the burial location from mount to puddle tin live interpreted every bit indicative of a alter inwards belief, however. Yet, the ethnographic tape unequivocally shows that the 2 burial modes are portion of the same belief scheme that is acted out on the landscape; mount burials demonstrate ancestrally sanctioned political power, whereas puddle burials accentuate religious potency. Internal logic, oral historical recollections, as well as archaeological evidence exhibit that this is non a static scheme but a dynamic process. This physical care for non only accentuates the ruling group’s electrical flow status as well as presents it every bit eternal, but it also masks the previous status of subverted groups.
The puddle within the mount signifies the religious potential of a political ruler; a defeated primary without a mount retains or fifty-fifty enlarges his/her puddle status as well as unremarkably becomes an of import ritual functionary
for a novel ruler (Figure 11.8a). The mount within the puddle signifies the political potential of the conquered chief; through renewed alliances with the electrical flow rulers a ritual functionary tin ever piece of work his/her way back
upward the political scheme to regain mount status. The instance of the Mianzwi Mbedzi woman mortal rainmaker dynasty is but i of the improve documented examples that illustrate this notion. However, a ruler without a mountain
or a puddle is exterior this scheme as well as has no potential for upward mobility. The leaders of the Dzivhani Ngona are i of many such ambivalent figures inwards the Soutpansberg who live exterior the periphery of the Venda
political system. Yet, these seemingly powerless as well as impotent rulers, also known every bit “dry ones,” or zwiomo, are feared as well as avoided past times mount as well as puddle leaders. One ground for this honor for the weak lies inwards changing political fortunes during historic as well as prehistoric times.
Archaeological evidence as well as certainly oral testimonies call for that the ancestors of the Dzivhani Ngona i time occupied at to the lowest degree 2 prominent mountain-slope settlements inwards the Mutale River valley—Tshilavhulu
Mountain as well as Tswingoni Mountain. Based on the comparatively large size of these Dzivhani settlements as well as recollections of their chiefs beingness buried inwards these mount locations, the Dzivhani in all probability were i time powerful rulers inwards the part (Figure 11.8b). Dzivhani dominion lasted until the Mbedzi immigrants from Republic of Zimbabwe settled inwards the Mutale valley some 500 years ago. Subjugated past times the Mbedzi, the Tshilavhulu Mountain of
the Dzivhani changed into a “pool of water.” The Mbedzi fi rst ruled from Tshilavhulu as well as later on from Tswingoni Mountain until they inwards turn were subjugated past times the eastern Singo Tshivhase dynasty inwards the nineteenth century. With their loss of political powerfulness as well as mount status, the Mbedzi rulers were relegated to puddle status. At the same fourth dimension the Dzivhani lost their puddle status to go the “dry ones.”
When traditionalists view status grades inwards terms of cyclical fourth dimension alone, without consideration of politico-religious physical care for or linear time, status grades appear every bit divinely ordained juxtaposed units (Figure 11.8a).
However, viewed inwards terms of politico-religious physical care for as well as punctuated linear time, status grades resemble stratified geological layers with an underlying dynamic (Figure 11.8b). In the latter sense, status grades amidst the Venda mitupo are a business office of relative antiquity; those at the bottom of the hierarchy are the oldest. But the oldest are also inwards a feel the most potent, considering that they have got the most intricate link with the the world as well as its spirits. Perhaps inwards tacit recognition of the Dzivhani Ngona’s previous power, the ruling Singo people honor as well as fearfulness these autochthonous people. Another ground why the Singo as well as their allies fearfulness the diverse Ngona groups is that these ousted people no longer autumn within commonly recognized politico-religious boundaries. Metaphorical allusions amidst the Venda emphasize the notion of socially acceptable boundaries; inwards the courtroom linguistic communication of Singo royals a primary is called a crocodile that does non leave of absence its pool, whereas Ngona rulers are to a greater extent than often than non seen every bit anomalous crocodiles, or sorcerers, wandering almost on dry out the world (Nettleton 1984).
Such allusions to mountains, pools, as well as crocodiles are indeed ancient; they are portion of the same religious scheme that has informed the settlement layouts as well as burial practices of peoples that have got lived on both sides
of the Limpopo River for the finally 900 years.
source: http://www.stratumunlimited.com/uploads/4/8/1/5/4815662/venda_paper.pdf
Domba dance
Venda Vhusha initiate
Renowned Venda creative mortal Noria Mabasa was born inwards Xigalo hamlet inwards 1938.
Venda nuptials dance
Venda women
Rain-makers of venda tribe
This white anthropologist is manifestly abusing this girl`s right inwards Vhusha initiation rite
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