Info For Y'all The Konkomba People: Hardworking Agrarian As Well As Warlike Ruler-Less Tribe
"But proud too industrious, oblivious to considerations of status ... the Konkomba are making a useful contribution to the economic scheme of Republic of Ghana every bit good every bit to their ain pockets; their vocalism volition before long go heard too the.. . hierarchy volition have a rougher jar from these novel migrants whom it has rejected than from the sometime ones whom it has assimilated long since." (Goody 1970: 128)
Konkomba Dancer from Saboba,Northern Ghana
THE Konkomba (also known every bit Komba) people are hardworking agrarian too warlike Gurma-speaking ethnolinguistic group living inward north-eastern one-half of the Republic of Ghana's 'Northern Region too across the border inward the next territory of Kara region, due north of Kabou inward Togo. Principally virtually the banks of the Oti river too on the Oti champaign due north too due west of the Basare too Kotokoli hills. The Konkomba are settled inward Saboba, Zabzugu too Chereponi areas of Republic of Ghana too inward Guérin-Kouka, Nawaré, too Kidjaloum areas of Togo (Source: Ethnologue 2010).
The most latterly published census information indicates that are roughly 641,000 Konkomba people residing inward Republic of Ghana too roughly 79,000 inward the next border of Togo,making the estimated total population of Konkomba to go 720,000.
Konkomba adult woman from Zabzugu,Northern Ghana
Konkomba speak of themselves every bit Bekpokpam, of their linguistic communication every bit Lekpokpam, too of their province every bit Kekpokpam. They are acephalous grouping of people,making them a tribe without paramount primary or a tribe without ruler. Their neighbours to the due west are the Dagomba. This people is known to Konkomba every bit the Bedagbam; they speak of themselves every bit Dagbamba, of their linguistic communication every bit Dagbane, too of their province every bit Dagbon. The province is divided into 2 regions: Tumo, or western Dagomba, too Naja, or eastern Dagomba. The ancient kingdom of Gonja environs the Konkomba from the south- east. They also have got a rattling practiced human relationship with the Mamprusi.
Of all their neighbours the Dagomba are the most of import to Konkomba, since it was the Dagomba who expelled them from what is right away eastern Dagomba. The story of the invasion is briefly stated past times Konkomba too recited at length inward the drum chants of Dagomba. I quote a Konkomba elder. "When nosotros grew upwardly too reached our fathers they told us that they (our forefathers) stayed inward Yaa [Yendi]. The Kabre too the Bekwom were here. The Dagomba were inward Tamale too Kumbungu. The Dagomba rose too mounted their horses. We saw their horses, that is why nosotros rose upwardly too gave the solid ground to the Dagomba. We rose upwardly too got hither with the Bekwom. The Bekwom rose upwardly too went across the river. . ."
. . .the Dagomba invasion . . . according to 1 account, occurred inward the early on sixteenth century inward the reign of Na (Chief) Sitobu.(Tait, David (ed Jack Goody), The Konkombas of Northern Republic of Ghana OUP 1961 ).
The Dagbani chiefdoms imposed territorial chiefship upon the Konkomba, exacting tribute too compelling Konkomba compounds to admit the authorization of the Dagbani :Vau or paramount chief(Rattray 1932)
Dance troupe from the Konkomba community doing the Konkomba traditional trip the lite fantastic called Kinakyu
Konkombas were known to have got fomented problem for the colonial administration; they inflicted so much hurting too anguish past times the assassinations of High German too British soldiers. Froelich says:
“In the confront of Konkomba hostility inward what is known today every bit Yendi, the Germans maintained
fortified garrisons at Kidjaboun too Oripi. When relations worsened continuously too at the
to the lowest degree provocation, the Germans pursued the Konkombas, encircled them too exterminated them
mercilessly. At 1 battle about Iboudou the Konkombas lost to a greater extent than than 1 thousand
warriors.” (Froelich, J-C. La Tribu Konkomba Du Nord Togo. IFAN-Dakar. 1954. Pp. 4)
The severity of the problems caused past times the assertions of the Konkombas – the “unruly clans,” (as oft referred to, too so too fifty-fifty now), tin soundless go seen today inward the severity of the punishments the Germans meted out to the Konkombas. Today, older Konkomba men inward their 80s too 90s tin soundless present their right hand-thumbs, severed every bit proof of the method the Germans too British soldiers used for limiting armed resistance with the archery of the “bow-and-arrow” past times the Konkombas.
Konkomba people
Environment
The Konkomba have, for almost v hundred years, occupied the Oti overflowing plain, a share that suffers from flooding too severe drought. Stretching from the ridges of the Gambaga escarpment downwardly into the northern border of the Volta region. the Oti champaign alternates betwixt swampy fields of red-clay soil too flooded blood-red canyons of impassable crimson mud during the rains too arid dust bowls filled with patches of shrub grass during the dry out season. During Harmattan, visibility drops downwardly to a few hundred metres every bit the sky too the air is thick with airborne sand swept downwardly from the Sahara. Shade temperatures during the vernal 24-hour interval regularly top forty degrees Celsius too only occasion ally does 1 have a dose of nocturnal relief from a downpour washed inward from the Republic of Guinea Coast.
The Konkomba apart from occupying the Northern Ghana, are right away scattered too are predominantly settled inward the northern Volta where inward many communities they are to a greater extent than than the indigenous Guans too Ewes.
Language
Konkomba people speak Lekpokpam, a branch of the Gur linguistic stock, which bears considerable resemblance to that spoken past times the neighbouring Mole-Dagbani peoples.
Konkomba people
History too Conflicts with other tribes
The history of where the Konkomba came from to settle inward Republic of Ghana too Togo is unknown, this makes a lot people to brand an ignorant averment that Konkomba people are non from Republic of Ghana but are migrants from Togo. What is known soundless is that Konkomba were already occupying the expanse called Chare (now Yendi) too Dagombas came to conquer or chased them away. In his mass "The Republic of Guinea Fowl, Mango too Pito Wars: Episodes inward the History of Northern Ghana, 1980-1999 published past times Republic of Ghana Universities Press, Accra, 2001, N. J. K Brukum aver that . . . the Gonjas nether Ndawuri Jakpa defeated Dagbon nether Ya Na Dariziogo too compelled the latter to abandon its majuscule too to displace it to its introduce site, Yendi, which was too so a Konkomba town called Chare. The newcomers pushed dorsum the Konkombas too established divisions amongst them. Despite the assertion of suzerainty, Dagbon seems never to have got exercised unopen command over Konkomba: management took the shape of slave raiding too punitive expeditions. Fynn (1971) asserted 'We know that the ancestors of the Dagomba met a people akin to the Kokomba already living inward northern Ghana."
Konkomba state of war dance
According to (Martin 1976) the Dagomba pushed dorsum the Konkomba too established divisional chiefs amongst them. The main towns . . . had the grapheme of outposts, strategically located on the E banking company of the River Oti...... The Konkomba were past times no way assimilated. Relations betwixt them too the Dagomba were distant too hostile: at that topographic point was little, if any, mixing past times marriage. Part of the oral history of the creation of Dagbon suggests that the Dagombas conquered the Konkombas when they moved into the eastern component subdivision of the northern region. Whilst acknowledging the encounter the Konkombas on the other paw have got vehemently too consistently counter-claimed that they were never inward the battle against Dagombas. They insist that they voluntarily moved away from the Dagombas when they arrived. Tait (1961:) quotes Konkomba elderberry every bit saying:
"When nosotros grew upwardly too reached our fathers they told us they (our forefathers)
stayed inward Yaa (Yendi).The Kabre too Bekwom were there. The Dagomba
inward Tamale too Kumbungu. The Dagomba rose too mounted their horses.
We saw the horses, that is why nosotros rose upwardly too gave the solid ground to Dagomba.
We rose upwardly too got hither with Bekwom. The Bekwom rose upwardly too went
"across the River." We go, rising upwardly to go "across the river..."
"Konkomba inward Tshopowa." Circa 19.03.1910. Courtesy Fisch, Rudolf (Mr)
The Konkomba soundless regard the ground shrine at Yendi every bit belonging to them. The entire Konkomba worldview revolves about the ground too that which grows from the soil. Konkomba interviewees explained that the ground of Yendi is kin to the spirits of their ancestors too so inward a rattling concrete way, denial of access to the ground of Konkomba Yendi past times the Dagomba is an obstacle to the proper veneration of the an cestors. The Dagomba are aware that the "gods" of Yendi are non of their lineage and
volition non endeavour to serve the ground too ancestor shrines of Yendi.
"The Dagomba, you lot know, they can't touching it! The tree, it looks similar a
"croc" [crocodile]. They can't do the gods of Yendi because it belongs to
us. Yendi is for us, the ground from Yendi, from the gods, is for us.
Dagomba volition Say, afler the state of war only, Konkomba larn ability from this
place. (Interview rvith Mr. JB/Tamale. 19/6/1999; the tree he is referring
to is u large Buobab tree on the due north side of Yendi)
Dagomba have got taken our gods only. But nosotros can't go at that topographic point too seem after
our land. Yendi is for us but they took it from us. And so nosotros must make
our gods somewhere else, but non at Yendi too its non correct, we
shouldn't have got to go somewhere else when nosotros know that it is our land.
(Interview with Mr. LN/Sungur. 1 O/8/1999).
The Dagomba invasion had the final result of expelling many Konkomba tiom their
homes; too the mixed ethnic makeup of many Dagomba towns about Yendi suggests that the invaders absorbed or assimilated many others. Along the border of the Dagornba advance. inward areas where Konkomba territory overlapped with that of the Dagomba. the Konkomba were apparently slow drawn into the construction of Dagomba society. yet remained steadfastly against unusual rule. Under British control. the Dagomba began to appoint Konkomba "liaison" or "sub-chiefs" inward the Konkomba areas; however. these individuals possessed footling authorization throughout the colonial flow too soundless wield only illusory ability inward the contemporary context. These men were soundless forced to _gain the blessing of the 'elder for the land' earlier enacting whatever political determination that mightiness touching on the hamlet every bit a whole, too although the Konkomba had always. through their blueprint of dual lineage leadership had 2 primary eiders inside each village. 1 for the solid ground too 1 for the people. the private who spoke for the land, ever spoke with authority.
Tait notes that during the 1940s, a Konkomba primary nigh Saboba was "forced to walk to each hamlet inward plough to beak over matters" (Tait 1961: I 1). inward a Dagomba village. individuals involved inward whatever determination making procedure would go forced to see the palace of the primary too pay their respects. Today, every bit it was 50 years agone nether colonialism, the Konkomba liaison primary soundless holds the existent power. H5N1 similar blueprint is found inward areas where the Konkomba are subjects of other Dagbani paramounts.
To amount up, then, the Konkomba have got lived inward unopen proximity with the Dagomba, Mamprusi, Nanumba too Gonja for almost two-hundred too 50 years, too have got continuously resisted whatever displace towards assimilation too incorporation too have got been only besides good able to strike dorsum at whatever endeavour at subjugation.
Technically, to a greater extent than than one-half of what is known today every bit Dagombaland was originally component subdivision of Togo when that province was created. It only became component subdivision of Republic of Ghana at independence. If some Konkombas were carved into Togo amongst many other ethnic groups, why too so are they beingness selectively targeted with migrant declaration precisely to brand them seem similar strangers inward the northern territory without whatever chance for solid ground ownership?
This cogent argue too many other injustices perpetrated against the Konkombas every bit acephalous group, beingness raided too sold into slavery inward the past times past the Dagombas, Nunumbas too Gonjas are some of the major argue why Konkombas have got had wars inward the past times too inward recent times with all these 3 ethnic groups.
Perhaps the most devastating trial was a forged missive of the alphabet discussing arms supplies, hugger-mugger meetings too preparations for the conquest of Kpandai too afterwards Yendi, purporting to go an internal communication inside the National Liberation Movement of Western Togoland, which was circulated inward leaflet shape inward Tamale too Yendi inward 1993. The ‘National Liberation Movement for Western Togoland’ had been a secessionist displace active inward the mid-1970s, for a fourth dimension supported past times the Togolese authorities too allegedly involving some Ghanaian Konkomba. By reviving its spectre the missive of the alphabet sought to portray Konkomba every bit hostile foreigners, thus neutralising their need for ‘traditional self-determination’ every bit citizens of Ghana. Furthermore, its excogitation of a connector betwixt the Nawuri-Gonja conflict of 1991 with a supposed minority project design to convey over Yendi caused the minority bulk dissever to go seen every bit the axis of the 1994 conflict.
According to the Dagomba traditional historian Alhaji Gonje Sulamana Al-Hassan, the Dagomba did non believe that at that topographic point would go an ethnic state of war with the Konkomba until theadvent of this letter, which led to the connector beingness made betwixt previous inter-ethnicconflicts too the Konkomba 1993 petitions to the National House of Chiefs too the Ya-Nafor paramountcy. The fearfulness of impending state of war was seen every bit having led to the stockpiling of arms on both sides, too inter-ethnic harassment:
"The youth inward Yendi town they started harassing the Konkombas every fourth dimension they
came to market. They started harassing them too warned them: ‘If you lot come upwardly out
against us nosotros are going to allow our women withdraw deal of you lot with their bare hands’, you
understand? Threatening, ‘We volition chain you lot too nosotros volition whip you, nosotros volition do
this, too nosotros volition do this’. […] So they [the Konkomba] started acquiring arms."
The Kitab Ghunja noted that inward virtually Feb 1745, "the cursed unbeliever, Opoku Ware, entered the town of Yendi too plundered it." The Ya Na, Gariba, was taken prisoner. When he was beingness carried to Kumasi, his nephew, Ziblim, the Chief of Nasah, interceded too redeemed him.
Each succeeding Ya Na raided the Konkomba, Basari too Moba inward monastic enjoin to obtain captives every bit slaves to pay the debt. . . . Armed men would descend upon a hamlet at dawn or fifty-fifty during the day. If the raid was successful, they carried away men, women too children too their holding similar cattle, sheep too goats."
The tardily 19th century saw 2 Gonja-Konkomba civil wars (1892-1893, 1895-1896) too 1 inward Dagomba-Konkomba (1888) inward add-on to raiding past times diverse groups, including the lieutenants of Samory Touré, who was fighting the French, too Babatu, a Zabarima warrior (Ladouceur, 1979). The Konkomba an intermittent blueprint of large-scale violent opposition to chiefly demands was started past times the assail on the Dagomba hamlet of Jagbel inward 1940, sometimes known every bit the Cow War. The burning of the hamlet too the killing of its primary too members of his identify unit of measurement too retinue were precipitated past times the chief’s endeavour to convey payoff of a colonial vaccination programme to collect a bull every bit a fine from an possessor of unvaccinated cattle (Talton, 2003).
The Republic of Guinea fowl state of war broke out inward Ghana’s NR too involved the regal Nanumba, Dagomba, too Gonja tribes on 1 side too the acephalous ‘minority’ Konkomba on the other. The grievances on which this conflict was based were long standing. This episode is best understood every bit only the most deadly manifestation of a serial of clashes betwixt the cephalous too acephalous tribes of Ghana’s North. Prior to the Republic of Guinea Fowl War, violent conflicts occurred betwixt the Mossi too Konkomba inward 1993; the Konkomba, Nawuri, Basare, Nchumuru too Gonja inward 1992; the Nawuri too Gonja inward 1991; the Konkomba too Nanumba inward 1981; too the Gonja too Vagalla inward Gonja inward 1980.
The tardily 19th century saw 2 Gonja-Konkomba civil wars (1892-1893, 1895-1896) too 1 inward Dagomba-Konkomba (1888) inward add-on to raiding past times diverse groups, including the lieutenants of Samory Touré, who was fighting the French, too Babatu, a Zabarima warrior (Ladouceur, 1979). The Konkomba an intermittent blueprint of large-scale violent opposition to chiefly demands was started past times the assail on the Dagomba hamlet of Jagbel inward 1940, sometimes known every bit the Cow War. The burning of the hamlet too the killing of its primary too members of his identify unit of measurement too retinue were precipitated past times the chief’s endeavour to convey payoff of a colonial vaccination programme to collect a bull every bit a fine from an possessor of unvaccinated cattle (Talton, 2003).
The Konkomba became involved inward the 1991-1992 Nawuri-Gonja conflict when some of their members were false for Nawuris too shot patch working on their Kpandai farmlands. Similarly, the Mabunwura Yakubu Asuma felt that the Gonja had been drawn into the 1994 conflict because of beingness associated with the other bulk groups.
1994 Feb 2: Fighting inward the due north nigh the border with Togo broke out betwixt Konkomba too Dagomba ethnic groups. The incident began with a dispute over prices inward a market, but speedily accelerated to large-scale violence. The 2 groups have got been at loggerheads for many years because the Konkomba , who are non Ghanaian natives (My emphasis: this is a highly contentious too provocative declaration - regard the texts inward a higher identify too J. D. Fage - MH) , are denied chieftainship too land. Only 4 of xv ethnic groups inward the share have got solid ground ownership.
1994 Feb 10: The authorities issued a province of emergency inward the northern share (the districts of Yendi, Nanumba, Gushiegu/Karaga, Saboba/Chereponi, East Gonjo, Zabzugu/Tatale too the town of Tamale). About 6000 Konkomba fled to Togo every bit a result. The authorities also closed 4 of its border posts to forestall the conflict from spreading.
1994 March 4: H5N1 grenade exploded inward Accra inward a Konkomba marketplace injuring three. It is idea to go a spillover from the violence inward the due north betwixt the Konkomba too Dagomba.
1994 March: The authorities fired on a crowd inward Tamale killing eleven too wounding 18. Security forces fired on mainly Dagomba after they had attacked a grouping of competitor Konkomba . It is hard for the authorities to accomplish Konkomba fighters since they operate inward little packets nether bush cover.
Members of the Dagomba, Gonjas too Namubas (allies) turned inward their arms inward compliance with a authorities monastic enjoin to all warring factions.
The 7 districts affected past times the fighting are the tum of the share too nutrient prices have got increased since the fighting broke out inward February.
1994 April: An eleven fellow member authorities delegation held separate talks with leaders of the warring factions inward Accra. Both sides agreed to destination the conflict too denounce violence every bit a way of ending their conflict. The three-month sometime conflict left over 1000 (one written report suggested 6000) people dead too 150,000 displaced.
1994 June 9: H5N1 peace pact was signed amongst all warring factions inward the north. Two main groups of disputants were involved inward the fighting (Konkomba vs. Dagomba, Nanumba too Gonja) every bit were several smaller groups (Nawuri, Nchumri, Basari). No incidents were reported inward the past times several weeks, though the share remained tense.
1994 July 8: Parliament agreed to extend the province of emergency imposed on the 7 northern districts for a farther month.
1994 August 8: Parliament revoked the province of emergency officially closing the conflict.
1994 October: Police seized arms saltation for the north. The Tamale share is tense too the peace understanding signed inward Apr was regarded every bit a dead letter. Dagomba communities, backed past times the Nanumbas too Gonjas, 1 time to a greater extent than began buying arms. Many Konkomba have got been keeping out of sight next a serial of lynchings.
1995 Feb 16: Bushfires swept across Republic of Ghana causing extensive harm to forests too crops. At to the lowest degree 12 were killed.
1995 March: Renewed ethnic fighting inward the due north left at to the lowest degree 110 dead too 35 wounded. The Konkombas were largely blamed every bit instigators of the latest violence. The authorities had the province of affairs nether command past times the destination of the month. In Nanumba District, v arrests were made inward connector to the violence. H5N1 total of 25 have got been arrested since September 1994 inward connector to the violence. Latest casualty figures seat the number of dead at 2000 since Feb 1994, too 400 villages too farms have got been burnt to the ground.
1995 June 26: President Rawlings initiated peace talks inward parts of the conflict area, praising both sides for their efforts to seat aside their differences. Yet, he afterwards issues a alarm against the Konkombas inward item to hear reconciliation moves.
1995 November: Tensions were on the ascent betwixt Muslims too non-Muslims inward areas of Republic of Ghana including inward the cities of Sekondi too Kumasi. The tensions betwixt the Dagombas too Konkomba , though essentially over solid ground use, were exacerbated past times the fact that Dagombas are mainly Muslims patch the Konkomba are mainly animist.
Konkomba women
Economy
The konkomba are hardworking farmers. They engaged inward large scale production of yams. the farm is the centre of involvement inward rites too inward labour. Within the territory occupied past times each Konkomba hamlet at that topographic point be a number of unlike types of farmland known past times the crops too the type of agriculture worked on them. H5N1 share betwixt 2 compounds mightiness seasonally go known every bit yam-land, guinea-corn-land or sorghum-land. The Konkomba allow no solid ground to go uncultivated too hamlet boundaries volition extend every bit far every bit the closest acre of the neighbouring village. Only on the rocky outcroppings that extend into Komba territory From the Gambaga escarpment tin 1 regard a interruption inward the solid ground that has been tilled past times Konkomba hands.
Konkomba farmer
Some konkomba are into angling on the Volta lake. They successfully cross other northern natives when the Volta lake gets flooded.
Konkomba fisherman
Supplication of the ancestors commonly takes the shape of prayers for pelting but they are also asked to maintain away the wind. The abrupt tearing storms . . . sweep over the opened upwardly plain. . . break downwardly the corn, tear the roofs off houses, batter downwardly job solid walls. . . The Konkomba are ever on the verge of hunger too only past times frugal living tin their nutrient go made to final until a novel crop is in. The unfortunate thing is that Konkombas do non ain the solid ground they cultivate large farms on with their toil. Most of the lands are owned past times either Mamprusi,Gonja or their mortal enemies,Dagombas. As a final result they are ever to brand payments to the solid ground owners. This is 1 of the major reasons why the Konkombas are ever fighting to larn a paramountcy or chiefs inward the they have got settled on for many years.
Commercial activities. Most konkombas are yam sellers apart from growing it. They are well-known for their "Yam markets" inward the large cities. Konkomba markets are non simply economical ventures but are of import social events. Much every bit people see the marketplace to purchase too merchandise goods they also see to run into friends from nearby villages. to potable pito beer too by too large taste the society of immature human being Konkomba. Markets are typicaIly held on a cleared patch of solid ground next ta the route which runs through the hamlet too inward add-on to the agricultural make sold past times Konkomba farmers to visiting Tchakosi too Bimoba villagers who also laid upwardly butcher stalls for the Konkornba to purchase meat products. Other merchants include dress sellers, foam
mattress salesmen too full general vendors of household sundries. Tait notes at that topographic point are few merchandise specialists inward Konkomba.
Konkomba potter
Ghana`s majuscule Accra, has its Konkomba Yam Market at the Central business. As deeply earth-deity worshiping, people Konkombas have got ground deity inward their markets too. The marketplace has an ground shrïne, a little too somewhat defoliated Baobab tree, located inward the residential expanse of the market.
Konkomba women at Saboba market
The Accra marketplace has an ground elderberry or Utindaan, who oversees all offerings made to this shrine. He also provides blessing to a novel trader or broker of they want to laid upwardly a novel stall inward the market. The marketplace Utindaan is the ultimate authorization inside the marketplace inward all matters concerning layout of the market, residential issues, too trader disputes.
The marketplace chairman or Onekpel fixes prices inward the marketplace too costs paid past times farmers for yam shipping The chairman, assisted past times the cooperative board, which is composed of influential too wealthy négociants, sets a measure toll for each type of yam according to the render too need for item varieties. The marketplace Onekpel also oversees relations with the numerous Dagomba women who go inward the marketplace as
porters for the Konkomba, acting essentially every bit a liaison betwixt the Konkomba too the Dagomba who are inward the employ of marketplace négociants. The seat of liaison inward the marketplace however, is much changed from the role occupied past times the Onekpels co-opted past times the Dagbani inward times past.
Political too social structures
The konkomba social club is an acephalous one. There is no chief. The ‘clan’ too its territorial ‘district’ were the largest Konkomba political units. Clans are made upwardly of major lineages (of v generations) which splintered inward pocket-sized lineages (three generations) too households and ‘each monastic enjoin of segmentation has its ain ritual symbol.’ The Konkomba clan is ‘a morally witting body’ based on ‘ritual too jural activities’ of an egalitarian gerontocracy of identify unit of measurement elders-unikpel (plural:bininkpiib).
Konkomba dancers from Togo
Konkomba political clan autonomy was based on territorial ground rituals to local spirits inward territorial ‘districts’: Descendants of the initiatory of all settlers were eligible every bit ground priest (otindaa, amend spelt utindaan). Konkomba were non capable of organizing on a supra-tribal level, so when Dagomba, with their centralized province structure, invaded the Konkomba territories inward the seventeenth century, they picked off the Konkomba ‘clan past times clan.’ Because inter-tribal relationships were ordinarily marked past times a tense province of reserve, too intra-clan violence was tabooed (tensions were neutralised inward joking relations or witchcraft accusations, most Konkomba communal violence were inter-clan feuds. Such feuds could go ceremonially ended betwixt ritually obliged clans (timantotiib).
Konkomba family
Many tribes, but non all, are distinguished past times unlike confront marks. Clans of the same tribe stand upwardly inward ritual partnership too kithship to each other, both relations of ritual assistance. Clans of the same tribe convey the rite of Bi sub tibwar to destination a feud. Finally, clans of the same tribe come upwardly to each other's assistance inward a larn by against members of some other tribe too at that topographic point is no destination to inter-tribal fighting. We may hence speak of feud betwixt clans too of state of war betwixt tribes.
The Konkomba organization is 1 of small, segmented, agnatic clans. Four kinds of grouping relation unite clans too serve to mitigate hostility betwixt them. At the plane of personal relations ties of amity, similar those of matrilateral kinship, serve to cut down hostility too assist to obviate fights. The relations are: naabo, that betwixt children of 1 woman; taabo, that betwixt children of 1 human being ; nabo, that betwixt children of the women of 1 clan ; nato, that, betwixt men married to clan‐sisters ; too dzo, human being speaking, or nakwoo, adult woman speaking, friend.
The naabo necktie is stronger too warmer than taabo but both imply reciprocal rights too duties patch nabo too nato do not. The basic relation is seen to go naabo which is extended on the regulation of the unity of the lineage to give ascent to those of nabo too nato. The relation of friendship is the only voluntary 1 though it is linked with the lover relationship, bwa, the only voluntary human relationship betwixt men too women. Friendship oft gives ascent to marriages too so creates kinship ties which inward plough give ascent to the relations of amity. All these human relationship attain widely to cross the boundaries of lineage, clan too tribe.
It is non ever possible to distinguish a tribe past times the confront marks alone. Some of the outlying Konkomba refer to those of the Oti champaign every bit the Bemwatib, the River people. Of these the Betshabob, Bemokpem, Nakpantib too Besangma have got the same mark.
No Konkomba knows all the other tribes but most Konkomba know of the Betshabob, the Bemokpem, the Benafiab, the Begbem, the Besangma too the Bekwom. Of these the Betshabob too Bemokpem must each number to a greater extent than than 6,000 too of each some 3,000 alive inward Republic of Ghana on the due west banking company of the Oti. These are the 2 largest tribes. The Nakpantib too the Kpaltib number non to a greater extent than than 2,000 each.
There are rattling broad dialectal variations inward Konkomba language. The dialects of the neighbouring Betshabob, Bemokpem, Begbem too Nakpantib are unopen plenty so a speaker of 1 of them may communicate easily with a speaker of another. Speech betwixt a Betshabob too a Benafiab is hard fifty-fifty though the tribes are separated at the nearest dot past times only 16 miles. Speech betwixt the River people too the Bekwom of northern Gushiego is so hard that they communicate, when possible, inward Dagbane.
Marriage
KONKOMBA practise the betrothal of babe girls to immature men inward their early on twenties who thereafter give bride service too pay bride corn to their parents-in-law, until the daughter is of an historic flow to marry. The babe daughter is known to the human being every bit his 'wife' (pu); at that topographic point is no distinction inward Konkomba betwixt a 'betrothed girl' too a 'wife'. By 'wife' I shall hateful a daughter who has joined her married adult man inward his chemical compound too when I job the verb 'to marry' it is every bit the translation of the Konkomba phrase which way 'to go to the husband'.
When a daughter kid is born, her parents are approached too given presents of pots of beer too fowls past times the parents of a immature human being of betwixt 20 too twenty-four. Often the parents of the daughter have several offers amongst which to choose. Sometimes the initiatory of all pace is taken past times the immature human being himself who sends a gift of firewood to the woman bring upwardly of the child, who is confined to the room inward which the kid was born for a calendar week after the birth.
Konkomba footling girls washing inward a stream
The approach to the parents of the daughter is made every bit before long every bit the gender activity of the babe is known. There is oft competition betwixt those seeking wives who try, past times making large gifts, to persuade the parents to betroth the kid to them. There is also competition to send the gifts to the parents every bit speedily every bit possible; to this destination a immature man's sister, herself married into some other clan, volition non only send speedy give-and-take of a woman someone nascency to her blood brother but volition fifty-fifty warn him of expected births, so that he tin have got firewood ready to send to the woman bring upwardly should the kid plough out to go a girl.
If the initiatory of all gifts go accepted too so the sender knows that he is beingness considered every bit a prospective son-in-law. The gifts should non otherwise go accepted. Some weeks later, inward final result when it is clear that the kid is probable to live, some other pot of beer is sent. When the kid is several months sometime the determination should go made too a son-in-law chosen from amongst the contestants. An elderly human being with children tin also go a contestant. The younger brothers of a human being may refer to his married adult woman every bit m pu or “my wife” too she inward plough may refer to him
every bit n tshar “my husband.”
Konkomba adult woman preparing meal
Religious Belief
To go born into Konkomba social club meant next a laid of rituals too ceremonies that were an integral component subdivision of tribal life too survival. There was no distinction betwixt sacred too secular, spiritual too material, or trunk too soul. The ‘religious’ was introduce inward every seem of life: work, food, wars, procreation too rest. Atheists were non-existent. Everybody believed inward the spirit world too inward the fetishes (mountains, trees, rocks too fifty-fifty man-made objects) that represented the diverse spirits. They also believed inward totems: animals or birds that were sacred to the clan.
According to Konkomba religious belief, Uwumbor is the Supreme being, creator of spirits, cosmos too people: the source of all life too moral lawgiver. Man`s soul (nwiin) comes from Uwumbor too after death, it returns to him. Uwumbor is etymologically connected to the give-and-take ubor (Ruler). More oft Konkomba appealed to beings of a lower other which are unopen to them.
There are other spirits which are evil too. One of such spirits is Kininbon (Satan), lord of all the evil spirits. The spirits also included the souls of the ancestors who demanded honor too sacrifices inward render for
withholding punishment.
The world Shrine Worship
In the religious life of the Konkomba, every bit with many other Republic of Guinea coast peoples, ground shrines too the cult of the ground play a crucial role. The ground is the essential medium through which the people of West Africa, people to whom the spirits of the ancestors play a supremely of import role inward quotidian life, commune with the past times too those who went before. The ground is a vital symbol of fertility inward the dwelling too inward the fields too the ancestors, the ultimate source of sanction for social life for the people of the Northern Territories of Republic of Ghana (Manoukian 195 1 : 83).
The world Kitik is woman bring upwardly of heavenly god Uwumbor. The personified divinity Kitik is a universal deity of all the Konkomba. It is manifested inward the multitude of world spirits, protectors of item clans. The world spirits are manlike someone or female. Each clan has its ain world shrine called litingbaln which symbolizes too personifies the local world spirit, the protector of all members of a given clan. The world shrine is the most of import sacred identify of the clan too the main centre of the world cult.The writer of the newspaper presents the names, places too kinds of world shrines too provides an interpretation of the ritual performed inward the shrine of world spirit Naapaa inward the hamlet of Bwagbaln. The job of the study is to present the social too religious meanings of the world shrine inward Bwagbaln every bit the main cult centre of v clans of the Bichabob tribe. The source footing was provided initiatory of all of all past times the author's acre go conducted amongst the Konkomba people inward the expanse of Saboba betwixt July 1984 too Jan 1985 every bit good every bit betwixt September 1990 too August 1991.
Konkomba traditional dance
The world shrines amongst the Konkomba ordinarily consist of baobabs too groves. Under the trees too inward the groves at that topographic point are sacrificial stones fulfilling the component subdivision of an altar on which offerings are made. The world shrines are ordinarily situated inward the vicinity of the homesteads or on the border betwixt the arable solid ground too the bush.As opposed to other clan world shrines of the Konkomba people, the world shrine inward Bwagbaln is of clan too supra clan character. As the symbol of the unity of v clans from the Bichabob tribe, it is the most of import world shrine too the fundamental identify of cult the members.The world cult of the Konkomba is initiatory of all of all connected with such seasonal agricultural activities every bit making preparations for yam planting, corn sowing too for the harvest. The ritual inward Bwagbaln was performed on 24 March, 1991, that is inward the dry out season, earlier the acre work. Its principal aim was to enquire for the rain. The ritual functioning inward Bwagbaln is a status for showtime the acre go inward the novel agrarian flavor too it precedes the rituals connected with world inward the homesteads too world shrines inward the villages of Nalongni, Kumwateek, Kiteek too Bwakul. The ritual inward Bwagbaln had the greatest supra clan attain too inward that ceremony over 20 elders participated who were representatives of major lineages too clans from Bwagbaln, Saboba, Tilangben, Nalongni, Kiteek, Bwakul (Ghana) too Yoborpu too Lagee (Togo). The participants of the ritual are connected with each other past times way of clan community bonds (unibaan), ritual bonds (mantotiib) every bit good every bit friendship too neighborhood bonds.
Konkomba hamlet inward Togo
Sacrifice-Serving The Shrine
For the Konkomba solid ground is intimately connected with fertility, too the number of pots used inward a solid ground rite is ever greater than two. Two of the pots are ever separated too regarded every bit the shrine of the twin spirit; twins are seen every bit symbols of fertile solid ground too of a bountiful harvest to come upwardly throughout Gur territory.
Among the Bimotiev 1 oft encounters foursquare clay posts, roughly 20 centimetres inward width too one-half a meter high, inward the fundamental yard of a hilly chemical compound or placed inward a bush. Upon these posts, calabashes filled with medicine, typically the leaves of germinated seed yams, are placed. These shrines are granted therapeutic too curative powers, they are protective shrines, intended to ensure the good beingness of hamlet member.
H5N1 Stone placed amongst the boughs of a tree located on the right side of a identify unit of measurement chemical compound is idea to symbolize the protective ground spirit of a homestead. H5N1 blood-red rooster is sacrificed to this shrine whenever the chemical compound caput requires the intervention of a bush spirit whether it go for greater prosperity or increased yields from his yarn mounds (Zimon 1992: 1 1 8)
"Konkomba carriers inward Banjeli. The Chief's house." Circa 1910
Death too afterlife beliefs:
Both animate beingness too human spirits interact with the living. Kenjaa are practiced spirits, kesou are evil. Kesou that plague the living may go kenjaa past times beingness captured at which dot they serve every bit advisors. Typically, the dead bring together their ancestors, regardless of their crimes, with the exception of sorcerers who’s kin must brand sacrifices on his behalf.
Sourcehttp://www.ama.africatoday.com/konkomba.htm
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/MQ64907.pdf
Konkomba Dancer from Saboba,Northern Ghana
THE Konkomba (also known every bit Komba) people are hardworking agrarian too warlike Gurma-speaking ethnolinguistic group living inward north-eastern one-half of the Republic of Ghana's 'Northern Region too across the border inward the next territory of Kara region, due north of Kabou inward Togo. Principally virtually the banks of the Oti river too on the Oti champaign due north too due west of the Basare too Kotokoli hills. The Konkomba are settled inward Saboba, Zabzugu too Chereponi areas of Republic of Ghana too inward Guérin-Kouka, Nawaré, too Kidjaloum areas of Togo (Source: Ethnologue 2010).
The most latterly published census information indicates that are roughly 641,000 Konkomba people residing inward Republic of Ghana too roughly 79,000 inward the next border of Togo,making the estimated total population of Konkomba to go 720,000.
Konkomba adult woman from Zabzugu,Northern Ghana
Konkomba speak of themselves every bit Bekpokpam, of their linguistic communication every bit Lekpokpam, too of their province every bit Kekpokpam. They are acephalous grouping of people,making them a tribe without paramount primary or a tribe without ruler. Their neighbours to the due west are the Dagomba. This people is known to Konkomba every bit the Bedagbam; they speak of themselves every bit Dagbamba, of their linguistic communication every bit Dagbane, too of their province every bit Dagbon. The province is divided into 2 regions: Tumo, or western Dagomba, too Naja, or eastern Dagomba. The ancient kingdom of Gonja environs the Konkomba from the south- east. They also have got a rattling practiced human relationship with the Mamprusi.
Of all their neighbours the Dagomba are the most of import to Konkomba, since it was the Dagomba who expelled them from what is right away eastern Dagomba. The story of the invasion is briefly stated past times Konkomba too recited at length inward the drum chants of Dagomba. I quote a Konkomba elder. "When nosotros grew upwardly too reached our fathers they told us that they (our forefathers) stayed inward Yaa [Yendi]. The Kabre too the Bekwom were here. The Dagomba were inward Tamale too Kumbungu. The Dagomba rose too mounted their horses. We saw their horses, that is why nosotros rose upwardly too gave the solid ground to the Dagomba. We rose upwardly too got hither with the Bekwom. The Bekwom rose upwardly too went across the river. . ."
. . .the Dagomba invasion . . . according to 1 account, occurred inward the early on sixteenth century inward the reign of Na (Chief) Sitobu.(Tait, David (ed Jack Goody), The Konkombas of Northern Republic of Ghana OUP 1961 ).
The Dagbani chiefdoms imposed territorial chiefship upon the Konkomba, exacting tribute too compelling Konkomba compounds to admit the authorization of the Dagbani :Vau or paramount chief(Rattray 1932)
Dance troupe from the Konkomba community doing the Konkomba traditional trip the lite fantastic called Kinakyu
Konkombas were known to have got fomented problem for the colonial administration; they inflicted so much hurting too anguish past times the assassinations of High German too British soldiers. Froelich says:
“In the confront of Konkomba hostility inward what is known today every bit Yendi, the Germans maintained
fortified garrisons at Kidjaboun too Oripi. When relations worsened continuously too at the
to the lowest degree provocation, the Germans pursued the Konkombas, encircled them too exterminated them
mercilessly. At 1 battle about Iboudou the Konkombas lost to a greater extent than than 1 thousand
warriors.” (Froelich, J-C. La Tribu Konkomba Du Nord Togo. IFAN-Dakar. 1954. Pp. 4)
The severity of the problems caused past times the assertions of the Konkombas – the “unruly clans,” (as oft referred to, too so too fifty-fifty now), tin soundless go seen today inward the severity of the punishments the Germans meted out to the Konkombas. Today, older Konkomba men inward their 80s too 90s tin soundless present their right hand-thumbs, severed every bit proof of the method the Germans too British soldiers used for limiting armed resistance with the archery of the “bow-and-arrow” past times the Konkombas.
Konkomba people
Environment
The Konkomba have, for almost v hundred years, occupied the Oti overflowing plain, a share that suffers from flooding too severe drought. Stretching from the ridges of the Gambaga escarpment downwardly into the northern border of the Volta region. the Oti champaign alternates betwixt swampy fields of red-clay soil too flooded blood-red canyons of impassable crimson mud during the rains too arid dust bowls filled with patches of shrub grass during the dry out season. During Harmattan, visibility drops downwardly to a few hundred metres every bit the sky too the air is thick with airborne sand swept downwardly from the Sahara. Shade temperatures during the vernal 24-hour interval regularly top forty degrees Celsius too only occasion ally does 1 have a dose of nocturnal relief from a downpour washed inward from the Republic of Guinea Coast.
The Konkomba apart from occupying the Northern Ghana, are right away scattered too are predominantly settled inward the northern Volta where inward many communities they are to a greater extent than than the indigenous Guans too Ewes.
Language
Konkomba people speak Lekpokpam, a branch of the Gur linguistic stock, which bears considerable resemblance to that spoken past times the neighbouring Mole-Dagbani peoples.
Konkomba people
History too Conflicts with other tribes
The history of where the Konkomba came from to settle inward Republic of Ghana too Togo is unknown, this makes a lot people to brand an ignorant averment that Konkomba people are non from Republic of Ghana but are migrants from Togo. What is known soundless is that Konkomba were already occupying the expanse called Chare (now Yendi) too Dagombas came to conquer or chased them away. In his mass "The Republic of Guinea Fowl, Mango too Pito Wars: Episodes inward the History of Northern Ghana, 1980-1999 published past times Republic of Ghana Universities Press, Accra, 2001, N. J. K Brukum aver that . . . the Gonjas nether Ndawuri Jakpa defeated Dagbon nether Ya Na Dariziogo too compelled the latter to abandon its majuscule too to displace it to its introduce site, Yendi, which was too so a Konkomba town called Chare. The newcomers pushed dorsum the Konkombas too established divisions amongst them. Despite the assertion of suzerainty, Dagbon seems never to have got exercised unopen command over Konkomba: management took the shape of slave raiding too punitive expeditions. Fynn (1971) asserted 'We know that the ancestors of the Dagomba met a people akin to the Kokomba already living inward northern Ghana."
Konkomba state of war dance
According to (Martin 1976) the Dagomba pushed dorsum the Konkomba too established divisional chiefs amongst them. The main towns . . . had the grapheme of outposts, strategically located on the E banking company of the River Oti...... The Konkomba were past times no way assimilated. Relations betwixt them too the Dagomba were distant too hostile: at that topographic point was little, if any, mixing past times marriage. Part of the oral history of the creation of Dagbon suggests that the Dagombas conquered the Konkombas when they moved into the eastern component subdivision of the northern region. Whilst acknowledging the encounter the Konkombas on the other paw have got vehemently too consistently counter-claimed that they were never inward the battle against Dagombas. They insist that they voluntarily moved away from the Dagombas when they arrived. Tait (1961:) quotes Konkomba elderberry every bit saying:
"When nosotros grew upwardly too reached our fathers they told us they (our forefathers)
stayed inward Yaa (Yendi).The Kabre too Bekwom were there. The Dagomba
inward Tamale too Kumbungu. The Dagomba rose too mounted their horses.
We saw the horses, that is why nosotros rose upwardly too gave the solid ground to Dagomba.
We rose upwardly too got hither with Bekwom. The Bekwom rose upwardly too went
"across the River." We go, rising upwardly to go "across the river..."
"Konkomba inward Tshopowa." Circa 19.03.1910. Courtesy Fisch, Rudolf (Mr)
The Konkomba soundless regard the ground shrine at Yendi every bit belonging to them. The entire Konkomba worldview revolves about the ground too that which grows from the soil. Konkomba interviewees explained that the ground of Yendi is kin to the spirits of their ancestors too so inward a rattling concrete way, denial of access to the ground of Konkomba Yendi past times the Dagomba is an obstacle to the proper veneration of the an cestors. The Dagomba are aware that the "gods" of Yendi are non of their lineage and
volition non endeavour to serve the ground too ancestor shrines of Yendi.
"The Dagomba, you lot know, they can't touching it! The tree, it looks similar a
"croc" [crocodile]. They can't do the gods of Yendi because it belongs to
us. Yendi is for us, the ground from Yendi, from the gods, is for us.
Dagomba volition Say, afler the state of war only, Konkomba larn ability from this
place. (Interview rvith Mr. JB/Tamale. 19/6/1999; the tree he is referring
to is u large Buobab tree on the due north side of Yendi)
Dagomba have got taken our gods only. But nosotros can't go at that topographic point too seem after
our land. Yendi is for us but they took it from us. And so nosotros must make
our gods somewhere else, but non at Yendi too its non correct, we
shouldn't have got to go somewhere else when nosotros know that it is our land.
(Interview with Mr. LN/Sungur. 1 O/8/1999).
The Dagomba invasion had the final result of expelling many Konkomba tiom their
homes; too the mixed ethnic makeup of many Dagomba towns about Yendi suggests that the invaders absorbed or assimilated many others. Along the border of the Dagornba advance. inward areas where Konkomba territory overlapped with that of the Dagomba. the Konkomba were apparently slow drawn into the construction of Dagomba society. yet remained steadfastly against unusual rule. Under British control. the Dagomba began to appoint Konkomba "liaison" or "sub-chiefs" inward the Konkomba areas; however. these individuals possessed footling authorization throughout the colonial flow too soundless wield only illusory ability inward the contemporary context. These men were soundless forced to _gain the blessing of the 'elder for the land' earlier enacting whatever political determination that mightiness touching on the hamlet every bit a whole, too although the Konkomba had always. through their blueprint of dual lineage leadership had 2 primary eiders inside each village. 1 for the solid ground too 1 for the people. the private who spoke for the land, ever spoke with authority.
Tait notes that during the 1940s, a Konkomba primary nigh Saboba was "forced to walk to each hamlet inward plough to beak over matters" (Tait 1961: I 1). inward a Dagomba village. individuals involved inward whatever determination making procedure would go forced to see the palace of the primary too pay their respects. Today, every bit it was 50 years agone nether colonialism, the Konkomba liaison primary soundless holds the existent power. H5N1 similar blueprint is found inward areas where the Konkomba are subjects of other Dagbani paramounts.
To amount up, then, the Konkomba have got lived inward unopen proximity with the Dagomba, Mamprusi, Nanumba too Gonja for almost two-hundred too 50 years, too have got continuously resisted whatever displace towards assimilation too incorporation too have got been only besides good able to strike dorsum at whatever endeavour at subjugation.
Technically, to a greater extent than than one-half of what is known today every bit Dagombaland was originally component subdivision of Togo when that province was created. It only became component subdivision of Republic of Ghana at independence. If some Konkombas were carved into Togo amongst many other ethnic groups, why too so are they beingness selectively targeted with migrant declaration precisely to brand them seem similar strangers inward the northern territory without whatever chance for solid ground ownership?
This cogent argue too many other injustices perpetrated against the Konkombas every bit acephalous group, beingness raided too sold into slavery inward the past times past the Dagombas, Nunumbas too Gonjas are some of the major argue why Konkombas have got had wars inward the past times too inward recent times with all these 3 ethnic groups.
Perhaps the most devastating trial was a forged missive of the alphabet discussing arms supplies, hugger-mugger meetings too preparations for the conquest of Kpandai too afterwards Yendi, purporting to go an internal communication inside the National Liberation Movement of Western Togoland, which was circulated inward leaflet shape inward Tamale too Yendi inward 1993. The ‘National Liberation Movement for Western Togoland’ had been a secessionist displace active inward the mid-1970s, for a fourth dimension supported past times the Togolese authorities too allegedly involving some Ghanaian Konkomba. By reviving its spectre the missive of the alphabet sought to portray Konkomba every bit hostile foreigners, thus neutralising their need for ‘traditional self-determination’ every bit citizens of Ghana. Furthermore, its excogitation of a connector betwixt the Nawuri-Gonja conflict of 1991 with a supposed minority project design to convey over Yendi caused the minority bulk dissever to go seen every bit the axis of the 1994 conflict.
According to the Dagomba traditional historian Alhaji Gonje Sulamana Al-Hassan, the Dagomba did non believe that at that topographic point would go an ethnic state of war with the Konkomba until theadvent of this letter, which led to the connector beingness made betwixt previous inter-ethnicconflicts too the Konkomba 1993 petitions to the National House of Chiefs too the Ya-Nafor paramountcy. The fearfulness of impending state of war was seen every bit having led to the stockpiling of arms on both sides, too inter-ethnic harassment:
"The youth inward Yendi town they started harassing the Konkombas every fourth dimension they
came to market. They started harassing them too warned them: ‘If you lot come upwardly out
against us nosotros are going to allow our women withdraw deal of you lot with their bare hands’, you
understand? Threatening, ‘We volition chain you lot too nosotros volition whip you, nosotros volition do
this, too nosotros volition do this’. […] So they [the Konkomba] started acquiring arms."
Konkomba drummer from Sambuli,Saboba inward Ghana
The Kitab Ghunja noted that inward virtually Feb 1745, "the cursed unbeliever, Opoku Ware, entered the town of Yendi too plundered it." The Ya Na, Gariba, was taken prisoner. When he was beingness carried to Kumasi, his nephew, Ziblim, the Chief of Nasah, interceded too redeemed him.
Each succeeding Ya Na raided the Konkomba, Basari too Moba inward monastic enjoin to obtain captives every bit slaves to pay the debt. . . . Armed men would descend upon a hamlet at dawn or fifty-fifty during the day. If the raid was successful, they carried away men, women too children too their holding similar cattle, sheep too goats."
The tardily 19th century saw 2 Gonja-Konkomba civil wars (1892-1893, 1895-1896) too 1 inward Dagomba-Konkomba (1888) inward add-on to raiding past times diverse groups, including the lieutenants of Samory Touré, who was fighting the French, too Babatu, a Zabarima warrior (Ladouceur, 1979). The Konkomba an intermittent blueprint of large-scale violent opposition to chiefly demands was started past times the assail on the Dagomba hamlet of Jagbel inward 1940, sometimes known every bit the Cow War. The burning of the hamlet too the killing of its primary too members of his identify unit of measurement too retinue were precipitated past times the chief’s endeavour to convey payoff of a colonial vaccination programme to collect a bull every bit a fine from an possessor of unvaccinated cattle (Talton, 2003).
The Republic of Guinea fowl state of war broke out inward Ghana’s NR too involved the regal Nanumba, Dagomba, too Gonja tribes on 1 side too the acephalous ‘minority’ Konkomba on the other. The grievances on which this conflict was based were long standing. This episode is best understood every bit only the most deadly manifestation of a serial of clashes betwixt the cephalous too acephalous tribes of Ghana’s North. Prior to the Republic of Guinea Fowl War, violent conflicts occurred betwixt the Mossi too Konkomba inward 1993; the Konkomba, Nawuri, Basare, Nchumuru too Gonja inward 1992; the Nawuri too Gonja inward 1991; the Konkomba too Nanumba inward 1981; too the Gonja too Vagalla inward Gonja inward 1980.
The tardily 19th century saw 2 Gonja-Konkomba civil wars (1892-1893, 1895-1896) too 1 inward Dagomba-Konkomba (1888) inward add-on to raiding past times diverse groups, including the lieutenants of Samory Touré, who was fighting the French, too Babatu, a Zabarima warrior (Ladouceur, 1979). The Konkomba an intermittent blueprint of large-scale violent opposition to chiefly demands was started past times the assail on the Dagomba hamlet of Jagbel inward 1940, sometimes known every bit the Cow War. The burning of the hamlet too the killing of its primary too members of his identify unit of measurement too retinue were precipitated past times the chief’s endeavour to convey payoff of a colonial vaccination programme to collect a bull every bit a fine from an possessor of unvaccinated cattle (Talton, 2003).
The Konkomba became involved inward the 1991-1992 Nawuri-Gonja conflict when some of their members were false for Nawuris too shot patch working on their Kpandai farmlands. Similarly, the Mabunwura Yakubu Asuma felt that the Gonja had been drawn into the 1994 conflict because of beingness associated with the other bulk groups.
1994 Feb 2: Fighting inward the due north nigh the border with Togo broke out betwixt Konkomba too Dagomba ethnic groups. The incident began with a dispute over prices inward a market, but speedily accelerated to large-scale violence. The 2 groups have got been at loggerheads for many years because the Konkomba , who are non Ghanaian natives (My emphasis: this is a highly contentious too provocative declaration - regard the texts inward a higher identify too J. D. Fage - MH) , are denied chieftainship too land. Only 4 of xv ethnic groups inward the share have got solid ground ownership.
1994 Feb 10: The authorities issued a province of emergency inward the northern share (the districts of Yendi, Nanumba, Gushiegu/Karaga, Saboba/Chereponi, East Gonjo, Zabzugu/Tatale too the town of Tamale). About 6000 Konkomba fled to Togo every bit a result. The authorities also closed 4 of its border posts to forestall the conflict from spreading.
1994 March 4: H5N1 grenade exploded inward Accra inward a Konkomba marketplace injuring three. It is idea to go a spillover from the violence inward the due north betwixt the Konkomba too Dagomba.
1994 March: The authorities fired on a crowd inward Tamale killing eleven too wounding 18. Security forces fired on mainly Dagomba after they had attacked a grouping of competitor Konkomba . It is hard for the authorities to accomplish Konkomba fighters since they operate inward little packets nether bush cover.
Members of the Dagomba, Gonjas too Namubas (allies) turned inward their arms inward compliance with a authorities monastic enjoin to all warring factions.
The 7 districts affected past times the fighting are the tum of the share too nutrient prices have got increased since the fighting broke out inward February.
1994 April: An eleven fellow member authorities delegation held separate talks with leaders of the warring factions inward Accra. Both sides agreed to destination the conflict too denounce violence every bit a way of ending their conflict. The three-month sometime conflict left over 1000 (one written report suggested 6000) people dead too 150,000 displaced.
1994 June 9: H5N1 peace pact was signed amongst all warring factions inward the north. Two main groups of disputants were involved inward the fighting (Konkomba vs. Dagomba, Nanumba too Gonja) every bit were several smaller groups (Nawuri, Nchumri, Basari). No incidents were reported inward the past times several weeks, though the share remained tense.
1994 July 8: Parliament agreed to extend the province of emergency imposed on the 7 northern districts for a farther month.
1994 August 8: Parliament revoked the province of emergency officially closing the conflict.
1994 October: Police seized arms saltation for the north. The Tamale share is tense too the peace understanding signed inward Apr was regarded every bit a dead letter. Dagomba communities, backed past times the Nanumbas too Gonjas, 1 time to a greater extent than began buying arms. Many Konkomba have got been keeping out of sight next a serial of lynchings.
1995 Feb 16: Bushfires swept across Republic of Ghana causing extensive harm to forests too crops. At to the lowest degree 12 were killed.
1995 March: Renewed ethnic fighting inward the due north left at to the lowest degree 110 dead too 35 wounded. The Konkombas were largely blamed every bit instigators of the latest violence. The authorities had the province of affairs nether command past times the destination of the month. In Nanumba District, v arrests were made inward connector to the violence. H5N1 total of 25 have got been arrested since September 1994 inward connector to the violence. Latest casualty figures seat the number of dead at 2000 since Feb 1994, too 400 villages too farms have got been burnt to the ground.
1995 June 26: President Rawlings initiated peace talks inward parts of the conflict area, praising both sides for their efforts to seat aside their differences. Yet, he afterwards issues a alarm against the Konkombas inward item to hear reconciliation moves.
1995 November: Tensions were on the ascent betwixt Muslims too non-Muslims inward areas of Republic of Ghana including inward the cities of Sekondi too Kumasi. The tensions betwixt the Dagombas too Konkomba , though essentially over solid ground use, were exacerbated past times the fact that Dagombas are mainly Muslims patch the Konkomba are mainly animist.
Konkomba women
Economy
The konkomba are hardworking farmers. They engaged inward large scale production of yams. the farm is the centre of involvement inward rites too inward labour. Within the territory occupied past times each Konkomba hamlet at that topographic point be a number of unlike types of farmland known past times the crops too the type of agriculture worked on them. H5N1 share betwixt 2 compounds mightiness seasonally go known every bit yam-land, guinea-corn-land or sorghum-land. The Konkomba allow no solid ground to go uncultivated too hamlet boundaries volition extend every bit far every bit the closest acre of the neighbouring village. Only on the rocky outcroppings that extend into Komba territory From the Gambaga escarpment tin 1 regard a interruption inward the solid ground that has been tilled past times Konkomba hands.
Konkomba farmer
Some konkomba are into angling on the Volta lake. They successfully cross other northern natives when the Volta lake gets flooded.
Konkomba fisherman
Supplication of the ancestors commonly takes the shape of prayers for pelting but they are also asked to maintain away the wind. The abrupt tearing storms . . . sweep over the opened upwardly plain. . . break downwardly the corn, tear the roofs off houses, batter downwardly job solid walls. . . The Konkomba are ever on the verge of hunger too only past times frugal living tin their nutrient go made to final until a novel crop is in. The unfortunate thing is that Konkombas do non ain the solid ground they cultivate large farms on with their toil. Most of the lands are owned past times either Mamprusi,Gonja or their mortal enemies,Dagombas. As a final result they are ever to brand payments to the solid ground owners. This is 1 of the major reasons why the Konkombas are ever fighting to larn a paramountcy or chiefs inward the they have got settled on for many years.
Commercial activities. Most konkombas are yam sellers apart from growing it. They are well-known for their "Yam markets" inward the large cities. Konkomba markets are non simply economical ventures but are of import social events. Much every bit people see the marketplace to purchase too merchandise goods they also see to run into friends from nearby villages. to potable pito beer too by too large taste the society of immature human being Konkomba. Markets are typicaIly held on a cleared patch of solid ground next ta the route which runs through the hamlet too inward add-on to the agricultural make sold past times Konkomba farmers to visiting Tchakosi too Bimoba villagers who also laid upwardly butcher stalls for the Konkornba to purchase meat products. Other merchants include dress sellers, foam
mattress salesmen too full general vendors of household sundries. Tait notes at that topographic point are few merchandise specialists inward Konkomba.
Konkomba potter
Ghana`s majuscule Accra, has its Konkomba Yam Market at the Central business. As deeply earth-deity worshiping, people Konkombas have got ground deity inward their markets too. The marketplace has an ground shrïne, a little too somewhat defoliated Baobab tree, located inward the residential expanse of the market.
Konkomba women at Saboba market
The Accra marketplace has an ground elderberry or Utindaan, who oversees all offerings made to this shrine. He also provides blessing to a novel trader or broker of they want to laid upwardly a novel stall inward the market. The marketplace Utindaan is the ultimate authorization inside the marketplace inward all matters concerning layout of the market, residential issues, too trader disputes.
The marketplace chairman or Onekpel fixes prices inward the marketplace too costs paid past times farmers for yam shipping The chairman, assisted past times the cooperative board, which is composed of influential too wealthy négociants, sets a measure toll for each type of yam according to the render too need for item varieties. The marketplace Onekpel also oversees relations with the numerous Dagomba women who go inward the marketplace as
porters for the Konkomba, acting essentially every bit a liaison betwixt the Konkomba too the Dagomba who are inward the employ of marketplace négociants. The seat of liaison inward the marketplace however, is much changed from the role occupied past times the Onekpels co-opted past times the Dagbani inward times past.
Political too social structures
The konkomba social club is an acephalous one. There is no chief. The ‘clan’ too its territorial ‘district’ were the largest Konkomba political units. Clans are made upwardly of major lineages (of v generations) which splintered inward pocket-sized lineages (three generations) too households and ‘each monastic enjoin of segmentation has its ain ritual symbol.’ The Konkomba clan is ‘a morally witting body’ based on ‘ritual too jural activities’ of an egalitarian gerontocracy of identify unit of measurement elders-unikpel (plural:bininkpiib).
Konkomba dancers from Togo
Konkomba political clan autonomy was based on territorial ground rituals to local spirits inward territorial ‘districts’: Descendants of the initiatory of all settlers were eligible every bit ground priest (otindaa, amend spelt utindaan). Konkomba were non capable of organizing on a supra-tribal level, so when Dagomba, with their centralized province structure, invaded the Konkomba territories inward the seventeenth century, they picked off the Konkomba ‘clan past times clan.’ Because inter-tribal relationships were ordinarily marked past times a tense province of reserve, too intra-clan violence was tabooed (tensions were neutralised inward joking relations or witchcraft accusations, most Konkomba communal violence were inter-clan feuds. Such feuds could go ceremonially ended betwixt ritually obliged clans (timantotiib).
Konkomba family
Many tribes, but non all, are distinguished past times unlike confront marks. Clans of the same tribe stand upwardly inward ritual partnership too kithship to each other, both relations of ritual assistance. Clans of the same tribe convey the rite of Bi sub tibwar to destination a feud. Finally, clans of the same tribe come upwardly to each other's assistance inward a larn by against members of some other tribe too at that topographic point is no destination to inter-tribal fighting. We may hence speak of feud betwixt clans too of state of war betwixt tribes.
The Konkomba organization is 1 of small, segmented, agnatic clans. Four kinds of grouping relation unite clans too serve to mitigate hostility betwixt them. At the plane of personal relations ties of amity, similar those of matrilateral kinship, serve to cut down hostility too assist to obviate fights. The relations are: naabo, that betwixt children of 1 woman; taabo, that betwixt children of 1 human being ; nabo, that betwixt children of the women of 1 clan ; nato, that, betwixt men married to clan‐sisters ; too dzo, human being speaking, or nakwoo, adult woman speaking, friend.
Hardworking Konkomba women
The naabo necktie is stronger too warmer than taabo but both imply reciprocal rights too duties patch nabo too nato do not. The basic relation is seen to go naabo which is extended on the regulation of the unity of the lineage to give ascent to those of nabo too nato. The relation of friendship is the only voluntary 1 though it is linked with the lover relationship, bwa, the only voluntary human relationship betwixt men too women. Friendship oft gives ascent to marriages too so creates kinship ties which inward plough give ascent to the relations of amity. All these human relationship attain widely to cross the boundaries of lineage, clan too tribe.
It is non ever possible to distinguish a tribe past times the confront marks alone. Some of the outlying Konkomba refer to those of the Oti champaign every bit the Bemwatib, the River people. Of these the Betshabob, Bemokpem, Nakpantib too Besangma have got the same mark.
No Konkomba knows all the other tribes but most Konkomba know of the Betshabob, the Bemokpem, the Benafiab, the Begbem, the Besangma too the Bekwom. Of these the Betshabob too Bemokpem must each number to a greater extent than than 6,000 too of each some 3,000 alive inward Republic of Ghana on the due west banking company of the Oti. These are the 2 largest tribes. The Nakpantib too the Kpaltib number non to a greater extent than than 2,000 each.
There are rattling broad dialectal variations inward Konkomba language. The dialects of the neighbouring Betshabob, Bemokpem, Begbem too Nakpantib are unopen plenty so a speaker of 1 of them may communicate easily with a speaker of another. Speech betwixt a Betshabob too a Benafiab is hard fifty-fifty though the tribes are separated at the nearest dot past times only 16 miles. Speech betwixt the River people too the Bekwom of northern Gushiego is so hard that they communicate, when possible, inward Dagbane.
Marriage
KONKOMBA practise the betrothal of babe girls to immature men inward their early on twenties who thereafter give bride service too pay bride corn to their parents-in-law, until the daughter is of an historic flow to marry. The babe daughter is known to the human being every bit his 'wife' (pu); at that topographic point is no distinction inward Konkomba betwixt a 'betrothed girl' too a 'wife'. By 'wife' I shall hateful a daughter who has joined her married adult man inward his chemical compound too when I job the verb 'to marry' it is every bit the translation of the Konkomba phrase which way 'to go to the husband'.
Konkomba woman
When a daughter kid is born, her parents are approached too given presents of pots of beer too fowls past times the parents of a immature human being of betwixt 20 too twenty-four. Often the parents of the daughter have several offers amongst which to choose. Sometimes the initiatory of all pace is taken past times the immature human being himself who sends a gift of firewood to the woman bring upwardly of the child, who is confined to the room inward which the kid was born for a calendar week after the birth.
Konkomba footling girls washing inward a stream
The approach to the parents of the daughter is made every bit before long every bit the gender activity of the babe is known. There is oft competition betwixt those seeking wives who try, past times making large gifts, to persuade the parents to betroth the kid to them. There is also competition to send the gifts to the parents every bit speedily every bit possible; to this destination a immature man's sister, herself married into some other clan, volition non only send speedy give-and-take of a woman someone nascency to her blood brother but volition fifty-fifty warn him of expected births, so that he tin have got firewood ready to send to the woman bring upwardly should the kid plough out to go a girl.
If the initiatory of all gifts go accepted too so the sender knows that he is beingness considered every bit a prospective son-in-law. The gifts should non otherwise go accepted. Some weeks later, inward final result when it is clear that the kid is probable to live, some other pot of beer is sent. When the kid is several months sometime the determination should go made too a son-in-law chosen from amongst the contestants. An elderly human being with children tin also go a contestant. The younger brothers of a human being may refer to his married adult woman every bit m pu or “my wife” too she inward plough may refer to him
every bit n tshar “my husband.”
Konkomba adult woman preparing meal
Religious Belief
To go born into Konkomba social club meant next a laid of rituals too ceremonies that were an integral component subdivision of tribal life too survival. There was no distinction betwixt sacred too secular, spiritual too material, or trunk too soul. The ‘religious’ was introduce inward every seem of life: work, food, wars, procreation too rest. Atheists were non-existent. Everybody believed inward the spirit world too inward the fetishes (mountains, trees, rocks too fifty-fifty man-made objects) that represented the diverse spirits. They also believed inward totems: animals or birds that were sacred to the clan.
Konkomba Yam festival
According to Konkomba religious belief, Uwumbor is the Supreme being, creator of spirits, cosmos too people: the source of all life too moral lawgiver. Man`s soul (nwiin) comes from Uwumbor too after death, it returns to him. Uwumbor is etymologically connected to the give-and-take ubor (Ruler). More oft Konkomba appealed to beings of a lower other which are unopen to them.
There are other spirits which are evil too. One of such spirits is Kininbon (Satan), lord of all the evil spirits. The spirits also included the souls of the ancestors who demanded honor too sacrifices inward render for
withholding punishment.
Konkomba people
The world Shrine Worship
In the religious life of the Konkomba, every bit with many other Republic of Guinea coast peoples, ground shrines too the cult of the ground play a crucial role. The ground is the essential medium through which the people of West Africa, people to whom the spirits of the ancestors play a supremely of import role inward quotidian life, commune with the past times too those who went before. The ground is a vital symbol of fertility inward the dwelling too inward the fields too the ancestors, the ultimate source of sanction for social life for the people of the Northern Territories of Republic of Ghana (Manoukian 195 1 : 83).
The world Kitik is woman bring upwardly of heavenly god Uwumbor. The personified divinity Kitik is a universal deity of all the Konkomba. It is manifested inward the multitude of world spirits, protectors of item clans. The world spirits are manlike someone or female. Each clan has its ain world shrine called litingbaln which symbolizes too personifies the local world spirit, the protector of all members of a given clan. The world shrine is the most of import sacred identify of the clan too the main centre of the world cult.The writer of the newspaper presents the names, places too kinds of world shrines too provides an interpretation of the ritual performed inward the shrine of world spirit Naapaa inward the hamlet of Bwagbaln. The job of the study is to present the social too religious meanings of the world shrine inward Bwagbaln every bit the main cult centre of v clans of the Bichabob tribe. The source footing was provided initiatory of all of all past times the author's acre go conducted amongst the Konkomba people inward the expanse of Saboba betwixt July 1984 too Jan 1985 every bit good every bit betwixt September 1990 too August 1991.
Konkomba traditional dance
The world shrines amongst the Konkomba ordinarily consist of baobabs too groves. Under the trees too inward the groves at that topographic point are sacrificial stones fulfilling the component subdivision of an altar on which offerings are made. The world shrines are ordinarily situated inward the vicinity of the homesteads or on the border betwixt the arable solid ground too the bush.As opposed to other clan world shrines of the Konkomba people, the world shrine inward Bwagbaln is of clan too supra clan character. As the symbol of the unity of v clans from the Bichabob tribe, it is the most of import world shrine too the fundamental identify of cult the members.The world cult of the Konkomba is initiatory of all of all connected with such seasonal agricultural activities every bit making preparations for yam planting, corn sowing too for the harvest. The ritual inward Bwagbaln was performed on 24 March, 1991, that is inward the dry out season, earlier the acre work. Its principal aim was to enquire for the rain. The ritual functioning inward Bwagbaln is a status for showtime the acre go inward the novel agrarian flavor too it precedes the rituals connected with world inward the homesteads too world shrines inward the villages of Nalongni, Kumwateek, Kiteek too Bwakul. The ritual inward Bwagbaln had the greatest supra clan attain too inward that ceremony over 20 elders participated who were representatives of major lineages too clans from Bwagbaln, Saboba, Tilangben, Nalongni, Kiteek, Bwakul (Ghana) too Yoborpu too Lagee (Togo). The participants of the ritual are connected with each other past times way of clan community bonds (unibaan), ritual bonds (mantotiib) every bit good every bit friendship too neighborhood bonds.
Konkomba hamlet inward Togo
Sacrifice-Serving The Shrine
For the Konkomba solid ground is intimately connected with fertility, too the number of pots used inward a solid ground rite is ever greater than two. Two of the pots are ever separated too regarded every bit the shrine of the twin spirit; twins are seen every bit symbols of fertile solid ground too of a bountiful harvest to come upwardly throughout Gur territory.
Among the Bimotiev 1 oft encounters foursquare clay posts, roughly 20 centimetres inward width too one-half a meter high, inward the fundamental yard of a hilly chemical compound or placed inward a bush. Upon these posts, calabashes filled with medicine, typically the leaves of germinated seed yams, are placed. These shrines are granted therapeutic too curative powers, they are protective shrines, intended to ensure the good beingness of hamlet member.
H5N1 Stone placed amongst the boughs of a tree located on the right side of a identify unit of measurement chemical compound is idea to symbolize the protective ground spirit of a homestead. H5N1 blood-red rooster is sacrificed to this shrine whenever the chemical compound caput requires the intervention of a bush spirit whether it go for greater prosperity or increased yields from his yarn mounds (Zimon 1992: 1 1 8)
"Konkomba carriers inward Banjeli. The Chief's house." Circa 1910
Death too afterlife beliefs:
Both animate beingness too human spirits interact with the living. Kenjaa are practiced spirits, kesou are evil. Kesou that plague the living may go kenjaa past times beingness captured at which dot they serve every bit advisors. Typically, the dead bring together their ancestors, regardless of their crimes, with the exception of sorcerers who’s kin must brand sacrifices on his behalf.
Sourcehttp://www.ama.africatoday.com/konkomba.htm
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk3/ftp05/MQ64907.pdf
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