Info For Y'all Ife People: Ancient Artistic, Highly Spiritual In Addition To The Start Out Yoruba People
Ife people are ancient, originally spiritual, highly advanced artistic together with agriculturalist Yoruboid-speaking people that forms the sub-group of the larger Yoruba people of West Africa, peculiarly inwards Nigeria together with the Republic of Benin. The Ife people are "primus inter pares" when it comes the source together with spirituality of Yoruba. They are the initiatory of all Yoruba people from which all other Yoruba people emerged together with dispersed to shape other Yoruba sub-groups inwards the world. Ife people are found exactly inwards the metropolis of Ile-Ife, which sits inwards the Southwestern Nigerian State of Osun. This ancient "Yoruba Spiritual Mecca" of a metropolis is surrounded past times hills together with is close l miles (80.467kms) to Ibadan together with Osogbo. The metropolis of Ile-Ife is also known as 'Ife' or 'Ilurun' which way ‘the gateway to heaven’ (Eluyemi 1986:16).
Ife people celebrating their Obatala festival at Ile Ife
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the source of the Yoruba people together with it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on flow of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to found when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the initiatory of all King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) together with Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that in that location were betwixt 90 3 to 90 7 kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards together with around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to remove hold encountered indigenous people inwards the part (Falola together with Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong remove hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
Ile ife women inwards their traditional dress
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ or and the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the spot where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwards upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher spot suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded together with situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual source (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental together with continuity of nifty bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a oculus from which Yoruba civilisation emanates together with a spot for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997).
Diasporan Ifa priests undergoing their initiation at Ifa temple inwards Ile Ife, Nigeria
The early on written records that mentionss Ife was during the early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era when the well-known adventurer, historian together with travelor Ibn Battûta(1325–1354) mentioned them inwards his travelogue. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a province called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is i of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is i of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a province that “No white human being tin go inwards … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing together with mercantile interests, amid these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, atomic number 26 smelting together with forging, together with textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife remove hold been found as far due west as Mali, Mauritania, together with modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good remove hold learned of this oculus inwards the course of study of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the call Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the instance inwards maps from this era, the call Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a belatedly fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions close an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amid others)
Ife is good known as the metropolis of 401 or 201 deities. It is said that every twenty-four sixty minutes flow of the twelvemonth the traditional Ifa worshippers celebrate a festival of i of these deities. Often the festivals extend over to a greater extent than than i twenty-four sixty minutes flow together with they involve both priestly activities inwards the palace together with theatrical dramatisations inwards the ease of the kingdom. Because of Ife’s importance inwards the realm of creation, it has many traditional festivals to commemorate the many deities known inwards the history of the metropolis together with inwards Yoruba land. The most spectacular festivals demand the King's participation. These include the Itapa festival for Obatala together with Obameri, the Edi festival for Moremi Ajasoro, together with the Igare masqueraders, together with the Olojo festival for Ogoun. During the festivals together with at other occasions the traditional priests offering prayers for the approving of their ain cult-group, the metropolis of Ile Ife, the Nigerian land together with the whole world.
Ile Ifa Ifa practitioners inwards a street procession inwards celebration of the anniversary of the Orisha Obatala festival.
The Oòni (or king) of Ife claims direct descent from Oduduwa, together with is counted initiatory of all amid the Yoruba kings. He is traditionally considered the 401st deity (òrìshà), the only i that speaks. In fact, the royal dynasty of Ife traces its source dorsum to the founding of the metropolis to a greater extent than than 2 K years ago. The nowadays ruler is Alayeluwa Oba Okunade Sijuwade, Olubuse II, styled His Imperial Majesty past times his subjects. The Ooni ascended his throne inwards 1980. Following the formation of the Yoruba Orisha Congress inwards 1986, the Ooni acquired an international status the likes of which the holders of his championship hadn't had since the city's colonisation past times the British. Nationally he had e'er been prominent amongst the Federal Republic of Nigeria's society of royal Obas, beingness regarded as the primary priest together with custodian of the holy metropolis of all the Yorubas. In one-time times, the palace of the Oni of Ife was a construction built of authentic enameled bricks, decorated with artistic porcelain tiles together with all sorts of ornaments.
Statue of Oduduwa, the progenitor of Yoruba people
Ife people together with their ancient metropolis of Ile Ife which is regarded as the ancient metropolis of Old Yoruba, are so precious together with sacred to the Yoruba people so much that every Yoruba sub-group is forbidden to assail them no affair how they provoke a particular sub-group. Attacking an Ife citizen or Ile Ife town is an abomination, high treason together with sacrilegious human activity that tin Pb to consummate extermination of a particular Yoruba group, as all other Yoruba groups volition come upwards together to acquire by against whatever Yoruba that acquire by or assail Ife citizen or towns. The instance inwards dot is how combined Yoruba forces led past times Ijebu, Ife together with their allies completely destroyed the original habitat of Orile-Owu or Owu-Ipole together with their Ikija allies forcing them to flee to seek sanctuary at Abeokuta amid the Egbas, when Owu people nether the leadership of Olowu Amororo attacked Ife towns. The final result result of Olowu`s activeness became a disaster for the Owu people inwards their original abode together with threw the whole of Yoruba Blue Planet into civil war. In fact, the Owu were thoroughly defeated past times the combined forces of Ibadan together with Ijebu, together with the Oni of Ife, the spiritual caput of the Yorubas, ordered with his constitutional authority, that the Owu capital, Orile-Owu must live destroyed with no human existence. According to Samuel Johnson inwards his renowned bulk "The History of the Yoruba" Owu was rendered helpless as famine emerged together with they "began for the initiatory of all fourth dimension to eat those large beans called popondo (or awuje) hitherto considered unfit for food; hence the taunting songs of the allies : —
"Popondo I'ara Owu nje. (The Owus at nowadays live on propondo)
Aje f'ajaga bo 'run." (That done, their necks for the yoke)
Unto this day, whoever would hum this ditty within the hearing of an Owu man, must hold back out for an accident to his ain person. Ikija was the only Egba town which befriended the metropolis of Owu inwards her straits hence after the autumn of the latter town, the combined armies went to punish her for supplying Owu with provisions during the siege. Being a much smaller town, they presently made curt piece of occupation of it. After the devastation of Ikija,^ the allies returned to their one-time army camp at Idi Ogungun (under the Ogiingun tree). "Owu was thenceforth placed nether an interdict, never to live rebuilt ; together with it was resolved that inwards future, nevertheless nifty mightiness live the population of Oje — the nearest town to it — the town walls should non extend as far as the Ogungun tree, where the army camp was pitched. Consequently to this day, although the Blue Planet may live cultivated yet no i is allowed to build a theatre on it." (Johnson, 1928)
According to Fashogbon (1995) recounting the oral historical handout of the ancient Yoruba town of Ile-Ife submits that “it is the initiatory of all creation inwards this world”. Ile-Ife is the holy city, the dwelling of divinities together with mysterious spirits, the source of all oceans together with the gateway to heaven. H5N1 schoolhouse of thought fifty-fifty speculates that Ile-Ife was the spot of civilization from where Arab Republic of Egypt received its civilization which later spread to the Hebrews together with the Babylonians together with so to the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans together with finally to the Britons (Fabunmi, 1969).
Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' together with 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline. Generally, therefore, Ile-Ife has earned many enviable appellations, viz:
Ile-Ife, ile Owuro Ile-Ife, the Blue Planet of the most ancient days
Ile-Ife, Oodaye Ile-Ife, where the news of creation took place
Ile-Ife, Ibi ti ojumo ti mowa Ile-Ife, where the dawn of the twenty-four sixty minutes flow was initiatory of all experienced
Ile-Ife, Ori yeah gbogbo Ile-Ife, caput of the whole universe
Ile-Ife, Ooye Lagbo Ile-Ife the metropolis of the Survivors.
(Fashogbon, op.cit)
Yoruba oral history fifty-fifty testifies to it that Oduduwa the progenitor of the Yoruba, together with other ‘Leaders of Mankind’ (deities together with divinities) were the Survivors (Ooye Lagbo) after the deluge together with that they were the founders of Ile-Ife whence the people migrated to the different territories they presently occupy (Fashogbon, 1995).
Yoruba people consider Ife as a spot where the founding deities Oduduwa together with Obatala began the creation of the world, as directed past times the paramount deity Olodumare. Obàtálá created the initiatory of all humans out of clay, spell Odùduwà became the initiatory of all divine manlike someone monarch of the Yoruba. But it must live emphasised that Oduduwa together with Obatala met aboriginal people on the land. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all remove hold on i factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established in that location (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to remove hold come upwards downward with the initiatory of all political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures together with Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the call of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
Yoruba religious history, emerged most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s 2nd dynasty inwards close 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to remove hold been made, a flow closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, together with with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis computer programme inwards which the palace together with marketplace spot are located inwards the oculus surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This computer programme features 4 main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were i time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The computer programme of Ile-Ife, which may remove hold housed some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology together with directional primacy.
Ooni (King) of Ile Ife, Alayeluwa Oba Okunade Sijuwade, Olubuse II. He is also Nigeria`s 2nd richest King together with Africa`s tertiary richest manlike someone monarch with his cyberspace worth at to the lowest degree $75 meg . His coin comes from Construction, Property, together with Oil. Source www.fuse.com.
In Ife artistic works, of import people were often depicted with large heads because the artists believed that the Ase was held inwards the head, the Ase beingness the inner powerfulness together with unloose energy of a person. Their rulers were also often depicted with their mouths covered so that the powerfulness of their vox communication would non live also great. They did non idealize private people, but they tended rather to idealize the business office of the king. The metropolis was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th together with 12th centuries, with houses featuring potsherd pavements. Ilé-Ifè is known worldwide for its ancient together with naturalistic bronze, rock together with terra cotta sculptures, which reached their peak of artistic human face betwixt 1200 together with 1400 A.D. After this period, production declined as political together with economical powerfulness shifted to the nearby kingdom of Republic of Benin which, similar the Yoruba kingdom of Oyo, developed into a major empire.
Bronze together with terra cotta fine art created past times this civilization are important examples of realism inwards pre-colonial African art.
In his book, "The Oral Traditions inwards Ile-Ife," Yemi D. Prince referred to the terra cotta artists of 900 A.D. as the founders of Art Guilds, cultural schools of philosophy, which today tin live likened to many of Europe's old institutions of learning that were originally established as religious bodies. These guilds may good live some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centres of learning to remain as feasible entities inwards the contemporary world. A major exhibition entitled Kingdom of Ife: Sculptures of West Africa, displaying works of fine art found inwards Ife together with the surrounding area, was held inwards the British Museum from 4 March to 4 July 2010.
Today a mid-sized city, Ife is dwelling to both the Obafemi Awolowo University together with the Natural History Museum of Nigeria. Its people are of the Yoruba ethnic group, i of the largest ethnolinguistic groups inwards Africa together with its diaspora (The population of the Yoruba exterior of their homeland is said to live to a greater extent than than the population of Yoruba inwards Nigeria, close 35 million).[citation needed] Ife has a local television set station called NTA Ife, together with is dwelling to various businesses. It is also the merchandise oculus for a farming part where yams, cassava, grain, cacao, together with tobacco are grown. Cotton is also produced, together with is used to weave cloth. Hotels inwards Ilé-Ife include Republic of Cameroon Hotel, Hotel Diganga Ife-Ibadan road, Mayfair Hotel, Obafemi Awolowo University Guest House etc. Ilé-Ife has a stadium with a capacity of 9,000 together with a 2nd partitioning professional person league football game team.
The Orunmila Barami Agbonmiregun, the World Ifa Festival was held Sat June 4-5, 2011 at Oketase the World Ifa Temple, Ile-Ife.
Mythic source of Ife, the holy city: Creation of the world
The Yoruba claim to remove hold originated inwards Ife. According to their mythology, Olodumare, the Supreme God, ordered Obatala to create the ground but on his way he found palm wine, drank it together with became intoxicated. Therefore the younger blood brother of the latter, Oduduwa, took the 3 items of creation from him, climbed downward from the heavens on a chain together with threw a handful of ground on the primordial ocean, together with so spot a cockerel on it so that it would scatter the earth, thus creating the Blue Planet on which Ile Ife would live built. Oduduwa planted a palm nut inwards a hole inwards the newly formed Blue Planet together with from in that location sprang a nifty tree with xvi branches, a symbolic representation of the clans of the early on Ife city-state.
The usurpation of creation past times Oduduwa gave ascension to the ever lasting conflict betwixt him together with his elderberry blood brother Obatala, which is soundless re-enacted inwards the modern era past times the cult groups of the 2 clans during the Itapa New Year's Day festival. On business concern human relationship of his creation of the world Oduduwa became the ancestor of the initiatory of all divine manlike someone monarch of the Yoruba, spell Obatala is believed to remove hold created the initiatory of all humans out of clay. The pregnant of the news "ife" inwards Yoruba is "expansion"; "Ile-Ife" is thence inwards reference to the myth of source "The Land of Expansion". Due to this fact, the metropolis is unremarkably regarded as the cradle of non only the Yoruba culture, but all of humanity as well, especially past times the followers of the Yoruba faith.
Oduduwa had sons, daughters together with a grandson who went on to found their ain kingdoms together with empires, namely Ila Orangun, Owu, Ketu, Sabe, Popo, Oyo together with Benin. Oranmiyan, Oduduwa's in conclusion born, was i of his father's principal ministers together with overseer of the nascent Edo empire after Oduduwa granted the plea of the Edo people for his governance. When Oranmiyan decided to go dorsum to Ile Ife after a flow of service inwards Benin, he left behind a kid named Eweka that he had inwards the interim with an indigenous princess. The immature man child went on to acquire the initiatory of all legitimate ruler of the 2nd Edo dynasty that has ruled what is at nowadays Republic of Benin from that twenty-four sixty minutes flow to this. Oranmiyan later went on to found the Oyo empire that stretched at its superlative from the western banks of the river Niger to the Eastern banks of the river Volta. It would serve as i of the most powerful of Africa's medieval states prior to its collapse inwards the 19th century.
Language
The people of Ife speak a unique together with authentic Central Yoruba (CY) dialect of Yoruba linguistic communication which belongs to the larger Niger-Congo linguistic communication family. Apart from Ife, the other Yoruba sub-groups that speak Central Yoruba (CY) dialects are Igbomina, Yagba, Ilésà, Ekiti, Akurẹ, Ẹfọn, together with Ijẹbu areas.
History of Ife Kingdom
In the southern forested part of Nigeria, the largest centralized states were the kingdoms centered on Ile-Ife together with Republic of Benin which emerged past times 1500 CE together with the origins of the Ife natives are lost inwards antiquity (Falola together with Heaton 2008, Osasona et al 2009). According to Biobaku (1955) the town was likely founded betwixt the seventh together with tenth centuries AD; Jeffrey (1958) opines that it had acquire a flourishing civilization past times the 11th Century. Carbon-dating yielded from piece of occupation of archaeologists appears to back upwards these views, as it establishes that Ile Ife “was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th together with 12th centuries” (Willett, 1971:367, Smith 1988). Drewal et al (1998)also suggested that the site of Ile–Ife was occupied as early on as 350 B.C. together with consisted of a cluster of hamlets; though piffling is known close the early on occupants except for a metropolis wall at Enuwa together with later the construction of some other outer metropolis wall. Traditionally, Ile-Ife was divided into 5 quarters namely Iremo, Okerewe, Moore, Ilode together with Ilare together with within each quarter were compounds with spot unit of measurement lineages (Eluyemi 1978). The traditional Ife kingdom, schematically, could live described as a wheel, with the Oba’s palace as the hub, from which roads radiated similar spokes together with inwards relation to which the en-framing town wall represented the rim (Krapf-Askari, 1969; Obateru, 2006). Ile–Ife is regarded thence as the metropolis of old Yoruba. Though suggested past times various scholars including Johnson (1921); Lucas (1948); together with Ajayi together with Crowther (1972) that Ile-Ife is fabled as the spot where God created man, white together with dark together with from whence they dispersed all over the ground it is yet to live scientifically proven. Fabunmi (1969) farther argued that Ile Ife is farther regarded together with believed to live the cradle of the world. The history of Ile Ife though unwritten is based on oral traditions together with referred to as the original dwelling of all things, the spot where the twenty-four sixty minutes flow dawns; the holy city, the dwelling of divinities together with mysterious spirits (Okelola, 2001). It is nevertheless believed that the tradition of the world together with of the source of the peoples together with their province centers on Ile Ife, the source whence all the major rulers of the together with so southern Nigeria derive the sanctions of their kingship where gods, shrines together with festivals forms the oculus of faith (Smith 1988).
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ together with the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the spot where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwards upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher spot suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded together with situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual source (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental together with continuity of nifty bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a oculus from which Yoruba civilisation emanates together with a spot for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997). There was a monarch called Ogane who reigned inwards ancient Ife whom modern scholars remove hold identified as the Ooni of Ife (Pereira 1937, Krapf-Askari 1969, Harris, 1997). The Ooni or Onife is regarded as the spiritual caput of the Yoruba whose influence was non confined to his ain kingdom but was also exercised over other Yoruba kingdoms through the sanctions of kinship together with past times ancient constitutional devices (Smith 1988). The Ooni is believed to live a sacred beingness because he sits on the throne of Oduduwa at Ile-Ife.
Statue of Moremi at Moremi Hall (UNILAG) . Moremi was the married adult woman of Oranmiyan. A adult woman of tremendous beauty together with a faithful together with zealous supporter of her hubby together with the Kingdom of Ile Ife.
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the source of the Yoruba people together with it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on flow of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to found when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the initiatory of all King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) together with Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that in that location were betwixt 90 3 to 90 7 kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards together with around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to remove hold encountered indigenous peop,le inwards the part (Falola together with Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa . has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong remove hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
The metropolis of Ile-Ife today sits inwards what is today Osun State inwards southern Nigeria located on the longitude 4.6N together with 7.5°N, surrounded past times hills together with is close l miles (80.467kms) to Ibadan together with Osogbo (Philips, 1852; White, 1876). The metropolis popularly known to as Ile-Ife together with the people are referred to as 'Ife' who also refer to the town as 'Ife' or 'Ilurun' which way ‘the gateway to heaven’ (Eluyemi 1986:16). Confirmed to live situated on the site of ancient Ile Ife due to the location of the 7 brass castings excavated from the ancient Ife sites which were inwards corresponding stratigraphic positions confirming that a small town of substantial size existed in that location betwixt the 9th together with 12th centuries (Willet, 1967). He also confirmed that the terra cotta sculpture together with lost wax (cire-perdue) castings were made in that location from early on inwards the nowadays millennium. Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' together with 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline.
Freedom’ ceremony. Taken at Ile-Ife inwards nowadays twenty-four sixty minutes flow Osun State. 1968. Freedom ceremonies marked women’s graduation into professions such as nursing together with tailoring
Among the initiatory of all of the Ife works to gain the West were those brought to Europe past times the British colonial governor Gilbert Thomas Carter. According to Samuel Johnson (p. 647) "three of those national together with ancestral works of fine art known as the 'Ife marbles' "were given to Carter inwards 1896 by
Adelekan, the together with so of late crowned manlike someone monarch of Ife. Johnson explains that the manlike someone monarch gave them to Governor Carter inwards an effort to gain a positive determination concerning the resettlement of Modakeke residents exterior the city.
Past Ooni of Ife
1ST ODUDUWA
2ND OSANGANGAN OBAMAKIN
3RD OGUN
4TH OBALUFON OGBOGBODIRIN
5TH OBALUFON ALAYEMORE
6TH ORANMIYAN
7TH AYETISE
8TH LAJAMISAN
9TH LAJODOOGUN
10TH LAFOGIDO
11TH ODIDIMODE ROGBEESIN
12TH AWOROKOLOKIN
13TH EKUN
14TH AJIMUDA
15TH GBOONIJIO
16TH OKANLAJOSIN
17TH ADEGBALU
18TH OSINKOLA
19TH OGBORUU
20TH GIESI
21ST LUWOO (FEMALE)
22ND LUMOBI
23RD AGBEDEGBEDE
24TH OJELOKUNBIRIN
25TH LAGUNJA
26TH LARUNNKA
27TH ADEMILU
28TH OMOGBOGBO
29TH AJILA-OORUN
30TH ADEJINLE
31ST OLOJO
32ND OKITI
33RD LUGBADE
34TH ARIBIWOSO
35TH OSINLADE
36TH ADAGBA
37TH OJIGIDIRI
38TH AKINMOYERO
1770-1800
39TH GBANLARE
1800-1823
40TH GBEGBAAJE
1823-1835
41ST WUNMONIJE
1835-1839
42ND ADEGUNLE ADEWELA
1839-1849
43RD DEGBINSOKUN
1849-1878
44TH ORARIGBA
1878-1880
45TH DERIN OLOGBENLA- He was a powerful warrior!
1880-1894
46TH ADELEKAN (OLUBUSE I)- He was the initiatory of all Ooni to go exterior Ile-Ife to
Lagos inwards 1903 when he was invited past times the together with so Governor General to settle the
dispute involving Elepe of Epe. All Yoruba Kings including the Alaafin left
their respective thrones as a grade of honour for the Ooni. They returned to
their respective stools after Ooni returned to Ile-Ife from Lagos. Oba Adelekan
Olubuse was nicknamed 'ERIOGUN'; Akitikori; Ebitikimopiri.
1894-1910
47TH ADEKOLA
1910-1910
48TH ADEMILUYI (AJAGUN) - He also was reputed to live a powerful Monarch.
1910-1930
49TH ADESOJI ADEREMI- Very intelligent with expert foresight, he was invited to be
government minister without portfolio when he ruled from 1951 to 1955. He was the first
indigenous governor of Western Nigeria. One of his most laudable achievements
was the establishment of the GREAT University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo
University) at Ile-Ife.
1930-1980
His Royal Highness, Aleyeluwa, Oba Okunade Sijuade, Olubuse II, The Oni of Ife, Ile Ife, Osun State, arriving at the National Museum, Onikan Lagos for the opening ceremony inwards his car, on Friday, May 18, 2012..
Religion
Like most towns, the people are faith conscious. The 3 main religions inwards the metropolis are Christianity, Islam together with traditional. Traditional faith appears flourishing than the other 2 as most people who belong to either of the one-time 2 also remove hold soft spot for the age-long religion. So beingness a Christian or a Moslem does non foreclose you lot from the traditional religion, which the elders remove hold inwards high esteem. It is non uncommon to live a leader inwards a denomination together with soundless remove hold chieftaincy championship that has to do with shrine.
Here, Olojo is the biggest festival on the Ife cultural calendar. This festival is held annually to commemorate Oduduwa’s descent from heaven. It is during the Olojo festival that Ooni wears Aare crown. Aare is a mysterious crown worn only i time inwards a twelvemonth together with it is believed to possess the powerfulness that forthwith transfigure Ooni to the rank of Orisa (god). With 201 traditional religious festivals, it is only i twenty-four sixty minutes flow that is gratis that the people do non offering sacrifice at the various shrines that dot the town. This particular twenty-four sixty minutes flow remains a clandestine the primary together with priests of the kingdom hold so dear to the heart.
Ifa is some other sect that attracts expert number of the people. Unlike what obtains inwards most other towns where Ifa worship is individualized together with confined to illiterate priests or Babalawo inwards ramshackled buildings, it has been modernised such that i may error its worship centre for a church. Incidentally, their worship session is on Dominicus similar their Christian counterparts. When Dominicus Sun visited the imposing Ifa Auditorium on top of a hill, close Ife Town Hall, children were seen playing unmolested. The children admitted that they also worship inwards the Ifa hall along with the elders. The main auditorium is the Headquarters of Ifa Worship Worldwide, which was beingness prepared to host a coming together of all worshippers circular the globe in conclusion month. Araba is the primary priest.
Some of the main gods they worship include Obatala, Ogun, Olokun, Orunmila, Olojo, Sango, Ifa, Osun, Ela, Oya, Yemoja, Oranmiyan. These are what they telephone cry upwards ‘sky gods’ that command virtually everything on earth. Many remove hold that Ife is a fetish town ruled past times powers of darkness, but the chiefs together with leaders of the town think otherwise. Such views to them tin only live from i who is mentally unstable.
One of the oldest Stone buildings inwards Ile-Ife is the beautifully preserved Seventh Day Adventist church building built over a 100 years ago.
Dressing
The people love dressing good inwards either their native attire or westernized way. Though English linguistic communication garb has eroded the traditional pattern of dressing similar inwards other Nigerian cities, native wears are soundless prevalent amid the middle historic flow together with the elderly. When an Ife human being puts on Buba, he dons cap to consummate the dressing. The women are fifty-fifty to a greater extent than compliant inwards matters of tradition. Though Chief Ijaodola claimed that Aso Ofi is the main custume of his people, Ankara cloth is the commonest textile of the people today. The Ooni himself is an illustration inwards excellent sartorial taste. Each fourth dimension he comes out, he is pleasant to behold inwards his expensive apparel.
One thing real noticeable inwards the dressing of Ife people is that a high feel of dependent together with morality is soundless displayed. It is almost impossible to consider a lady-young or old inwards revealing clothes or inwards i that shows the upper or lower cleavage. Not fifty-fifty with Ife beingness a academy town volition i consider beckoning types of dressing on its streets.
Sola Omisore has an explanation for the decent dressing. “Discipline is instilled through spot unit of measurement lineage. We know ourselves. So if a lady dresses indecently, people volition say: Is this non the kid of so so? Don’t think because Ife is a metropolis that nosotros don’t know ourselves.”
Art inwards Ancient Ife, Birthplace of the Yoruba
Suzanne Preston Blier
Artists the world over shape cognition together with stuff into works of unique historical importance. The artists of ancient Ife, ancestral dwelling to the Yoruba together with mythic birthplace of gods together with humans, clearly were interested inwards creating works that could live read. Breaking the symbolic code that lies behind the unique meanings of Ife’s ancient sculptures, however, has vexed scholars working on this stuff for over a century. While much remains to live learned, thank you lot to a improve agreement of the larger corpus of ancient Ife arts together with the history of this of import southwestern Nigerian center, key aspects of this code tin at nowadays live discerned. In this article I explore how these arts both inform together with are enriched past times early on Ife history together with the leaders who shaped it.1 In add-on to
core questions of fine art iconography together with symbolism, I also address the rigid social, political, religious, together with historical import of these works together with what they let on close Ife (Ile-Ife) as an early
cosmopolitan center.
My analysis moves away from the recent framing of ancient Ife fine art from the advantage of Yoruba cultural practices collected inwards Nigeria to a greater extent than broadly, and/or the indiscriminate exercise of regional together with modern Yoruba proverbs, poems, or linguistic communication idioms to inform this city’s unique 700-year-old sculptural oeuvre. Instead I focus on historical together with other considerations inwards metropolitan Ife itself. This shift is an of import i because Ife’s history, language, together with fine art forms are notably different than those inwards the wider Yoruba part together with later eras. My approach also differs from recent studies that either ahistorically superimpose contemporary cultural conventions on the reading of ancient works or unilinearly posit fine art evolution models concerning shape or stuff differences that lack grounding inwards Ife archaeological evidence. My aim instead is to reengage these remarkable ancient works amongst various evidence on this center’s past times together with the fourth dimension frame specific to when these sculptures were made. In this way I select fine art together with history into direct engagement with each other, enriching both within this process.
One of the most of import events inwards ancient Ife history with honour to both the early on arts together with later era religious together with political traditions hither was a devastating civil state of war pitting i group, the supporters of Obatala (referencing today at i time a god, a deity pantheon, together with the region’s autochthonous populations) against affiliates of Odudua (an opposing deity, religious pantheon, together with newly arriving dynastic group). The Ikedu oral history text addressing Ife’s history (an annotated kings listing transposed from the early on Ife dialect; Akinjogbin n.d.) indicates that it was during the reign of Ife’s 46th king—what appears to live 2 rulers prior to the famous King Obalufon II (Ekenwa? Fig. 1)—that this vehement civil state of war broke out. This conflict weakened the metropolis plenty so that in that location was piffling resistance when a military machine strength nether the conqueror Oranmiyan (Fig. 2) arrived inwards this historic city. The dispute likely was framed inwards component subdivision around issues of command of Ife’s rich manufacturing resources (glass beads, amid these). Conceivably it was i of Ife’s feuding polities that invited this outsider strength to come upwards to Ife to aid rectify the province of affairs for their side.
As Akinjogbin explains (1992:98), Oranmiyan together with his calvary, after gaining command of Ife “… stemmed the … uprising past times siding with the weaker … of the disunited pre-Oduduwa groups .…
[driving Obalufon II] into exile at Ilara together with became the Ooni.” Eventually, the deposed King Obalufon II with the aid of a large segment of Ife’s population was able to defeat this military
leader together with the latter’s supporters. In Ife today, Odudua is identified inwards ways that complement Oranmiyan. As Akintitan explains (p.c.): “It was Odudua who was the in conclusion to come upwards to Ife, a man
who arrived as a warrior, together with took wages of the province of affairs to impose himself on Ife people.” King Obalufon II, who came to dominion twice at Ife, is positioned inwards local manlike someone monarch lists both at the end
of the initiatory of all (Obatala) dynasty together with at the commencement of the 2nd (Odudua) dynasty. He is also credited with bringing peace (a negotiated truce) to the i time feuding parties.
Political History together with Art at Ancient Ife
What or whom do these early on arts depict? Many of the ancient Ife sculptures are identified today with individuals who lived inwards the era inwards which Ife King Obalufon II was on the throne and/
or participated inwards the civil state of war associated with his reign. This together with other evidence suggests that Obalufon II was a key sponsor or patron of these ancient arts, an thought consistent with this
king’s modern identity as patron deity of bronze casting, textiles, regalia, peace, together with wellbeing. It also is possible that a bulk of the ancient Ife arts were created inwards conjunction with the famous
truce that Obalufon II is said to remove hold brokered i time he returned to powerfulness betwixt the embattled Ife citizens as he brought peace to this long embattled metropolis (Adediran 1992:91; Akintitan p.c.).
As component subdivision of his computer programme to reunite the feuding parties, Obalufon II also is credited with the creation of a novel metropolis computer programme with a large, high-walled palace at its center. Around the perimeters, the compounds of key chiefs from the i time feuding lineages were positioned. King Obalufon II seems at the same fourth dimension to remove hold pressed for the erection of novel temples inwards the metropolis together with the refurbishment of older ones, these serving inwards component subdivision to laurels the leading chiefs on both sides of the dispute. Ife’s ancient fine art works likely functioned as related temple furnishings.
One peculiarly art-rich shrine complex that may remove hold come upwards into novel prominence as component subdivision of Obalufon II’s truce is that honoring the ancient hunter Ore, a deity whose call also features
inwards i of Obalufon’s praise names. Ore is identified both as an of import autochthonous Ife resident together with as an opponent to “Odudua.” H5N1 number of remarkable granite figures inwards the Ore
Grove were the focus of ceremonies into the mid-twentieth century. One of these works called Olofefura (Fig. 4) is believed to correspond the deified Ore (Dennett 1910:21; Talbot 1926 2:339;
Allison 1968:13). Features of the sculpture suggest a dwarf or sufferer of a congenital disorder inwards keeping with the identity of many initiatory of all (Obatala) dynasty shrine figures with body anomalies or disease. Regalia details also offering clues. H5N1 three-strand choker encircles Olofefura’s neck; 3 bracelet coils embellish the wrist; 3 tassels hang from the left hip knot. These features link this work—and Ore—to the earth, autochthony, together with to the Ogboni association, a grouping promoted past times Obalufon II inwards component subdivision to save the rights of autochthonous residents.
The left hip knot shown on the wrapper of this work, as good as that of the taller, to a greater extent than elegant Ore Grove priest or retainer figure (Fig. 5), also recalls i of Ife’s little-known source myths within the Obatala priestly spot unit of measurement (Akintitan p.c.). According to this myth, Obatala hid the ase (vital force) necessary for Earth’s solidity within this knot, requiring his younger blood brother Odudua, after his theft of materials from Obatala, to hold back for the latter’s aid inwards completing the task. Consistent with this, Ogboni members are said to necktie their cloth wrappers on the left hip inwards retention of Obatala’s exercise of this knot to safeguard the requisite ase (Owakinyin p.c.). Iron inserts inwards the coiffure of the taller Ore figure complement those secured inwards the surface of the Oranmiyan staff (Fig. 2), indicating that this sculpture—like many ancient Ife works of stone—were made inwards the same era, e.g. the early
fourteenth century.
An additional noteworthy characteristic of these figures, together with others, is the importance of body proportion ratios. Among the Yoruba today, the body is seen to comprise 3 principal parts: head, trunk, together with legs (Ajibade n.d.:3). Many Ife sculptural examples (see Fig. 4; compare also Figs. 15–16) emphasize a larger-thanlife size scale of the caput (orí) inwards human relationship to the ease of the body (a roughly 1:4 ratio). Yoruba scholars remove hold seen this headprivileging ratio as reinforcing the importance of this body component subdivision as a symbol of ego together with destiny (orí), personality (wú), essential
nature (ìwà), together with potency (àse) (Abimbola 1975:390ff, Abiodun 1994, Abiodun et. al 1991:12ff).6 Or as Ogunremi suggests (1998:113), such features highlight: “The wealth or poverty of the land … [as] equated with the ‘head’ (orí) of the ruler of a particular locality.”
Both hither together with inwards ancient Ife fine art to a greater extent than generally, however, in that location is striking variability inwards related body proportions. Such ratios gain from roughly 1:4 for the Ore grove deity figure (Fig. 4), the consummate copper alloy manlike someone monarch figure (Fig. 15), the twosome from Ita Yemoo (Fig. 8), together with many of the terra cotta sculptures, to roughly 1:6 for the taller rock Ore grove figures (Fig. 5) together with the copper seated figure from Tada (Fig. 11). Why these proportional differences be inwards Ife fine art is non clear, but issues of course of study and/or status appear to live key. Whereas sculptures of Ife royals together with gods often exhibit 1:4 ratios, most nonroyals exhibit proportions much closer to life. In ancient Ife art, the higher the status, the greater likelihood that body proportions volition differ from nature inwards ways that greatly get upwards the size of the head. This non only highlights the caput as a prominent status together with potency marker, but also points to the primacy of social difference inwards visual rendering.
While many Ife (and Yoruba) scholars remove hold focused on how the caput is privileged inwards human relationship to the body, what also is important, together with to appointment overlooked, is that the belly is as important. The full, plump torsos (chest together with stomachs) of Ife figures depicting rulers together with deities complement modern Yoruba beliefs close wellness together with good beingness on the i hand, together with wealth together with powerfulness on the other. Related ideas are suggested past times the modern Yoruba term odù (“full”) which, when applied to an individual, way both “he has approving inwards abundance” together with “fortune shines on him”(Idowu 1962:33). H5N1 total belly is vital to royals together with deities non only as a reference to qualities of wellbeing but also as markers of province together with religious fullness. In his extended news of the concept of odù, the indigenous Ife religious scholar Idowu notes (1962:33) that the same term also indicates a “very
large together with deep pot (container)” together with past times extension anything that is of “sizable worth” and/or “superior quality.” This news features centrally inwards the request the high god, Ol-odù-marè. According to Idowu (1962:34) the latter exercise of the term signifies “He is One who is superlative,” odù hither invoking his real extraordinariness. Because large ceramic vessels called odù were employed inwards ancient Ife contexts as containers for highly valued goods such as beads together with fine art (including the Ita Yemoo manlike someone monarch figure, Fig. 16), this idiom offers an interesting modern complement together with descriptor for early on Ife sculptural portrayals of gods together with kings as containers belongings many benefits. H5N1 complementary characteristic of many ancient Ife works is that of composure or inner calm (àìkominún, “tranquility of the mind” inwards modern Yoruba; Abraham 1958:388). This notable lineament finds potential human face through the consummate tranquillity shown inwards their faces of early on Ife fine art (Figs. 1, 15, 16), a lineament that increases the feel of monumentality together with powerfulness inwards these remarkable works.
The ancient Ife arts from Ife’s Ore shrine, which appear to remove hold been carved as a unmarried sculptural group, include a rock vessel with crocodiles on its sides (Fig. 6). On its lid a frog (or toad) is shown inwards the jaws of a snake. The latter motif references the contestation betwixt Obatala together with Odudua for the center’s command (Akintitan p.c.; Adelekan p.c.). According Akintitan (p.c.), this blueprint addresses the less-than-straight way inwards which Odudua asserted command over Ife, since poisonous snakes are thought non to eat frogs (and toads). The crocodile, similar several other creature figurations from this grove, laurels Ore’s hunting together with angling prowess. Carved crocodiles, giant eggs, a mudfish (African lung fish), together with an elephant tusk reference the watery realm that dominated primordial Ife. H5N1 granite slab from this same site shows evenly placed holes (Fig. 7). This piece of occupation served perhaps as a existent or metaphoric measurement device for Ife’s changing H2O levels, inwards keeping both with frequent flooding hither (referenced inwards local accounts close Obalufon II’s wife
Queen Moremi) as good as Ife source myths inwards which the world is said to remove hold been formed only after Odudua sprinkled dirt upon the water’s surface (Idowu 1962, Blier 2004). One especially striking art-rich Ife site that also seems to remove hold been identified with Obalufon II together with his famous political truce is Ita Yemoo, the term yemoo serving as the championship for initiatory of all dynasty Ife queens. This temple complex lies close the site where the annual Edi festival terminates. The Edi ritual is dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Moremi, who also at i fourth dimension was married to Obalufon II’s adversary, the conqueror Oranmiyan. One of the most striking works from Ita Yemoo is a copper alloy casting of a manlike someone monarch together with queen (Fig. 8) with interlocked arms together with legs. The manlike someone royal wears a simian skull on his hip, a symbol of Obatala (monkeys evoking the region’s early on occupants) together with this deity’s identity with Ife’s autochthonous residents together with initiatory of all dynasty line. The woman someone points toward the ground, gesturing toward Odudua as both 2nd dynasty founder together with later Yoruba ground god. This royal twosome appears to reference inwards this way non only the painful Ife dynastic struggle betwixt competing Ife families together with chiefs, but also the political together with religious union promoted past times Obalufon II betwixt the these groups as component subdivision of his truce. Interestingly, a steatite caput recovered past times Frobenius at Offa (Moremi’s hometown northward of Ife) wears a similar queen’s crown. Offa is next to Esie where a grouping of similar steatite figures were found.
These Esie works conceivably also were identified with Moremi, the local heroine who became Ife’s queen.
H5N1 2nd copper alloy figure of a queen from the Ita Yemoo site is a tiny sculpture showing a recumbent crowned woman someone circumscribing a vessel laid atop a throne. She holds a scepter inwards i hand; the other grasps the throne’s curving handgrip (Fig.9). Her spot depicts a miniature of the quartz together with granite stools identified inwards the modern era primarily with Ife’s autochthonous (Obatala-linked) priests. The scepter that she holds is similar to some other piece of occupation from Ita Yemoo depicting a human being with unusual (for Ife) diagonal cheek grade (Willett 2004:M26a), a pattern similar to markings worn past times northern Yoruba residents from Offa amid other areas. The recumbent queen’s unusual composition appears to reference the transfer of powerfulness at Ife from the initiatory of all dynasty rulership grouping to the novel (second) dynasty line of kings, hither symbolized through a queen, what appears to be
Queen Moremi, the married adult woman of Obalufon II.
Another striking Ita Yemoo sculpture, a Janus staff mountain shares similar symbolism. The piece of occupation depicts 2 gagged human heads positioned back-to-back, i with vertical line facial marks, the other plain-faced, suggesting the union of 2 dynasties. This scepter likely was used as a society and
evokes both the penalty that befell supporters of either dynastic grouping committing serious crimes together with the unity of the 2 factions inwards province rituals involving human offerings, amid these coronations. This scepter mount’s weight together with heightened arsenic content reinforces this identity. H5N1 larger Janus scepter mountain from this same site depicts on i side a youthful caput together with on the other a real elderly man, consistent with 2 different dynasty portrayals, together with the complementary royal unification/division themes.
H5N1 large Ife copper figure of a seated manlike someone was recovered at Tada (Fig. 11), an of import Niger River crossing dot situated some 200 km northeast of Ife. This sculpture is linked inwards important
ways non only to King Obalufon II, but also to Ife trade, regional economical vitality, together with the key role of this ruler inwards promoting Ogboni (called Imole inwards Ife), the association dedicated to both autochthonous rights together with trade. The piece of occupation is stylistically real similar to the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1). Both are made of pure copper together with were likely cast past times members of the same workshop. Although the forearms together with hands of the seated figure are at nowadays missing, plenty remains to suggest that they may remove hold been positioned inwards front end of the body inwards a way resembling the well-known Ogboni association gestural motif of left mitt fisted to a higher spot correct (Fig. 12). This same gesture is referenced inwards the smaller standing figure (also cast of pure copper) from this same Tada shrine (Fig. 13). Obalufon descendant Olojudo reaffirmed (p.c.) the gestural identity of the standing Tada figure. As I remove hold argued elsewhere (1985) Yoruba works of copper are associated primarily with Ogboni together with Obalufon, consistent with the latter ruler’s association with bronze casting together with economical wellbeing.
Another notable Ogboni reference inwards these 2 copper works from Tada is the diamond-patterned wrapper (Morton Williams 1960:369, Aronson 1992) tied at the left hip with a knot. How the ancient Ife seated sculpture (and other works) found their way to this Tada shrine has been a dependent of consider able scholarly debate. I concur with Thurstan Shaw inwards his sentiment (1973:237) that these sculptures most likely were brought to this critical river-crossing dot because of the site’s identity with Niger River trade. As Shaw notes (1973:237) these works seem to live linked to Yoruba commercial engagement along the Niger River “… marking perhaps of import toll or command points of that trade.” Specifically, the seated Tada figure offers of import evidence of Ife’s early on command of this critical Niger River crossing point. Copper alloy castings of an elephant together with 2 ostriches (animals identified with valuable regional merchandise goods) which were found on this same Tada site likely reference the importance of ivory together with exotic feathers inwards the era’s long distance trade. The goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) who spans both the initiatory of all together with 2nd dynasty religious pantheons, is closely identified with promoting related commerce.
Contesting Dynasties: Politics of the Body
Two copper alloy castings depicting royals (Figs. 15–16) offering of import insight into early on Ife society, politics, together with history. One is the half-figure of a manlike someone from Ife’s Wunmonije site,
where a corpus of life-size copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed. The other sculpture is the notably similar full-length standing figure from the Ife site of Ita Yemoo, the locale where
the royal twosome (Fig. 8), tiny enthroned queen sculpture (Fig. 9), together with metallic scepter (Fig. 10) were created. Based on style together with similarities inwards form, the 2 works clearly were fashioned around the
same time, conceivably during Obalufon II’s reign. Their crowns are different from the tall, conical, veiled are crowns worn past times Ife monarchs today. The latter crown a shape also seen on the tiny Ife
figure of a manlike someone monarch found inwards Republic of Benin (Fig. 17).
Based on both their cap-form caput coverings together with the horn each holds inwards the left hand, the figures remove hold been identified as portraying rulers inwards battle (Odewale p.c.). Not only are the rulers’ caps reminiscent of the smaller crowns (arinla) worn past times Yoruba rulers inwards battle, suggests Odewale (p.c.), but historically, antelope horns similar to those carried inwards their left hands were used inwards battle. These horns were filled with powerful ase (authority/force/command), substances that could plough the course of study of state of war inwards one’s favor. When so filled, the horns assured that the king’s words would come upwards to pass, a key attribute of Yoruba statecraft. The 2 appear to live competitors (e.g. competing lineages) vying for theIfe throne, references to the ruling heads of Ife’s initiatory of all (Obatala) and
2nd (Odudua) dynasties shown hither inwards ritual battle.
While these 2 royal sculptures are real similar inwards style together with iconography, in that location are notable differences, including the handling of the rulers’ faces—one showing vertical line marks, the
other lacking facial lines. There are also notable distinctions inwards headdress details, specifically the diadem shapes together with cap tiers. The diadem of the Wunmojie manlike someone monarch with striated facial marks (Fig. 15) displays a rosette pattern surmounted past times a pointed plume, this motif resting atop a concentric circle. The headdress diadem on the plain-faced (unstriated) Ita Yemoo manlike someone monarch figure instead consists of a uncomplicated concentric circle surmounted past times a pointed plume. The rosette diadem of the manlike someone monarch with facial striations seems to send somewhat higher rank, for his diadem is laid to a higher spot the disk-form, as if to grade superior position. Moreover, the cap of the manlike someone monarch with vertical facial markings integrates four
tiers of beads spell the plain-faced king’s cap shows only three.
These differences both inwards crown diadem shapes together with bead rows suggest that, amid other things, the manlike someone monarch bearing the vertical line facial marks together with rosette-form diadem (the Wunmonije site ruler) carries a rank that is both different from together with inwards some ways higher than that of the plain-faced royal.
There also are striking distinctions inwards facial marking together with regalia details of these 2 manlike someone monarch figures, differences that offering additional insight into the pregnant together with identity of these together with other works from this center. Similar rosette together with concentric circle diadem distinctions tin live seen inwards many ancient Ife works. The Aroye vessel (Fig. 18), which displays rosette motifs together with a monstrous human caput referencing ancient Ife ground spirits (erunmole, imole; Odewale p.c.), may remove hold functioned as a divination vessel linked to Obatala, a shape today inwards Ife that employs a water-filled pot. The copper alloy caput of initiatory of all dynasty Ife goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also incorporates a rosette with sixteen
petals. Ife chiefs together with priests today sometimes have on beaded pendants (peke) that contain similar eight-petal blossom forms or rosettes. These individuals include a gain of primarily Obatala (first dynasty) affiliates: Obalale (the priest of Obatala), Obalase (the Oluorogbo priest), Obalara (the Obalufon priest), together with Chief Woye Asire (the priest of Ife springs together with markets. Rosette-form
diadems such as these also tin live seen on ancient Ife terra cotta animals identified with Obatala, amid these the elephant (Fig. 20) together with duiker antelope heads from the Lafogido site. These
rosettes suggest the importance of plants (flowers), together with the primacy of ancient Blue Planet ownership together with gods to the Obatala group.
Concentric circle-form diadems, inwards contrast, seem to reference political agency as linked inwards component subdivision to the novel Odudua dynasty (Akintitan p.c., Adelekan p.c.). In component subdivision for this reason, a concentric circle is incorporated into the atomic number 26 gate at the front end of the modern Ife palace. Agbaje-Williams notes (1991:11) that the burial spots of of import chiefs sometimes are marked with rock circles as well. Concentric circle shape diadems are displayed on the terra cotta sculptures of ram together with hippopotamus
heads from Ife’s Lafogido site. Both animals seem to live connected to the Odudua line together with the associated sky deity pantheon of Sango amid others (Idowu 1962:94, 142; Matory 1994:96).
If, as Ekpo Eyo suggests (1977:114; consider also Eyo 1974) the grouping of Lafogido site creature sculptures were conceived as royal emblems, their distinctive crown diadems suggest that these
works, similar the 2 manlike someone monarch figures, were intended to correspond 2 different dynasties and/or the gods associated with them. The manlike someone monarch figure with vertical facial markings together with a rosette-form diadem
instantiates the initiatory of all dynasty or Obatala rulership line. The plain-faced ruler with concentric circle diadem evokes the 2nd or Odudua royal line.
Number symbolism inwards diadem together with other forms is of import inwards these together with other ancient Ife fine art works serving to grade grade together with status. According to Ife Obatala Chief Adelekan (p.c), eightpetal rosettes are associated with higher Obatala grades. That the Wunmonije manlike someone monarch figure wears an eight-petal rosette (Fig. 15) spell the Aroye vessel (Fig. 18) together with Olokun caput (Fig. 14) contain sixteen-petal forms is based on powerfulness difference. Eight is the highest number accorded humans, suggests Chief Adelekan, whereas xvi is used for gods.
Facial Marking Distinctions: Ife as a Cosmopolitan Center
One of the most striking differences inwards the 2 royal figures together with other Ife arts tin live seen inwards the variant facial markings. Scholars remove hold spot frontwards several explanations for these facial pattern disparities inwards Ife together with early on regional arts. Among the earliest were William Fagg together with Frank Willett (1960:31), who identified vertical line facial marks with royal crown veils together with the “shadows” cast onto the human face past times associated strings of beads. This is highly unlikely, however, since many ancient works depicting women together with non-royals without crowns display the same vertical facial patterns. Moreover, of the 2 copper-alloy manlike someone monarch figures (Figs. 15–16), only i shows vertical marks, together with they both have on a form of cap (oro) that does non include a beaded veil. Modern woodcarvings of Ife royals wearing traditional veiled crowns also do non exhibit vertical line facial marks. Due to related inconsistencies, Willett would later retract his original shade-line theory together with Fagg would non i time again beak over this inwards his later scholarship. As suggested above, the presence together with lack of vertical facial marks on the 2 Ife manlike someone monarch figures farther reinforces the identity of these rulers as leaders of the 2 competing dynasties.
An array of early on together with later artistic evidence supports this. Among these is a Lower Niger style vessel (Fig. 21) collected close Republic of Benin that displays a human human face with vertical markings beneath the caput of an elephant, an creature that inwards Ife is closely identified with Obatala together with the initiatory of all dynasty. This elephant caput has its complement inwards the Lafogido site terra cotta elephant caput with a rosette-form diadem (Fig. 20), a site where a terra cotta caput with vertical facial marks also was buried (Eyo 1974). Nineteenth together with early on twentieth century royal masks of the Igala (a Yorubalinked group) associated with the ancient Akpoto dynasty (who are ancestors of the electrical flow Igala rulers), display similar sparse vertical line facial markings referencing the early on royals of this grouping (Sargent 1988:32; Boston 1968:172) (Fig. 22). The ancient Ife terra cotta caput that represents Obalufon I (Osangangan Obamakin, the begetter of Obalufon II) displays vertical marks (Fig. 23) consistent with the king’s first-dynasty associations. Vertical line facial marks such as these appear to reference Ife royals (as good as other elites) together with ideas of autochthony to a greater extent than generally. The fact that some 50 per centum of the ancient Ife terra cotta heads together with figures exhibit vertical line facial markings suggests
how of import this grouping soundless was inwards the early on 2nd dynasty era when these works were commissioned. The 2nd largest grouping of Ife terra cotta works—around 35 percent—show no
facial markings at all, inwards keeping with modern Ife traditions forbidding facial marking for members of Ife resident families.
Ife oral tradition maintains that facial marking practices were at i dot outlawed. Accordingly, belatedly nineteenth to early on twentieth century fine art together with cultural practices display a strong aversion to facial marks of whatever type. Most likely it was Ife King Obalufon II who helped promote this alter after his homecoming to powerfulness as component subdivision of his computer programme for a to a greater extent than lasting truce. This change, together with the demand sometimes to concealment one’s historical spot unit of measurement together with dynastic identity for reasons of political expediency, is also suggested past times 2 masks, i of terra cotta together with i of copper, both identified with Obaufon II. One of these (Fig. 1) is plain-faced together with the other (Fig. 24) has prominent vertical markings. Consistent with Obalufon II’s role inwards bringing to Ife, together with serving as a key early on fine art patron, his association with masking forms that shield (cover) the identities of the once-competing Ife groups is
noteworthy. Like a bulk of ancient Ife sculptures with together with without facial marks, these works appear to appointment to the same period, underscoring the fact that different groups were living together at Ife at this time.
Like the Wunmonije manlike someone monarch figure (Fig. 15), the bronze caput associated with the goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also has vertical facial marks together with a rosette-decorated crown. Olokun, the ancient Ife finance government minister together with later commerce, bead, together with sea god, is said to appointment to Ife’s initiatory of all dynasty. The copper alloy caput at nowadays inwards the British Museum, with both vertical facial marks together with a concentric circle diadem, appears to reference a primary inwards i of Ife’s autochthonous lineages (e.g. a number of initiatory of all dynasty elite) who lived inwards Ife inwards the early on 2nd dynasty era before the ban on facial marking took effect.
Several Ife heads exhibit thick vertical facial lines. These marks seem to depict individuals participating inwards rituals inwards which blister beetles or leaves (from the bùjé plant) were employed to grade the human face with short-term patterns on the pare (Willett 1967:Fig. 23). These temporary “marks” may remove hold served as references to initiatory of all dynasty elites or their descendants during sure enough Ife rituals
(Owomoyela n.d. n.p.; Willett 1967:Figs. 13–14, pl. 23; consider also news inwards Fagg together with Willett 1960:31, Drewal 1989:238–39 n. 65). Interestingly, sculptures depicting these thick lines characteristically exhibit flared nostrils together with furled brows, suggesting the hurting that accompanied facial blistering practices such as these. Several Florescence Era Ife terra cotta heads (roughly 5 per centum of the whole) display 3 elliptical “cat whisker” facial marks at the corners of the rima oris (Fig. 25) similar to those associated with to a greater extent than recent northeastern Yagba Yoruba, a grouping who later came nether Nupe rule.17 In i such sculpture, the marks extend into the cheeks inwards a way consistent with later Yoruba abaja facial markings, indicating an historic connectedness betwixt the two. According to Andrew Apter (p.c.), a grouping of Yagba Yoruba occupy an Ife ward where the Iyagba dialect is soundless sometimes spoken. Most historic Yagba communities are found inwards the Ekiti Yoruba part where early on atomic number 26 working sites remove hold been found (Obayemi 1992:73, 74).19 It is possible that Ife’s Yagba population was involved inwards complementary iron-working together with smelting activities at this center. This tradition also offers interesting insight into Republic of Benin figures belongings blacksmith tools with 3 similar facial marks, works said to depict messengers from Ife.
H5N1 rather unusual Janus figure from ancient Ife shows a human being with diagonal facial markings similar to those of historic together with modern Igbo Nri titleholders, suggesting the role a similar grouping may remove hold played inwards early on Ife as well. Today it is Chief Obawinrin, caput of Ife’s Iwinrin lineage, who represents Ife’s historic Igbo population during the annual Ife Edi festival. Associated rites are inwards component subdivision dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Queen Moremi, who is credited with stopping local Igbo (Ugbo) groups attacking Ife inwards the era inwards which she lived. Today Igbo residents also live inwards nearby regions due south of Ife, amid these communities such as Ijale (Abimbola p.c., Lawal p.c., Awolalu 1979:26).21 These Ife surface area Igbo populations appear to live distant relatives of autochthonous Igbo families, many of whom were forced out of the metropolis past times members of the novel Odudua dynasty. Sculptures from Ife’s Iwinrin Grove, an Ife site closely linked to Ife’s “Igbo” population,
characteristically exhibit vertical line facial markings consistent with works linked to initiatory of all dynasty Ife history together with autochthony. Another 5 per centum of Ife sculptures portray Edo (Benin) style facial marks (forehead keloids) or patterns today characteristic of northeastern Yoruba/Nupe communities (a diagonal cheek line and/or vertical forehead line). The remaining 5 per centum of the extant Ife terra cotta works exhibit unusual “mixed” facial patterns (generally “cat whisker” motifs along with other forms). These marks may reference intermarriages (social or political) at Ife inwards the early on years of the novel dynasty. The notable variety of these facial patterns inwards ancient Ife fine art makes clear the center’s importance as a cosmopolitan metropolis sought out past times people arriving from various regional centers. Features of Ife cosmopolitanism revealed inwards component subdivision through these variant facial markings are consistent with Ife’s identity as a oculus of manufacturing together with trade. Similar issues are raised inwards Ife source myths that spot this metropolis as the dwelling (birthplace) of humans of multiple races together with ethnicities.
H5N1 Corpus of Remarkable Copper Heads Personifying Local Ife Chiefs
H5N1 striking grouping of life-size copper together with copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed inwards the 1930s at the Wunmonije site behind the Ife palace along with the above-discussed manlike someone monarch figure
(Fig. 15).23 In add-on to the original corpus of 15 life-size heads from this site, a clearly related 4.25 inch high fragment of a copper alloy caput consisting of a portion of a human face showing a
olfactory organ together with component subdivision of a rima oris also was collected at an estate inwards Ado-Ekiti together with has been described as “identical with those from Wunmonije” (Werner together with Willett 1975: facing p. 142).
These xvi life-size heads appear to remove hold been created as component subdivision of the truce that Obalufon II established betwixt the embattled Ife residents. One of the heads (Fig. 27) indeed is so similar to the Obalufon mask as to depict the same individual. Frank Willett, who published photographs of many of the life-size metallic heads inwards his monograph on Ife, suggests (1967:26–28) that these works
had of import royal mortuary functions inwards which each was displayed with a crown together with robes of office, inwards the course of study of ceremonies next each ruler’s death. Willett proposes farther that
the heads were commissioned as memorial sculptures (ako) consistent with a later era Ife together with Yoruba tradition of carved wooden ako effigy figures used inwards commemorating deceased hunters. This theory, which identifies the corpus of life-size cast heads as effigies of successive rulers of the Ife metropolis state, however, is premised on an thought (now largely discredited; consider also Lawal 2005:503ff.) that the works were made past times artists over a several-hundred-year flow (the reigns of xvi monarchs). This theory is problematic non only because the styles together with stuff features of the heads are consistent, but also because the heads were found together (divided into 2 groups) together with part a remarkably similar status apart from blows that some of them received during their discovery. The shared status indicates that they were interred for a similar length of fourth dimension together with nether similar circumstances.
The formal similarities inwards these heads remove hold led most scholars, myself included (Blier 1985), to fence that the works were created inwards a curt flow of fourth dimension together with past times fewer than a handful of artists. With honour to style, as Thurstan Shaw notes (1978:134), “…they are of a slice together with hold back similar the piece of occupation of i generation, fifty-fifty perhaps a unmarried nifty artist.” These heads, I posited inwards this same article, were cast inwards component subdivision to serve as sacred crown supports together with used during coronation rituals for a grouping of powerful Ife chiefs who caput the various core initiatory of all together with 2nd dynasty lineages inwards the city. These rites appear also to remove hold been associated with Obalufon since related priests remove hold a role inwards Ife coronations soundless today. The site where the heads were found today is identified as Obalufon
II’s burial site (Eyo 1976:n.p.). Ife Chief Obalara (Obalufon II’s descendant together with priest) crowns each novel monarch at a Obalufon shrine (Igbo Obalara) close the Obatala temple a curt distance
from hither (Verger 1957:439, Fabunmi 1969:10, Eluyemi 1977:41). Today, when a descendant of King Obalufon wishes to committee shrine arts inwards conjunction with his worship, 2 copper alloy
heads, i land faced, the other with vertical line facial markings, are created (Oluyemi p.c.) (Fig. 30). Some of these ancient Ife life-size heads remove hold land faces. Others exhibit vertical lines. These facial marking variables back upwards the likely exercise of these heads inwards coronations together with other rites associated with the powerful early on Ife first- together with second-dynasty-linked chiefs who were brought together as component subdivision of Obalufon II’s truce. The grouping of these heads, which inwards many ways also resemble the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1), together reference (and honor) the leaders of key families (now seen as orisa or gods) who had participated inwards this conflict. Obalufon II also created a novel metropolis computer programme as component subdivision of this truce, i inwards which the homesteads of these lineage leaders were relocated to sites circumscribing the oculus of Ife together with its palace (Blier 2012). In the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries, when the metropolis came nether attack, the heads appear to remove hold been buried for prophylactic keeping close their original shrine locale after many centuries of exercise together with their location eventually forgotten.
There are several ways that the heads could remove hold been displayed inwards early on Ife ritual contexts, amid these earthen stepform altars together with tall supports similar to i photographed with heads inwards Republic of Benin inwards the belatedly nineteenth century (Fig. 29). The latter staff would business concern human relationship for the presence of holes close the bases of these works. Wooden mounts such as those known today hither as ako were fashioned to commemorate Ife elephant hunters. These also could remove hold been used for display purposes. H5N1 perhaps related Ijebu-Ode known as okute together with discussed past times Ogunba (1964:251) features roughly 4-foot wooden staffs with a symbolic human head. These pole-like forms were secured inwards the ground together with “dressed” during annual rites commemorating early on (first dynasty) rulers of the region.
H5N1 striking terra cotta vessel (Fig. 30) buried at the oculus of an elaborate potsherd pavement at Obalara’s Land, an Ife site long affiliated with the Obalufon family, also offers clues important
to early on display contexts of these heads. This vessel incorporates the depiction of a shrine featuring a naturalistic caput with vertical line striations flanked past times 2 cone-shaped motifs described past times Garlake (1974:145) as crowns. The scene seems to portray an Obalufon altar with different types of crowns together with a an array of Obalufon together with Ogboni ritual symbols that regain exercise inwards coronations,
amid these edan Ogboni, consistent with the exercise of the Ife life-size heads inwards chiefly together with royal enthronements overseen past times the center’s Obalufon priesthood.
In a community exterior of Ife, I learned of an of import tradition that offers additional insight into this corpus of ancient Ife life size heads. In the local Obalufon shrine are found xvi copper
alloy heads. While I was unable to consider these works, inwards the course of study of several interviews with the elderly temple chief, I learned a considerable amount close them. He described them as erunmole
(imole, ground spirits).28 This identity underscores the likely association of the heads as sacred icons honoring ongoing offices and/ or titles (Abiodun 1974:138) rather than uncomplicated portraits (i.e. references to a specific person) (Underwood 1967:nos. 9, 11, 12). Consistent with this, each of the xvi copper alloy heads located inwards this rural Obalufon temple is said past times the priest to remove hold been identified with a “powerful” private from Ife’s distant past times who was later deified, amid these Oramfe (the thunder god), Obatala (god of the autochthonous residents), Oluorogbo (the early on messenger deity), Obalufon (King Obalufon II), Oranmiyan (Obalufon’s adversary, the military machine conqueror), Obameri (an ancient warrior associated with both dynasties), together with Ore (the autochthonous Ife hunter). These names harken dorsum to of import early on personages together with gods in
the era of Obalufon II together with the Ife civil state of war when the Ife life-size metallic heads were made. The descendants together with priests of these ancient heroes soundless play a role inwards the ritual life of this center. As
explained to me past times the priest of this temple: “These imole are xvi inwards number, all xvi heads are kings [Oba, hither pregnant also deified chiefs], the xvi kings of erunmole.” The Ogboni
association, of which this rural priest also was a member, similarly comprise hither xvi core members (titled officers). Lisa Aronson (1992:57) notes for the Yoruba oculus of Ijebu-Odu
that nearly 90 per centum of the chiefs inwards this oculus are members of Ogboni. There are other connections betwixt the tradition of Obalufon metallic heads honoring historic leaders together with Ogboni
arts. Not only are a bulk of modern Yoruba copper alloy sculptures identified with both Ogboni together with Obalufon, but the “sticks” (staffs) said to live secured to the modern Obalufon heads during display (Oluyemi p.c.), a ritual together with aesthetic continuum extending dorsum to the ancient Ife Florescence Era.
*As with the 2 Ife manlike someone monarch figures (Figs. 15–16), differences inwards the ancient Ife life-size heads’ facial markings together with other features offering additional insight to their identity together with meaning. Half of these xvi life-size metallic heads display vertical line marks that I remove hold identified with autochthonous (first dynasty) elites; the others remove hold land faces complementing the novel dynasty’s denunciation of facial marking. As explained to me past times the priest at the rural Obalufon temple where the grouping of copper alloy heads were housed: “there were xvi crowns inwards the olden days, 8 tribal together with 8 nontribal.” In using the term “tribal” here, he is referring to Ife’s autochthonous residents. Like the novel metropolis computer programme created past times Obalufon II as component subdivision of his truce, these heads give primacy to the display together with sharing of powerfulness past times lineage heads of both dynasties.
Other features of these works also are important. H5N1 bulk of the plain-faced heads, but non the striated ones, include holes around the beard line likely for the attachment of an artificial beard of beads or hair. In the twentieth century, beards inwards Yoruba fine art often spot of import leaders, priests, together with others past times signaling senior historic flow status together with rank.30 Because all the plain-faced heads include beard holes, but only a few with facial markings do, the plain-faced works seem to live linked to powerfulness and/or status different than that of the heads with vertical facial lines. The non-bearded heads conceivably reference ritual status together with sacral powerfulness consistent with Obatala lineages today; the bearded heads instead seem to convey ideas of lineage leadership together with political status consistent with the center’s novel rulership line.
Interestingly, 4 of the 8 heads with facial lines are—like the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1) together with the 2 of the Tada figures (Figs.11, 13)—cast of nearly pure copper (96.8–99.7 percent), a feat that
artists of ancient Hellenic Republic together with Rome, the Italian Renaissance, together with Chinese bronze casters never achieved. The pure copper heads inwards this way differ materially from the stylistically similar heads that contain sizable amounts of alloys along with the copper (the associated copper content ranging from 68.8–79.8percent). H5N1 bulk of the latter are without vertical facial lines. The five
nearly-pure copper heads additionally contain no detected zinc, a mineral that inwards the copper alloy heads ranges from 9.3–13.9 percent. Since one-half of the nearly- pure copper striated heads (two of the four) remove hold beard holes, this pocket-size subset of works may remove hold been intentionally differentiated inwards monastic say to spot chiefs of both sacred together with political status. One of these pure copper heads additionally displays carmine together with dark lines around the eyes (Fig. 28). This characteristic is said past times Adedinni (p.c.) to spot a “most powerful person,” someone who is also a powerful imole (sacral power). To Obatala diviner Akintitan (p.c.), these oculus surrounding lines reference someone who “can really see,” i.e., a someone with unique access to the supernatural powerfulness that imbues i with spiritually charged insight.
Metal differences inwards these heads also send of import color differences that were important to the ancient Ife patrons together with artists. The pure copper works would remove hold been redder, spell those made from copper alloys were to a greater extent than yellow. The redder, nearly pure copper heads may remove hold been linked to ideas of heightened potency or danger. And since casting pure copper is technically far to a greater extent than hard than casting copper with alloy mixtures, the one-time heads also display greater skill, challenge, together with remove chances on the component subdivision of the artist, attributes no incertitude of import to the meanings of these heads as well. This stuff feature, inwards short, also gives them special iconic power. The exercise of nearly pure copper inwards these works suggests non only how knowledgeable Ife artists were inwards the materials together with technologies of casting, but also how willing they were to select related risks to attain specific visual together with symbolic ends inwards these works.
Dating Ancient Ife Art
How do the various forms together with meanings of Ife’s early on arts inform dating together with other related questions? Dating ancient Ife fine art has posed many challenges to scholars, largely because many
of these artifacts come upwards from secondary sites, rather than from contexts that tin live dated scientifically to the flow when the works were made together with initiatory of all used (e.g. primary sites). While developing a chronology of Ife fine art has proven difficult, several schema remove hold been published inwards recent decades. Following the belatedly Eko Eyo, some Ife scholars remove hold utilized the term “Pavement Era” (and concomitantly “Pre-Pavement” together with “Post-Pavement” periods) to distinguish those fine art works that are linked to the flow of Ife’s famous potsherd pavements. However, because these
pavements are soundless seen (and used) inwards abundance inwards the oculus today, together with inwards some cases let on several different construction periods, the term “Pavement Era” is problematic. Ife historian
Akinjogbin instead takes upwards (1992:96) local temporal price to beak over Ife chronology. Without attributing dates, he notes that i such local term, Osangangan Obamakin, inwards some situations
designates Ife King Obalufon I (the begetter of Obalufon II) together with inwards others the early on (first) dynasty with which he was affiliated ....” Drewal ([1989:46] 2009:79) has attempted a temporal ordering
of ancient Ife sculpture based on differences inwards media (stone vs. terra cotta or metal) and/or assumed “expressive” qualities, but this has been dismissed past times archaeologists due to contradictory
evidence from related sites.
Yoruba archeologist Akin Ogundiran (2001:27–28, 2003) provides a to a greater extent than scientifically grounded chronology for Ife together with the broader area. His overview of artifact remains together with other sources contributes to my ain Ife chronology, i that combines archaeological with stylistic, oral historical, together with other data. For some periods, however, I employ different price together with distinguishing features than does Professor Ogundiran. Most significantly, I remove hold simplified this chronology into 3 main periods (with subgroupings) using the term Florescence (cultural “flowering”) for the flow of Ife’s major artistic together with cultural innovation, along with periods prior to (pre-Florescence) together with next (post-Florescence) this era. An early on Ife appointment of c. 350 bce. purportedly based on
radiocarbon (Folster inwards Ozanne 1969:32), cited past times both Ogundiran (2002, p.c.) together with Drewal
(2009:80), has been rejected past times Frank Willett (2004) together with others for lack of supporting
scientific evidence. I concur with this assessment.
The main art-producing era of early on Ife, what I define as the Florescence Period (Ogundiran’s Classical Period) is distinguished past times both roulette- together with cord-decorated ceramics. Within a relatively curt fourth dimension span inwards this period, what I spot as Ife’s High Florescence, most of the early on arts appear to remove hold been made. One tin appointment this flow to c. 1250–1350 ce based on a gain of factors, including the thermoluminescence tests of key metallic works together with the likely reign era of Obalufon II as delimited inwards Ife oral histories together with manlike someone monarch lists. It is this era that appears to grade the commencement of the “Odudua” or 2nd dynasty of Ife. Associated with this High Florescence era are arts non only inwards “bronze” (Fig. 1) together with rock (Fig. 2), but also terra cotta (Fig. 24).
The to a higher spot fourth dimension frame is consistent with the dating for Ife together with its arts past times Peter Garlake (1977:72), based on his excavations at the Obalara’s Land together with Woye Asiri sites, both of which are closely linked to King Obalufon II whose descendant together with electrical flow priest is Chief Obalara. From piece of occupation Garlake undertook at the Obalara Land site, he would spot out 5 radiocarbon dates reflecting 3 likely phases. The initiatory of all is an initial business flow of circa the 12th century ce. The 2nd stage constitutes a c. fourteenth century business flow identified with the laying of the pavements, the creation of an array of sculptures, along with the site’s eventual fourteenth–fifteenth century abandonment. The tertiary together with terminal stage at the Obalara Land site consists of Post-Florescence era finds subsequent to the main site business together with abandonment.
Garlake’s recalibrated radicarbon dates (1974:146) for the Ita Yemoo site layer of terra cotta sculptures excavated past times Willett dot a flow potentially coeval with the radiocarbon dates of the Obalara’s Land sculptures (1312–1420 ce). As Garlake observes for this of import together with various grouping of terracottas (1974:146): “… on the dating evidence presently available, it seems that Obalara’s Land was occupied at the same fourth dimension as Ita Yemoo although it is likely, but non certain, that Ita Yemoo was initiatory of all occupied at an before appointment than Obalara’s Land.” The likely flow of overlap betwixt these 2 sites is 1310–1350 ce, or what I posit as the High Florescence Era. Thermoluminescence dates for the clay cores extracted from 2 of the Wunmonije site life-size heads dot a similar flow of 1221–1369 ce (Willett 1997:28). This flow also is consistent with the likely reign era of Ife King Obalufon II. This dating additionally conforms with this king’s identity as the ruler who introduced bronze casting at Ife. H5N1 bulk of Ife’s ancient arts thus were created inwards a relatively curt fourth dimension period, within a unmarried generation of artists, inwards the early on fourteenth century.
An in-depth analysis of ancient Ife sculptural style past times fine art historian Barbara Blackmun (n.d. inwards Willett 1994) reveals that works from a variety of Ife sites exhibit discernable clusters of similarity
consistent with artists working within the same broader fourth dimension frame. Significantly, Garlake also furnishes evidence (1974, 1977) that Ife’s High Florescence Era came to a relatively quick end, a alter accompanied past times a notable shift inwards pottery ornament forms, specifically from roulette to cord impressions (see also Shaw 1978:155).
Possible exterior confirmation for this Ife early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era is found inwards a well-known (but unexplored for the Yoruba) written source, namely Ibn Battûta’s 1325–1354 go account. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a province called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is i of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is i of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a province that “No white human being tin go inwards … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing together with mercantile interests, amid these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, atomic number 26 smelting together with forging, together with textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife remove hold been found as far
due west as Mali, Mauritania, together with modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good remove hold learned of this oculus inwards the course of study of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the call Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the instance inwards maps from this era, the call Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a belatedly fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions close an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amid others). On vessel from Obalara’s Land, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Terracotta Ancient Ife fine art works, as nosotros remove hold seen, are works non only of nifty visual power, striking beauty, together with rare technical accomplishment, but also objects that speak to core issues of history together with politics inwards this early on center. As such these sculptures offering unique together with critical insight into the social cloth of the city. Looking at the complex visual codes of these remarkable objects through details of body shape together with proportion, gesture, facial marking, stuff properties, regalia form, creature symbolism,
site locations, oral history, mapping together with traveler accounts, as good as modern twenty-four sixty minutes flow Ife beliefs together with rituals close this oculus together with its arts allows us to consider these ancient Ife works as a vital component subdivision of the city’s early on history. The artists of these works clearly were interested inwards the sculptural meanings beingness known, together with through an in-depth analysis of the variant symbolic formula at play, we
at nowadays remove hold a much improve agreement of both this of import early on metropolis together with its arts.
Kings, Crowns, together with Rights of Succession: Obalufon Arts at Ife together with Other Yoruba Centers
Suzanne Preston Blier
The life-size copper mask from Ife (Fig. 1), the ancient religious oculus of the Yoruba inwards southwestern Nigeria is i of the most familiar, yet enigmatic, of all African works inwards metal.1 It was initiatory of all published inwards 1937 past times the belatedly manlike someone monarch (Oni) of Ife, Adesoji Aderemi, inwards the mag Nigeria.
The manlike someone monarch identified the mask at the fourth dimension as representing Obalufon II, a legendary early on ruler of Ife who is credited with the conception of brass-casting at that center. This lifesize mask was said past times the manlike someone monarch to remove hold been kept on an altar inwards the Omirin room of the royal palace at Ife ever since its manufacture. H5N1 close flawless casting inwards ninety-nine per centum pure copper, it is i of the most beautiful together with technically accomplished of all works from ancient Ife. Ekpo Eyo together with Frank Willett appointment the mask to the 12th through fifteenth centuries A.D.
Like related Ife brass together with copper heads (Figs. 3, 4), the Obalufon mask is a piece of occupation of extraordinary naturalism. Except for the characteristic Ife-style almond-shaped eyes together with the distinct stylization of the ears, the human face of the mask shows striking physiognomic accuracy. The naturalism of this piece of occupation is heightened past times its fully life-size proportions, together with past times the fact that it was apparently intended to contain an attached beard, for holes remove hold been placed around the rima oris together with mentum areas so that a beard could live inserted.
Additional holes around the hairline, Willett notes were likely used to secure a separate headdress, perhaps a image of the divine crowns worn today past times Yoruba kings at Ife together with other royal centers. Although unopen inwards style together with decorative particular to the life-size brass together with copper heads
from Ife, the Obalufon mask is distinct from these, for it was intended to live worn, together with has narrow slits beneath the eyes, so that its wearer could see. In addition, holes remove hold been placed around the mask's lower border for the attachment, presumably, of a costume or robe.
Unlike Ife brass together with copper heads that at i fourth dimension were buried (and eventually forgotten), this mask, remaining at the palace, could remove hold retained its original identity. H5N1 recent regain at Ife offers evidence that supports the identification of this mask with Obalufon. The regain consists of a stylistically similar life-size mask - this i inwards terra-cotta- which was unearthed on Obalufon Street, appropriately enough, 20 feet from the site of the city's Obalufon shrine. This mask (Fig. 5), similar the copper Obalufon mask, was also intended to live worn, for slits are incorporated beneath the eyes. The terra-cotta mask is different from the copper one, however, inwards that incised striations concealment the face, together with both a headdress together with stylized beard remove hold been included inwards the modeling. Eluyemi, who published the mask, notes that this regain does non necessarily offering conclusive proof of the identity of the copper mask with Obalufon, but it does suggest the possibility that the two
may ultimately live linked. Masks inwards whatever medium are extremely rare amid extant works from ancient Ife. The identification of the life-size copper mask from Ife with Obalufon II is farther supported past times the importance of metallic masks inwards the corpus of later Yoruba Obalufon religious arts.
It is quite possible that the copper Obalufon mask may remove hold served as a image for this later Obalufon cireperdue tradition.
The pregnant together with role of the Obalufon mask at ancient Ife remove hold non been thoroughly explored. Only 3 scholars remove hold attempted to beak over the possible business office of this work. Leon Underwood was the first. He noted that "The slits beneath the eyes dot its exercise . . . inwards some sort of ceremony."
Justine Cordwell next commented that it may remove hold had a funerary use, asserting that ". . . the life-size, naturalistic portrait mask . . . could live worn on the caput of a living man, who. . . bowing together with waving, thus [carried] to the ultimate the illusion of the homecoming of the dead ruler."
Most recently, Frank Willett presented 2 theories for its possible exercise (pp. 29, 150). His initiatory of all theory supports Cordwell's sentiment that the piece of occupation may remove hold been worn during funerals. He noted that:
"Unlike the other [Ife] bronzes, this is a truthful mask intended
to live worn over the face, with slits below the eyes
so that the wearer could consider out . . . In the course of study of
Yoruba funerals nowadays an egungun masquerader
takes it upon himself to speak as the vox of the deceased,
to reassure the living that he has been satisfied
with his burial . . . It is possible that this mask was used
inwards such a funeral ceremony . ."
According to Willett's 2nd theory, the mask may remove hold been linked to an Ife tradition inwards which a retainer impersonating the manlike someone monarch spot on the robes together with crown of province inwards monastic say to prolong the ruler's reign. The mask, Willett suggests, mightiness remove hold been used inwards the course of study of such an
impersonation."
Except for Underwood's real full general thought close a ceremonial use, in that location is no existent evidence to back upwards these theories. The key to the mask's symbolism, it is suggested here, is found instead inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, both as a historic ruler at Ife, and, next his death, as a deity
of the Yoruba people. In this analysis the initiatory of all theme volition live coronation ceremonies at Ife. It volition live argued that the mask is integrally associated with these ceremonies together with with the related rites of rulership transition. Following this, the figure of Obalufon II together with his spot inwards the early on formation of the Ife province volition live discussed. The mask volition live seen to symbolize Obalufon's role inwards assuring the futurity of the citystate through his association with problems of the succession of rulers together with pop back upwards for the throne. Later Obalufon religious arts together with liturgies (explored as a distinct corpus hither for the initiatory of all time), tin live seen to reinforce the identity of the mask both with themes of coronations together with with the exigencies of autochthonous rule. The well-known Ife brass together with copper heads as good as a number of other cire-perdue works from the flow also may live associated with these ideas, for they, similar the mask, appear to live identified with Obalufon together with with succession to the throne.
The Arts together with the Succession of Rulers: Ife Coronation Ceremonies together with the Obalufon Mask
Present-day traditions at Ife provide us with clues as to the possible functioning together with symbolism of the Obalufon mask inwards the metropolis inwards ancient times. Contemporary evidence suggests that the mask traditionally may remove hold had a role inwards Ife coronation ceremonies. M. A. Fabunmi, writer of a 1969 catalogue that inventories local Ife religious shrines together with ceremonies, explains inwards this low-cal that during Ife coronations the royal crown was placed on "the caput of Obalufon" before the novel ruler was allowed to have on it (p. 11). What is meant hither past times the phrasing "the caput of Obalufon" is non clear, but it appears to live a reference to a sculpture from the Ife shrine of Obalufon. Perhaps the ancient Obalufon mask also i time had a role inwards Ife coronation rites. Because it is life-size, it could easily remove hold been worn inwards related ceremonies. Holes placed around the hairline likely served to secure a crown. Fabunmi notes that the priest inwards accuse of Obalufon is primary Obalara (p. 10). Obalara's
descendants, this writer explains, play a major component subdivision inwards the coronation ceremonies of the novel king. The original Obalara was the boy of Obalufon, and, as Eluyemi has noted (p. 41), the Obalufon priesthood to this twenty-four sixty minutes flow has remained within this family.
The possible association of the Obalufon mask with Ife coronations is reinforced past times the fact that, according to the belatedly manlike someone monarch of Ife (quoted inwards Verger, 439), the crown is brought from the Obalufon shrine (a sanctuary identified with the deified Obalufon). As the belatedly manlike someone monarch of Ife explained it, "The
Oni of Ife is proclaimed manlike someone monarch at the temple of Odudua but he receives his crown the next twenty-four sixty minutes flow at the temple of Orisala [Obatala] where it has been brought from the temple of Obalufon." By maintaining command over the crown inwards this way, the Obalufon priests could also command those who were to live crowned, thereby assuring that a legitimate ruler was indeed coming to the throne. The importance for Ife coronations of Obatala, the deity of the autochthonous people, should non live underestimated. Not only does the coronation select spot at the temple of Obatala, but the royal scepter is also associated with this deity (Idowu, 28-29). However Willet suggest that the crowns were likely kept inwards the palace. The coronation rites at Ife are discussed past times several scholars. Fabunmi (p. 25) notes that the novel manlike someone monarch is crowned on a spot called Igbo Kubolaja at Ideta inwards the Ilode quarter. According to K.C. Murray (in Willett, personal communication, March 7, 1985), the manlike someone monarch is crowned at Ojubo Obalufon. This is close the shrine of Obatala. The king, according to Fabunmi (p. 25), must also ". . . pass a flow of probation before taking upwards residence at the palace at Atobatele house, at nowadays occupied past times Barclays Bank, which stands to the northwest of the palace." Abraham also describes (p. 279) the coronation of the Ife king. He notes that "the coronation is a long ceremony as he has to attend rites at many of the 201 shrines traditionally believed to remove hold been established past times Odudua inwards Ife . . On some other twenty-four sixty minutes flow occurs the iwesu ceremony wherein a rock is washed to ward off the evil influence of Esu . . . On his appointment . . . a
ceremony takes spot at the Igbo-ade where he receives gifts inwards multiples of 201 on the twenty-four sixty minutes flow before the piece of occupation of the novel Oni begins."
On this same day, the novel manlike someone monarch pays homage to the dignitaries together with people of Ife, showing them
the throne of Obalufon, according to Palau-Marti (p. 22). Additional back upwards for this linking of the Obalufon mask with ceremonies of royal investiture is found inwards the fact, discussed past times Ogunba, that the news Obalufe (the championship for sure enough Ife priest-chiefs), way "king or primary at Ife" or the "the manlike someone monarch or of import someone who owns Ife."
The news "Oba" inwards Obalufon likewise refers to "king," implying that Obalufon was closely identified with Ife dominion and, past times extension, with the transfer of royal power. If the mask was worn, as its blueprint suggests it was intended to be, it was likely inwards the context of related coronation
ceremonies. According to Lloyd, during Yoruba coronations reenactment scenes drawn from the early on flow of the city-state were often presented. In such performances, the indigenous inhabitants of the metropolis had a telephone substitution place. Indeed inwards many Yoruba cities, the lawsuit often took spot at i of their compounds. In sentiment of the of import spot of Obalufon inwards the Ife coronation rite, it is quite possible that a scene drawn from the life of Obalufon (similar perhaps to the Ede reenactment - consider p. 389) may remove hold been incorporated. H5N1 priest wearing the Obalufon mask mightiness remove hold had a telephone substitution role inwards such a dramatization.
Obalufon II: H5N1 King Who Ruled Twice
In sentiment of the apparently unopen association of the Obalufon mask with coronations, the interrogation naturally arises as to why Obalufon II would remove hold been so closely identified with the succession of rulers at Ife. The respond appears to prevarication inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, who, as Ife's tertiary ruler, played a decisive role inwards political events of the early on city-state. Obalufon II is presented inwards Ife oral accounts as a powerful ruler who, after beingness dethroned, returned to powerfulness together with brought the city's various factions into accord, thereby assuring the futurity of the newly emerging state.
Three aspects of his reign volition live explored here: his dethronement past times Oranmiyan together with subsequent homecoming to power; second, his identity as a valiant warrior, protector of the local populace, together with symbol of political harmony, together with third, his association with the Ogboni society together with the arts of casting. Obalufon's telephone substitution role inwards the early on Ife citystate is reinforced past times the pregnant of his name, which, as suggested above, incorporates the news "Oba" (king), indicating his of import spot inwards Ife rule. Obalufon II, similar many Yoruba kings, also had several subsidiary names. One of these was Alaiyemore, pregnant "owner of the world known as Oreluere," Ore or Oreluere referring to an aboriginal hunter who was a menace to the unusual ruler "Odudua." The significance of this in conclusion call volition live seen shortly, inwards that Obalufon II played a telephone substitution component subdivision inwards the dispute betwixt the autochthonous peoples of Ife together with supporters of "Odudua" over dominion of the city-state. Since the
oral accounts do non beak over whatever trauma or difficulty associated with Obalufon II's death, it tin live inferred that he died peacefully of old age. Following his death, Obalufon II is said to remove hold been buried close the Wunmonije compound) at the palace. Frank Willett, however, believes that this grave is identified with Lafogido rather than Obalufon. It is hither that the brass together with copper heads that are stylistically similar to the Obalufon mask were also buried.
The events surrounding Ife's founding together with Obalufon II's role inwards the early on Ife city-state are described inwards some particular inwards Ife oral accounts. Present-day scholars of Yoruba faith such as Idowu (p. 23) together with Awolalu (p. 27) consider the metropolis as developing its political together with religious primacy as a final result of the arrival of a militarily powerful grouping of foreigners who were component subdivision of a distant branch of the Yoruba people. Unfortunately the call of the leader of this grouping is non known, because inwards the accounts his identity is subsumed past times that of his patron deity, Odudua.
At the fourth dimension of the arrival of this outsider together with his party, Ife was occupied past times an indigenous people who were nether the leadership of a hunter named Ore (Oreluere). Not surprisingly, the original
inhabitants of Ife do non appear to remove hold supported this foreigner, "Odudua," inwards his attempts to gain command of the city. The leader "Odudua" also appears to remove hold suppressed the worship of the local Ife deity, Obatala. Awolalu summarizes (p. 27) the province of affairs at Ife at this fourth dimension as follows:
"(a) that the original inhabitants of Ife knew together with acknowledged Obatala
as the deity that created the ground together with to whom worship was due and
given; b) that at a stage inwards the early on history of Ife, some intruders who
were migrating from somewhere, came into Ife, together with conquered the original
inhabitants who were devotees of [Obatala]; c) that the newcomers
suppressed the worship of Obatala together with embraced that of Oduduwa who
was mayhap a woman someone divinity; d) that at the decease of the conquering
leader, his followers together with admirers deified him together with called him Odudua
after the primordial divinity whose worship he had encouraged. Thus
Odudua is portrayed as a primordial divinity together with as a deified ancestor."
This unusual ruler was, however, past times all accounts a strong together with politically effective leader. One of his most of import decisions was to found a serial of union alliances with the local populace. Accordingly, both he together with his political party married indigenous women "of the land," inwards monastic say to create a novel generation of Ife residents who, inwards Idowu's words (p. 24), "... . would live at dwelling inwards both worlds . . . people who were without bitterness towards either of the opposing parties." In the course of study of these marriages, the novel ruler fathered a number of children, many of whom eventually laid out to found their ain dynasties inwards other Yoruba states.
On "Odudua's" death, i of his sons, Obalufon I (Ogbogbodirin), succeeded him to the throne. Obalufon I's reign appears to remove hold been beset with problems. Unlike his father, "Odudua," he was a weak ruler. Indeed, the province that his begetter had of late formed seems already to remove hold begun to disintegrate inwards the course of study of his reign. According to the Oni of Ife (in Verger, 141-42), Obalufon I's father, Odudua, would remove hold preferred to acquire out the throne to his oldest son, the warrior Ogun. When the latter died, Odudua remarked, "I remove hold no longer a powerful boy to sentry over the totality of my kingdom; Obalufon is non plenty the warrior, together with he volition dissever the lands amid his diverse
sons." Odudua hither seems to live anticipating the breakup of the kingdom nether the reign of Obalufon I. It was this division, together with the interrogation of who would dominion at Ife, which, as volition live seen, played a telephone substitution component subdivision inwards the dominion of Obalufon I's ain son, Obalufon II. Little else is known close the
reign of Obalufon I, but in that location is some evidence that the deity Obatala (the god of the autochthonous people - together with presumably of Obalufon I's mother) may remove hold been made a province deity around that time. This was most likely inwards reply to the continued pressure level on the novel ruler past times the local public for royal back upwards of local religious belief. Evidence for this comes from the statements of Johnson (p. 11) together with Beier (p. 18) that during the reign of Obalufon I's eventual successor, Oranmiyan, an Obatala priest had a spot of nifty importance inwards the palace. Presumably this priesthood had already been established past times the fourth dimension he came to power. As already noted, Odudua together with his successors married local women, together with they also may remove hold been instrumental inwards bringing Obatala into the palace
In addition, during his dominion in that location appear to remove hold been frequent attacks against the palace past times the indigenous occupants of Ife. Into this insecure political province of affairs Obalufon II was thrust when, next Obalufon I's death, he appears to remove hold ascended the throne. So weakened was the city-state of Ife past times this time, that presently after he came to power, Obalufon II was forced from the throne past times a human being named Oranmiyan. According to i business concern human relationship (Verger, 329), it was against Obalufon I that Oranmiyan fought to select over Ife rule. This business concern human relationship states that when Oranmiyan ". . . learned that Odudua had died together with that Obalufon had inherited from his mother, together with had acquire initiatory of all manlike someone monarch of Ife, Oranmiyan sent a message to Obalufon, menacing him with death; Obalufon fled to Ido, 15 miles from Ife. Oranmiyan . . . stayed a sure enough fourth dimension at Ife, together with so went to Oko Igboho together with finally Oyo... " The confusion of the 2 Obalufons together with their respective reigns also occurs inwards Yoruba religious ritual associated with Obalufon (see n. 35).
This latter figure, a powerful warrior who is also said to remove hold ruled at Oyo together with Benin, is identified variously as Obalufon's I's blood brother together with as his nephew. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3); Smith (p. 19); Fabunmi (pp. 16-17). The accounts also vary as to whether or non Oranmiyan had whatever legitimate claim to the throne. The "official" version (Fabunmi, 16) suggests that it was Oranmiyan together with non Obalufon II who had been the intended successor of Obalufon I. According to this version, at the fourth dimension of the latter's death, Oranmiyan was away from courtroom on a military machine have together with could not
live found. For this ground Obalufon II was crowned instead. When Oranmiyan returned, he proceeded to claim what was rightfully his. Other evidence suggests, however, that Oranmiyan had no legitimate right, together with was indeed a usurper. This evidence is that Oranmiyan is identified as the youngest boy of "Odudua" (Smith, p. 34). Since Oranmiyan is said to remove hold had many older brothers, he would non remove hold been called on to succeed his father. Furthermore, the accounts suggest that on Odudua's death, Oranmiyan inherited none of his father's moveable properties
(Johnson, 8). This sentiment of Oranmiyan as a usurper is also suggested past times Frobenius (p. 205), who notes that Oranmiyan's begetter was a human being named Laro, together with that Oranmiyan had ". . . i time conquered [Ife], but was driven forth again." Ulli Beier argues inwards plough (Yoruba Myths, Cambridge, 1980, 65) that Oranmiyan may non fifty-fifty remove hold been component subdivision of the royal line. He asserts that Oranmiyan is ". . . apparently representing a belatedly immigrant with no existent Blue Planet rights."
Little is told of Obalufon II's curt reign prior to his overthrow, but he appears to remove hold already had the strong backing of the local populace, for it was he, rather than Oranmiyan, who they are said to remove hold supported as ruler. Obalufon II, although forced from the throne past times Oranmiyan, waged a hard battle to regain command of the kingdom. In the end, his endeavors appear to remove hold been successful,
for the accounts dot that eventually he returned to power. According to John Abiri (in Adedeji, 327) the defeat/return of Obalufon II may remove hold taken spot after Oranmiyan's decease during the reign of his son, Layiamisan. This, as Adedeji points out, also ". . . usefully explains the ground for Alaiyemore's [Obalufon II 's] homecoming to the throne as i of the price of the rapprochement." This also explains Obalufon II's eventual union to Moremi, who inwards some accounts is said to remove hold been previously married to Oranmiyan. In his acquire by against Oranmiyan to regain rule, he benefited from the back upwards of the indigenous Ife population. According to Adedeji, this conflict betwixt Obalufon II together with Oranmiyan over the throne parallels a conflict inwards religious doctrine betwixt the followers of Obatala together with Odudua, the patron gods of Obalufon together with Oranmiyan respectively. This dispute, which is oftentimes discussed inwards the Yoruba literature, centers on the interrogation of who deserves credit for creating the world. Most accounts suggest that it was Odudua who really did so, but that Obatala (Orishanla) rightfully should have. The correct was said to remove hold been taken away from him because he was viewed as unfit (he had gotten drunk); then, spell he lay sleeping (i.e., inwards a province of beingness unaware), the powerfulness was assumed past times Odudua (Idowu, 23; Willett, 121- 23). As Idowu points out, however, a number of accounts contradict this view, some stating non only that Obatala did non acquire boozer but was able to send out the creation. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all remove hold on i factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the
most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established in that location (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to remove hold come upwards downward with
the initiatory of all political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures together with Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the call of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
The legends portray Obalufon II at this fourth dimension as an ingenious military machine leader. In his have against Oranmiyan, he is said to remove hold dressed the local warriors inwards straw masks which made them appear to live spirits from some other world. This disguise frightened together with confused Oranmiyan's warriors so that they were unable to acquire by effectively. Eventually, however, Obalufon II's masking deception was discovered. On i of his raids, a local Ife adult woman named Moremi allowed herself to live taken captive past times Obalufon's forces. In her captivity, Moremi was able to larn that it was non spirits from some other world but rather the original Ife inhabitants nether Obalufon II's management who
were menacing the capital. When she later escaped, she went dwelling to tell Oranmiyan of her discovery. In Obalufon II's subsequent raid, his men were met past times Oranmiyan's torch-bearing warriors who presently "unmasked" together with defeated the autochthonous troops.
This same Moremi helped to select Obalufon dorsum to the throne. She was viewed as a heroine because of her role inwards Obalufon's capture, together with with her novel status she insisted that a to a greater extent than permanent peace live established at Ife. With this inwards mind, she asked that Obalufon II, the exiled king, live returned to power. In turn, she became his wife. Moremi, as a local woman, clearly had allegiance inwards both camps. Accordingly, the solution that she proposed benefited both equally, together with indeed, her determination to seek a to a greater extent than permanent peace was a critical i for the long-term stability
of Ife. This movement brought to the throne non only a forceful leader, but also i who had the strong back upwards of the original Ife inhabitants. With the homecoming of Obalufon II to Ife, the autochthonous Ife citizens also appear to remove hold returned to this center, together with the 2nd component subdivision of Obalufon II's reign appears to remove hold been marked past times peace together with prosperity.
Many sculptures together with shrines inwards together with around Ife are identified with persons together with events inwards this dispute. The most of import are the mask of Obalufon II together with a large rock "staff" associated with Oranmiyan. There are also a number of sacred areas together with sculptures that refer to the family, supporters, together with patron deities of these 2 historic figures. Many of these are described inwards Fabunmi's analysis of Ife shrines. One such shrine is associated with Moremi; some other is identified with her boy Ela. H5N1 quartz stool that is at nowadays inwards the British Museum is identified with some other son,
Alashe (Oluorogbo). Alashe (Oluorogbo) is also said inwards some accounts to live Moremi's hubby (R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies, London, 1910, 23; Fabunmi, 9). Other examples of Ife fine art of this flow remove hold been found inwards the Iwinrin or Igbo Grove, a sacred surface area closely identified with the original Ife inhabitants. In addition, both Obatala, Obalufon's patron deity, together with this deity's wife, Yemo, remove hold shrines at Ife. Odudua together with several of this god's wives, Olokun together with Omitoto-Ose, also remove hold shrines. Oranmiyan's father, Ogun, together with several of Oranmiyan's warriors remove hold shrines with fine art of this flow as well. According to Willett (pl. 77), this stool was found inwards the Ife Oluorogbo grove. The leader of the autochthonous peoples, Ore (Oreluere), also has a shrine. At the dorsum of this surface area is a rock carving representing Ore's gate man, Edena (this sculpture is at nowadays inwards the palace museum).
The nifty twenty-four sixty minutes flow inwards Ife history when Obalufon II was returned to the throne next his defeat is reenacted at Ife inwards a special yearly pageant at nearby Ede. In it, a grapheme named Ajagemo, who simultaneously symbolizes the autochthonous peoples, the deity Obatala, together with Obalufon II, dances to run into his armed opponent Olunwi who represents the newcomers, "Odudua," together with Oranmiyan. In this combat, "Obalufon II" is overpowered together with is taken into the palace. He is presently released, together with is carried triumphantly dorsum to the arena. This reenactment takes spot during the
festival held inwards laurels of Obatala, the deity associated with Obalufon, together with the original residents of Ife. The associated song/prayers reinforce the importance of Obatala together with the indigenous Igbo at this festival. The next was recorded past times Adedeji (p. 329).
"Obatala
The Oba that nosotros praise
The genuinely king
Who was born inwards the metropolis of Igbo
And went to acquire manlike someone monarch inwards the metropolis of Iranje
The nifty Orisa
The divinity of Igbo
They showed him ingratitude
They tricked him with palm wine
They together with so deserted the divinity from heaven
When they had vanished
They together with so asked where else could the clandestine live found?"
At the opening of this lawsuit is a ceremony dedicated to the Ogboni society. Adedeji, 328. The human relationship betwixt Ogboni together with Yoruba rulership is clear. According to Justine Cordwell ("Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba together with Republic of Benin Cultures," Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1952, 43), "The Ogboni society acts non only as advisor to the ruler together with courtroom of judge but inwards some areas really controls the ruler together with his decisions." Furthermore, both Obalufon together with Ogboni are associated with the left hand. "Osi la njo ijo Obalufon" or "It is towards the left mitt that you lot move
when you lot trip the low-cal fantastic toe inwards laurels of Obalufon," say his worshippers (Awolalu, 107). H5N1 somewhat parallel ceremony is also performed at Ijebu-Ife, at which fourth dimension Obalufe priest-chiefs are identified with persons having prior claim to the land, who were ousted wrongly from political power. These prior claimants are inwards command of many of the sacred aspects of political rule. The ritual, Ogunba suggests (as inwards n. 14, 99), "... gives the impression that the priest-chief has inwards fact been cheated of powerfulness together with the yearly coming together together with parting becomes something of an atonement for the irrevocable seizure, so that the indigenous gods of the Blue Planet may non revolt against the novel political overlord." Appropriately, during the festival it is the priest Obalufe who sacrifices to the Earth, a grade of his unopen association with it. Ogunba notes inwards this study (p. 99), inwards turn, that "priestchiefs similar . . . the Obalufe, send names which audio to a greater extent than akin to the ownership of the Blue Planet than the priest kings." Henry Drewal suggests (personal communication, Apr 9, 1984) that at this shrine, Obalufe is also
the caput of the Odudua association. This society, which is of import inwards Yoruba fine art patronage today, is said to remove hold been formed around the fourth dimension of the to a higher spot conflict past times the followers of Obatala to acquire by political injustice. According to Idowu (p. 24):
"Everything points to the fact that it was at this fourth dimension that
the Ogboni cult began. This was a clandestine cult formed, in
all probability, to protect the indigenous institutions of
the Blue Planet from annihilation nether the influence of the new
regime. It must remove hold been originally an exclusive organization
limited to the original owners of the land."
The unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon II together with the Ogboni society is of considerable significance because Obalufon is said to remove hold introduced brass casting at Ife. According to Idowu (p. 208) at Ife in that location was also a theatre associated with the brass casters; this theatre was called Ile Asude, "the theatre of those who smelt brass." It is interesting that Obatala, the deity Ogboni had been formed to support, is oftentimes identified as the sculptor divinity (Awolalu, 21). Today this same society is i of the principal patrons of Yoruba brass casting arts. Unfortunately, the historical accounts
provide few farther details on this matter. Most probably, however, Obalufon II's unopen association with the Ogboni society was the footing of his identification with the introduction of brass casting. It seems real plausible that with the homecoming of Obalufon II to the throne, the Ogboni society gained legitimacy together with considerable powerfulness at the palace.
Their arts presumably also flourished at this time. It was, it would appear, because of Obalufon's association both with brass casting together with with peace together with legitimate dominion at Ife that the copper mask bearing his call came to live associated with coronation ceremonies at Ife. Further evidence that reinforces the identity of the Obalufon mask with coronations together with themes of rulership is found inwards the religious rituals together with beliefs that developed next Obalufon II's eventual decease together with deification. In the nowadays era he has been, as nosotros volition see, viewed both as the god of expert authorities together with as the patron deity of the arts of beadwork, brass casting, together with weaving. In addition, brass crowns and masks shape a important component subdivision of the Obalufon fine art corpus.
Obalufon, a God with Many Identities: Deity of War, Peace, Prosperity, together with the Arts of Beads, Brass, together with Weaving
Obalufon II, similar many nifty Yoruba rulers, was deified at his death. According to Idowu (p. 69) "Obalufon is i of the divinities worshipped at Ile-Ife together with all over Yorubaland. But he began past times beingness an ancestor." Unlike other Yoruba deities such as Shango, Eshu, Ogun, Odudua, together with Ifa, this god has non been the object of whatever study, nor remove hold the wealth together with diverseness of religious ritual together with fine art associated with him been examined. Although today Obalufon's followers are found inwards many parts of Yorubaland, Ile-Ife soundless remains an of import oculus for Obalufon worship. Ulli Beier notes (Yoruba Beaded Crowns, London, 1982, 9), that spell Obalufon is worshipped inwards a number of Yoruba towns, his worship is especially identified with Ife - only as Shango's worship is especially associated with Oyo. Although it is Obalufon II who is to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the ruler who is deified as "Obalufon," it should live noted that Obalufon the god seems inwards some cases simultaneously linked to both rulers bearing that name. Thus spell Abraham asserts (p. 491) that it was Alaiyemore (i.e., Obalufon II) who is worshipped as Obalufon, Fabunmi indicates (p. 10) that the worship of Obalufon is identified with Ogbogdirin (Obalufon I). Although the assimilation of the 2 kings inwards Obalufon worship appears to live a natural outgrowth of their unopen association with each other (and the fact that they part the same name), most of the rituals, religious tenets, together with works of fine art of the Obalufon association seem to live identified to a greater extent than closely with Obalufon II together with the various attributes of his rule.
Other places where worship of Obalufon (Balufon, Obalifon, Abalufon, Abalifon) is especially strong include towns inwards Ekiti where Obalufon II is said to remove hold taken refuge during the flow of his banishment. Still other major centers of Obalufon worship are identified with places where the children of Obalufon II eventually settled. Once established inwards these towns, his descendents are said to remove hold laid upwards shrines to their father. Thus Verger notes (p. 453) that "... at Ido Osun, close Osogbo, i finds a temple for Obalufon, it was said to me: 'Olufande, boy of Obalufon, installed himself at Owaluse close Isesa, together with so at Igbokiti where he died. His successor... went to Igbo Oyao
together with so came to found himself hither at Ido Osun.' " Unlike most deities inwards the Yoruba pantheon, Obalufon is surrounded with considerable confusion inwards the literature. In Yoruba Ifa divination, William Bascom notes (Ifa Divination: Communication Between Gods together with Men inwards West Africa, Bloomington, 1969, 49) that the 8th odu (owonrin meji) refers to Obalufon. But the ranking
of this odu with honour to the total of xvi odu, shows, as with the life of Obalufon, a conflict over legitimacy together with place. According to Bascom, although owonrin meji is seen to live equal to ofun meji, inwards rank they are seen to acquire by each other for 8th place. H5N1 legend provided past times Bascom
explains this conflict:
"Ofun meji was the initiatory of all born of all the figures together with the initiatory of all to come upwards to
earth. He was the caput of all the other figures together with ruled them similar a
king, but because things went badly nether his rule, they sent to Ifa in
sky to tell him how hard things were on earth. Then Ifa sent Ogbe
Meji downward to ground to select Ofun Meji's spot as the caput of the other
figures. Ofun Meji fought [to retain his place] defeating all combinations
until he reached Owonrin Meji. These 2 fought together with fought and
fought, until the others sent to Ifa inwards heaven. Ifa ruled that Ofun Meji
together with Owinrin Meji should live equal inwards rank, taking turns inwards priority.
This is why Ofun Meji outranks Owonrin Meji when Ofun Meji is
thrown first; but when Owonrin Meji is thrown first, it outranks Ofun
Meji."
There are interesting parallels betwixt this Ifa business concern human relationship together with legends of Obalufon's life, together with that of his ain deity, Obatala (see n. 23). This is peculiarly truthful inwards the discussions of his powers, habits, together with associated symbols. Interestingly, inwards the partitioning of orisa at Ife betwixt those who are followers of Obatala together with those who are followers of Odudua, Obalufon (along with Agemon, Osonyin, Esidale, Obameri, Oranyon, Moremi, Obameri, Eleshije, Ija, together with Olokun) is often identified as a supporter of Odudua (Forde, as inwards n. 27, 37; Abraham, 483).
According to Fadipe, Obalufon is the god of warriors; to Farrow he is the god of peace or, to a greater extent than specifically, peace of the kingdom. S. S. Farrow, Faith, Fancies, together with Fetish, London, 1926, 59. Obalufon, inwards his deification, is also associated with uprightness together with high ethical standards. This appears to remove hold partial footing inwards Obalufon's back upwards of Obatala (the god identified with ethical purity) against the insurgent followers of Odudua (Adedeji, 336). Adedeji suggests accordingly that ". . . similar Obatala, he is the embodiment of morals together with ethics of the Yoruba." These qualities are especially of import inwards the alternative of Obalufon priests. Thus, Awolalu notes (p. 170), Obalufon worship is sometimes suspended if a priest of high moral grapheme cannot live found. At Owu-Ijebu he explains, ". . . worship was suspended because it was hard to acquire a human being of high probity together with integrity to preside at the shrine of Obalufon. The Oba explained to the people the high standards required of a presiding priest together with added 'If a human being has evil hear together with soundless has the audacity of coming to officiate at the shrine of Obalufon such a human being volition non in conclusion the year.
J. Johnson (in Verger, 457) together with Dennett offering a similar view, signaling that Obalufon is the "god of the prosperous empire." Also of significance is the fact that Ore (Oreluere), the original hunter whom Obalufon supported, is also associated with ethical standards together with morality. According to Idowu (p. 23), Oreluere himself ".o. . was the guardian of domestic morality together with preserver of audio spot unit of measurement traditions." Talbot (II, 60, 87) calls him the god of fortune, success, together with greatness. Obalufon also has a spot inwards agricultural ceremonies, peculiarly those linked to yams together with to their harvest. Thus at Ido Osun ". . . yams cannot live eaten before i has celebrated the offering of initiatory of all fruits to Obalufon inwards September" (Verger, 453). Obalufon's identity with agriculture seems to live founded at to the lowest degree inwards component subdivision on the mythical dispute betwixt Obatala together with Odudua (see n. 26). According to i myth (Idowu, 94), during the flow of their dispute a nifty drought prevailed inwards which all crops failed together with many people died. It was only after the conflict had been resolved, together with peace had been restored, that the fields i time again flourished. It is also non surprising that Obalufon, as the representative of the original owners of the land, would play a telephone substitution component subdivision inwards ceremonies associated with the productivity of the fields. Like many benevolent Yoruba deities, Obalufon is also said to select children to his followers (Awolalu, 150). The Yoruba literature suggests
that Obalufon may remove hold been the deity of vox communication as good (Talbot I, 87; Verger, 452). This is based on the identification of Obalufon as the initiatory of all human being on Earth. According to Bowen (as inwards n. 26, 314) "the call of the initiatory of all human being was . . . Obbalufoh, together with the call of his married adult woman was Iye. They came from sky together with had many children. . . Obbalufoh way the King or Lord of Speech, because the initiatory of all human being was the initiatory of all speaker; Iye .. signifies life." Verger points out, however, that this identity appears to live a false i since Bowen apparently confused Obalufon with Osalufon (or Obatala).
These associations with war, peace, together with prosperity clearly accommodate with what nosotros know about
Obulafon II's life. He was known as a valiant, relentless, together with ingenious state of war leader who never gave upwards inwards his acquire by to gain dorsum his throne, together with who never turned his dorsum on the autochthonous peoples without whose back upwards peace would remove hold been impossible. It is Obalufon II's association with peaceful together with prosperous rulership that is emphasized accordingly inwards the Obalufon offerings inwards Ilawe, Ekiti, where Obalufon is the tutelary deity. The human relationship betwixt Obalufon together with prosperous rulership is reinforced inwards the religious ceremonies associated with this deity. According to Awolalu (p. 105), during the offerings to Obalufon inwards Ilawe, it was the representative of the manlike someone monarch who brought the offerings of the people to the Obalufon priest. This royal representative knelt downward before the priest... together with prayed for everybody together with everything inwards the community."
In add-on to beingness closely tied with kings together with the peace together with prosperity of their reigns, the deity Obalufon is also associated with a number of Yoruba fine art forms. Thompson identifies Obalufon as the patron god of beadworking, today the principal stuff of the royal crowns together with scepters. Robert Farris Thompson (Black Gods together with Kings: Yoruba Art at U.C.L.A., Los Angeles, 1971, 8:1) explains accordingly that, "Men similar to live different. The deity Obalufon thence invented beads together with strung them inwards different colors on bracelets together with necklaces so that gods, together with men who follow them, mightiness stand upwards inwards proud distinction . . ." In other Yoruba areas, however, beadwork is to a greater extent than often associated with Olokun. Verger (p. 452) together with Abraham (p. 501) depict Obalufon (Balufon) as the patron deity of weaving together with clothing. Obalufon is also to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the patron deity of the various brass-casting arts. William Fagg suggests that this association is fairly mutual throughout Yorubaland.
The sculptural forms that today are found inwards the various Obalufon shrines also add together to our agreement of the possible pregnant together with role of the before Ife Obalufon mask. Many of these works, similar the original Obalufon mask, are cire-perdue castings. Some of the most of import information on these arts comes from the town of Obo Ile which was settled past times immigrants from Ife. The land notes of William Fagg document the unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon together with brass casting at this center. At Obo Ile, the tradition itself was said to remove hold originated at Ife. Fagg's field
notes dot that brass arts were so of import inwards the nineteenth century that i tertiary of the population may remove hold been brass casters. In this town, furthermore, the manlike someone monarch of the brass casters, Oba Legbede, is also the caput of the Obalufon association. Additional back upwards for the identification
of Obalufon with the brass-casting arts is found inwards the fact that at Obo Ile, Obanifon (Obalufon) is used as the generic news for all works inwards this medium.
Several types of Obalufon arts from Obo Ile remove hold been documented past times Fagg. One tradition indicates that a brass object (perhaps a staff) was brought to Obo Ile from Ife. This object has the call of Obalufon. Interestingly, at Ife a brass staff is carried past times Chief Obalara together with other Obalufon
priests, Fagg also saw several brass masks associated with Obalufon when he was inwards Obo Ile area. He describes the masks as modern castings, oval inwards shape, together with roughly 5 to 6 inches inwards height. Possible parallels with these masks should also live noted. Denis Williams has published 2 brass masks from Oyo, likely of the 19th century, which were used inwards conjunction with Shango, the patron deity together with initiatory of all ruler of Oyo ("Art inwards Metal," Sources of Yoruba History, ed. S.O. Biobaku, Oxford, 1973, 163-64). These were worn at the annual Bere festival, a ceremony that, similar many of those of Obalufon, took spot at the yam harvest. The call of these masks, alakoro, derives from the word, akoro, pregnant chief's headgear. Thus these masks, similar that of Obalufon, may live ultimately identified with crowns. One of these Oyo alakoro brass masks has 3 markings converging at the lips (Williams, 61) a motif similar to that found on a number of Ife works. Several pocket-size brass alakora masks also appear on a Shango drum documented past times Thompson (as inwards n. 42,
1/18). One of these masks also was called Obanifon (Obalufon).
At Isare, Fagg's information suggests that Obalufon arts remove hold a clear royal identity. Here it is the local Alare (king/ chief) who is caput of the Obalufon (Onifon) association. The emphasis both on brass masks together with on ideas of rulership inwards these traditions suggests of import secondary support
for the identity of the classic Ife copper mask with Obalufon together with with coronations. This parallel, inwards turn, offers evidence for a possible thematic continuum inwards Obalufon arts extending from the nowadays era dorsum to the fourth dimension when the Ife Obalufon mask was made. In add-on to brass masks together with scepters, Obalufon is also associated with brass crowns. Several of these remove hold been documented; i is illustrated past times Thompson (p. 10). This Obalufon crown (Fig. 7) is from Obo-Aiyegunle, Ekiti. It incorporates telephone substitution together with side faces around its base, together with is surmounted past times a bird. Frank Willett photographed some other brass crown associated with Obalufon (Obanifon) at Obo Aiyegunle (Thompson, p. 13, personal communication from Willett). The identification of these brass crowns with Obalufon suggests some other parallel with Ife Obalufon traditions, for inwards these, it volition live recalled, crowns together with coronations were all-important concerns.
Figural traditions inwards brass are also associated with Obalufon. Geoffrey Parrinder, inwards his description of the Obalufon shrine at Ibadan, notes (Religion inwards an African City, London, 1953, 30) that the door of that shrine could non live opened past times the uninitiated for fright that they would live struck blind, suggesting to Parrinder that the piece of occupation within could remove hold been of brass, a stuff whose polish mightiness remove hold been identified with such a response.
The only illustration of an Obalufon brass sculpture that has been published to appointment is inwards the Nigerian National Museum at Lagos. This piece of occupation is i of a pair of Obalufon brass sculptures from Ijebu-Ode. H5N1 distinctive attribute of this sculpture is the portrayal of fisted hands placed parallel to the ground inwards front end of the body. The piece of occupation appears to portray serpents issuing from the nostrils, a characteristic real unusual inwards Ogboni brass sculptures but occasionally found inwards ancient Ife fine art together with inwards Republic of Benin brass-casting traditions. The motif of the serpent issuing from the nostril is also found on Republic of Benin "Spirit" heads together with Agwe masks, on the headdress of the "Tsoede" warrior figure, together with on several works from ancient Ife. Stylistically, the published Obalufon brass figure shares closest ties with human face bells from the Yoruba surface area around Ijebu-Ode. These bells, Thompson notes (79, n. 13), are identified with royal lineage chiefs. This similarity is reinforced past times the fact that the caput of the published Obalufon brass figure is cast separately from the body, so that the head, when seen alone, looks remarkably similar these bells. H5N1 spike that extends from this caput is inserted into the hollow brass torso, the 2 parts together with so beingness strapped together.
The corpus of Obalufon-related arts is, as nosotros remove hold seen, quite diverse. Several features of these sculptures, however, suggest that they may remove hold parallels with the Obalufon mask from ancient Ife. These attributes include the predominance of brass inwards Obalufon fine art inwards general; second, the importance of crowns together with masks amid these cireperdue works, together with third, an emphasis on rulership together with coronation themes inwards the rituals together with religious forms of Obalufon worship. These to a greater extent than recent Obalufon works clearly reinforce the identification of the ancient Obalufon mask.
Obalufon together with the Head of Lajuwa: A Terra-Cotta Identified with a Tale of Court Intrigue
Visual together with thematic evidence suggests that the Obalufon mask may live associated with the ancient Ife terra-cotta caput of a courtroom retainer named "Lajuwa" (Fig. 9). The terra-cotta caput that is said to correspond Lajuwa was published past times the belatedly Ife king, Adesoji Aderemi, at the same fourth dimension as the Obalufon mask.
Although the dating of the manlike someone monarch identified with Lajuwa is opened upwards to some dispute, this terra-cotta head
was clearly made around the fourth dimension of both the Obalufon mask together with the life-size brass together with copper heads. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3) identifies this manlike someone monarch as Aworokolokin. In style, Willett suggests (p. 58) that it "is almost identical with the Wunmonije bronzes together with could good remove hold been made past times one
of the same artists." The 2 works also appear to live closely tied because they were kept inwards the same chamber at the palace. Both sculptures, Willett suggests, may remove hold been associated with an incident inwards Ife history inwards which a retainer assumed the role of a manlike someone monarch inwards monastic say to extend his rule. At
Ife together with other Yoruba city-states, sure enough courtroom servants had the correct to personify the king. We know from Johnson (p. 59) that at Oyo on a number of occasions, surrogates of the manlike someone monarch would correspond him past times assuming his robes together with crown. Here, according to Talbot (iII, 569), it was a eunuch with the championship of Olosi or Osi'efa' who took on the king's identity during judicial proceedings, battles, together with sure enough affairs of state. This Olosi had considerable powerfulness inwards the palace, for he was i of the principal advisors of the king, together with had a major role at each coronation. As Johnson suggests
(p. 59),
"The Osi'efa or Olosi . . . represents the manlike someone monarch inwards all occasions
together with inwards all matters civil as good as military. He
sometimes acts as commander inwards primary inwards military machine expeditions,
he is allowed to exercise the crown, the province umbrella,
together with the kakaki trumpet, together with to remove hold royal honors
paid to him. On such occasions, he is privileged also to
dispense the king's prerogatives."
Johnson farther notes (p. 163), that "The Osi-efa is e'er the initiatory of all as good as the in conclusion inwards the king's chamber. If the manlike someone monarch is ill, he takes his spot on province occasions, putting on his robes together with crown; inwards state of war he appears as the king's deputy, invested inwards all the paraphernalia of royalty." Perhaps related to this practise of a courtroom figure beingness asked to portray the manlike someone monarch for sure enough province events is a tradition at Ife described past times Idowu (p. 208) together with Willett (p. 150) inwards which it is said that a peculiarly dear manlike someone monarch died, together with i of his servants decided to cover his body together with pretend that he was soundless live past times wearing the royal regalia himself. The hoax worked for a time, but eventually it was discovered. The novel king, furious that he had been kept from the throne, ordered the retainer together with the palace artists to live killed. The courtroom retainer who is said to remove hold masterminded the deception is identified as Lajuwa, the chamberlain of King Aworokolokin. Lajuwa, Willett notes (p. 57), is at nowadays identified as the patron deity of palace servants.
Interestingly, Hambly, inwards his description of the Lajuwa caput (p. 465) identifies it as "Lajuwa, the messenger of Onis," suggesting that Lajuwa's role at Ife may remove hold been to a greater extent than that of a representative/advisor than a retainer per se. He may remove hold acted as a trusted assist together with surrogate of the king. The Obalufon mask, as Willett has noted (p. 150), could easily remove hold been worn past times someone intending to impersonate the king. It is tempting to suggest inwards this low-cal that the Obalufon mask may also remove hold been worn past times designated courtroom officials inwards their roles as representatives of the king. Yoruba crowns today contain a long fringe of beads that cover the ruler's face. Sculptural portrayals of ancient Ife crowns (see Fig. 10) exhibit no such fringe, suggesting that a naturalistic mask mightiness remove hold been an of import component subdivision of the representative's costume. Possibly the Obalufon mask, through its identity with royal investiture, also had a secondary role inwards masking those at courtroom whose duty it was to serve as royal personifiers.
Ife's Life-Size Brass together with Copper Heads: Evidence for Their Identification with Obalufon
The copper Obalufon mask is also stylistically related to the ancient Ife brass together with copper heads (Figs. 3, 4) that were unearthed inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound close the palace. The Obalufon mask is unopen plenty to i of them to live a portrait of the same person. Frank Willett, who published many of these naturalistic copper together with brass heads inwards 1967 inwards his piece of occupation on Ife, presented a theory as good of their possible exercise together with meaning. This theory, which had originally been suggested past times William Fagg together with and so supported past times Justine Cordwell, suggests that the heads likely played a telephone substitution role inwards the Yoruba establishment of Ako, a tradition inwards which memorial figures were constructed to correspond the deceased. The life-size brass together with copper heads, this theory suggests, were incorporated into memorial figures that served as surrogates for deceased Ife kings during funerary
commemorations. At Owo the documented exercise of a naturalistic wooden Ako memorial figure was seen to offering a contemporary counterpart for this tradition.
This theory, though soundless held past times most African fine art historians, has been brought into interrogation past times several scholars. Kenneth Murray inwards a missive of the alphabet to Odu was the initiatory of all to get upwards doubts close this view, basing himself primarily on the stylistic congruity of the works involved. He notes that these cast life-size heads appear to remove hold been produced within a relatively curt period, likely past times i or 2 artists working within a close-knit school. Indeed, according to Murray, ". . . it mightiness live argued that only i artist, working perhaps for only a twosome of years, made the bulk of the heads."
The stylistic congruity of these works would thus dominion out the possibility that the 15 heads were commissioned as funeral memorials for successive Ife kings. To the contrary, the likely average reign of 20 years which Willett suggests for the Ife kings (p. 130), or i of 13 years at nowadays considered to live to a greater extent than realistic, would stretch their execution over 2 or 3 hundred years (i.e.,
twenty, or thirteen, years times 15 heads). This fourth dimension span is far also long, since they exhibit remarkably few stylistic or formal elements of variance. Equally problematic is the fact that the heads are all inwards a somewhat similar status (apart from blows that some of them received) suggesting that, rather than having differential lengths together with places of burial, they were likely all buried for close the same length of time, nether the same or similar conditions.
Furthermore, if nosotros hold back at sculptural forms elsewhere inwards Africa, it is clear that artistic traditions exhibit real important stylistic changes over comparable periods of time. At the royal city-state of Benin, for example, Dark notes that in that location is an enormous stylistic difference inwards the bronze heads
made over the course of study of several centuries. Garrard has shown that brass "gold weights" from the kingdom of the Ashanti inwards Republic of Ghana during the same fourth dimension span exhibit as striking changes. Great differences tin also live seen, as Rosenwald points out, betwixt the early on together with belatedly commemorative figures of the Kuba kings, fifty-fifty though they were made over a much shorter period. Willett was aware of the problems inwards the several hundredyear flow of industry that his memorial theory necessitated. He suggested accordingly (p. 130) that Ife kings may remove hold been ritually killed after a curt reign of only 7 years. There is, however, no evidence for the ritual killing of kings inwards whatever of the accounts of Ife history, nor inwards the other Yoruba city-state histories. The only evidence that Willett cites as back upwards for his controversy is an business concern human relationship given past times Ulli Beier coming from the southern Yoruba metropolis of Ijebu, which refers to traditions close events assumed to remove hold taken spot inwards Ife.
Even if nosotros were to remove hold a seven-year reign for the kings of Ife, however, this would soundless dot a flow of industry of roughly 112 years, a span of fourth dimension soundless also long for these stylistically similar works. Willett also appears to remove hold been aware of this difficulty, for he suggests (p. 130) that the heads may remove hold portrayed non only kings but also palace retainers - i.e., those who would remove hold been killed to accompany the manlike someone monarch at the fourth dimension of his death. The possibility that whatever of these copper together with brass heads represented courtroom servants, however, is extremely slight, inwards sentiment non only of the scarcity of copper together with brass at Ife at this time, but also because, as Willett notes, each caput appears to remove hold been intended to have on a crown. More of late Rowland Abiodun has raised farther questions close Willett's memorial theory for these heads. Abiodun points out that ". . .if the 'effigy represents the dignitas of the business office itself,' it is unusual that nosotros remove hold non yet found a unmarried instance where the ako effigy has been made specifically for [a king] . . ." He goes on to banknote that
"..if [kings] are honored as seconds of the gods . ..
together with if 'it is unsafe to stare at his naked face' . . . and
if at his decease in that location is fifty-fifty greater secrecy together with mystery
surrounding his person, would it non live incongruous to
carve an ako or fifty-fifty to brand whatever image of him inwards the
characteristically naturalistic style together with parade the town
with it the way the known ako are treated?"
Murray together with Abiodun remove hold not, however, suggested whatever alternatives for the possible pregnant together with exercise of these heads. It is only such an alternate theory that the to a higher spot news of the Obalufon mask may at nowadays permit.
I suggest inwards this low-cal that these heads, similar the life-size copper mask, may remove hold been identified with Obalufon II together with with his later worship as a god. There is considerable evidence to back upwards this view. First, all the brass together with copper life-size heads from Ife were found inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound (Fig. 6),6 a component subdivision of the working capital missive of the alphabet that is said to live close the spot where Obalufon II himself was buried. According to Fabunmi's map (n.p.), this is also close the spot where the novel kings of Ife are crowned. It is also possible that these heads may remove hold originally been housed on an Obalufon shrine, on the analogy that at other Yoruba centers, brass crowns, masks, together with figures are oftentimes found on shrines identified with this deity.
The only other major shrines specifically associated with brass sculptures are those of the Ogboni together with Agemo societies. The placement of these heads on the Ife Obalufon shrine would also accommodate to the Yoruba tradition that identifies Obalufon as the patron deity of brass casting, together with attributes to Obalufon II the introduction of the casting arts. Furthermore, if the heads were intended, as Willett
suggests, to live seen with actual crowns, together with if, as stated above, these crowns were kept on the Obalufon shrine, it follows that the heads together with the crowns would remove hold been kept together.
The association of these heads with Obalufon also emerges from the likely circumstances of their belatedly burial inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound inwards the palace. When the works were brought into the palace for interment, which Willett suggests (pp. 27-28) likely took spot sometime before the early on nineteenth century, it seems likely that this was done with the intention of protecting them from farther attack. With this inwards mind, the spot selected for their burial undoubtedly would remove hold been chosen with considerable care. Assuming this to live the case, it would follow that the heads would live buried inwards a palace surface area closely associated with the patron deity inwards whose shrine they had
originally been found. Since the heads were buried close the assumed grave of Obalufon II, it seems likely that originally they had also been associated with this ruler.
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Cosmic References inwards Ancient Ife
Suzanne Preston Blier
THIS ESSAY CONSIDERS i of the most of import Yoruba cosmological referents, the computer programme of the working capital missive of the alphabet Ile-Ife together with its palace (fig 11.1), together with examines a number of artworks associated with this urban center, especially at its superlative around 1300 CE. The Yoruba cosmos has often been compared to a gourd or calabash cutting horizontally so as to shape a separate base of operations together with cover, with the upper one-half identified with the sky-linked creator god, Obatala, the lower one-half with the ground god together with novel dynasty founder, Odudua (see Lawal, this volume). The shape of the gourd sometimes is used inwards scholarly diagrams that seek to exhibit the Yoruba cosmos as a well-ordered layering of human together with supernatural actors (see fig. 12.6). In my view, however, this neatly delimited model reflects inwards component subdivision a Western taxonomic conception, since to the Yoruba, religious forces together with persona are continually moving, intersecting, cross-pollinating, challenging, together with energizing i some other (and humans) across a myriad of celestial together with earthly spheres. Human together with sacral worlds, inwards short, are conjoined here.
There also are noteworthy historical contradictions around the identity of this calabash-form as cosmological model, peculiarly inwards its references to Obatala together with Odudua. Both of these deity pantheons appear to live relatively belatedly inventions inwards Yoruba religious history, emerging most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s 2nd dynasty inwards close 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to remove hold been made, a flow closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, together with with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis computer programme inwards which the palace together with marketplace spot are located inwards the oculus surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This computer programme features 4 main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were i time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The computer programme of Ile-Ife, which may remove hold housed
some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology together with directional primacy.
SUN, MOON, THUNDER, AND LIGHTNING
There is compelling evidence supporting the importance of both the Sun together with Luna inwards early on Ife together with broader Yoruba thought. Celestial light, P. A. Talbot points out, is identified past times the Yoruba with the Sun (male), the Luna (female), together with the stars (their children), all traveling each twenty-four sixty minutes flow inwards enormous canoes beneath the ground together with across the sky. In ancient Ife contexts sure enough sculptural forms are identified with these heavenly bodies. The Sun is referenced here, inwards part, past times a tall, triangular menhir (fig. 11.2; consider also fig. 11.5), which seems to remove hold served as a calendrical device. In Ife in that location are beliefs (taboos) close the sun’s importance to the exercise together with display of sure enough ancient Ife
sculptural arts, inwards particular, the ancient terra cotta caput identified with the early on King Osangangan Obamakin (Obalufon I), which was non supposed to ever consider the sun.
Ife oral histories banknote that this sculpture was shielded past times an overturned pot to safeguard it from daylight. This practise also may remove hold political together with temporal connections to this manlike someone monarch based on his prominent associations with the initiatory of all dynasty at Ife, the era prior to Odudua’s arrival together with cultural enlightenment. Significantly, it was this same manlike someone monarch (now god) who is credited inwards Obalufon spot unit of measurement myths with bringing low-cal to earth, an human activity that complements the exercise of shining, reflective mica for the diadem on the royal Ife crown (are) that Ife’s Obalufon priest places on the caput of each newly crowned king.
The Luna finds notable reference here, too. Not only is the festival calendar a lunar one, but according to Euba, Ife rituals of divine kingship that shape component subdivision of the yearly. Oduduwa festival necessarily “take spot on a moonless nighttime because the existent Luna inwards the sky must non human face upwards the symbolic Luna of ‘Oduduwa,’ the latter, a apartment slab of rock referred to as orun Oduduwa, ‘Oduduwa’s heaven,’ that is carried past times the high priest circular the various spots inwards the town where sacrifices are made.” Another moon-linked stone, thought to live of quartz (or mica), was reportedly “stolen” inwards the early on component subdivision of the twentieth century past times a European visitor intent on discovering the properties of “electricity” presumed to live associated with it. This rock carries associations, Euba
suggests, with the ancient thunder together with lightning god Oramfe (Ora). Its name, osupa Ijio, “the Moonstone of Ijio,” also links it to Ife Chief Obajio (Oba Ijio), the caput priest of Olokun, the ancient god of large H2O bodies (the ocean), trade, together with beads. The unopen link betwixt lightning, thunder, rain, bodies of water, together with the annual bike of the seasons seems inwards this way to remove hold informed this unusual now-missing object.
The early on Ife god of thunder together with lightning Oramfe (Oranfe/Aramfe, Ora, the precursor of Sango) is identified at i time with pelting (storms), royal power, together with jurisprudence. E. B. Idowu identifies Oramfe additionally with command of the solar system. Euba non only describes Oramfe as Ife’s i time powerful “solar-thunder god,” but also characterizes this “high god” as Ife’s “most senior of the humanized spirits,” honored simultaneously as Onile Ina, “Owner of the House of Fire,” together with Ooni Ale, “Owner of the Land.” She also highlights Oramfe’s identity as “the Olodumare of the Ife” (since both are “worshipped inwards the same uncomplicated way”), noting that Oramfe’s Oriki praise names spot him, inwards turn, as the “supreme ase,” namely Orisa.
The latter creative force, she adds, is non only symbolized past times “whiteness together with personified as the sky god” but also evokes “the humanized ase emanating from the dark earth,” the latter also oftentimes linked to Odudua. There is some other cosmological aspect as well, for as Euba explains: “In the Ife creation myth it is Olodumare (sometimes said to live Ora) who sent downward these divinities to assist ‘him’ inwards the creation of the world together with of mankind.”
The god Oramfe has a political role at Ife, together with is said to convey to Ife kings together with others the powerfulness to attract together with halt rain, to command the seasons, together with to regulate the bike of the universe to a greater extent than generally. Royal powerfulness also is associated with Oramfe, consistent with this god’s affinity with protecting the kingdom together with its rulers. Indeed, as Emmanuel Eze suggests, the human activity of prostration before the manlike someone monarch reinforces this tie: “The practise of lying apartment when inwards a thunderstorm is regarded past times the early on Yorubas as an human activity of worship of Sango [and past times extension Oramfe] who becomes appeased together with consequently spares the life of the worshiper.”
Several Ife sculptures dating to ca. 1300 CE are identified with the celestial features associated with Oramfe, amid them a Janus figure (figs. 11.3a, 11.3b) depicting on i side a standing human together with on the other a raptor. The human being bears unusual diagonal facial markings together with appears to live spitting or vomiting a rock ax (celt, “thunderbolt”), the latter a key icon of Oramfe (and of this god’s successor as thunder deity, Sango). The human being depicted hither grasps a society inwards his left mitt and, inwards his right, what appears to live a slice of cloth or feather. The society together with cloth/feather seem to signal the primacy of residuum together with contrast. Whereas the cloth or plume suggests the wealth, plenty, and
calm that come upwards to Oramfe devotees who follow his laws, the society signals the potential blows that are meted out to social deviants, such as thieves, who go against Oramfe’s wishes. At the bring upwards of the man’s left shoulder is a branch of leaves, most likely akoko, a flora shape that figures prominently inwards Ife enthronement rites, perhaps underscoring the role of Oramfe inwards conveying dynastic power. Ife primary Obaluru, priest of Ife’s Oramfe temple, describes this thunder together with lightning deity inwards ways that inform the sculpture further:
"Fire comes from Oramfe’s mouth, so you lot cannot sit down close him or else you lot will
burn. He also has rock axes [edun àrà] that come upwards from his mouth, together with kills people
when lightning strikes."
Following i peculiarly active lightning tempest inwards Ife inwards 2004, I was told that powerful local babalawo (healers, diviners) would come upwards out to collect the fallen celts (thunderbolts) for later exercise inwards making rigid medicines, pointing to connections betwixt these celts together with an array of protective or empowering medicinal forms.
(Fig 11.4a together with 11.4b) Staff of Oranmiyan (including particular of nails) dating ca. 1300 ce , Ife
On the contrary side of this sculpture (see fig. 11.3b) is a large-eyed aeroplane with looping, snake-like
wings. When asked close the significance of birds with this wing attribute, Chief Obaluru noted “this aeroplane was sent to people past times Oramfe when he wanted to do favors for them.” The bird, he explained, carries Oramfe’s lightning together with thunder celts to earth, together with volition select both penalty together with favors from this god to humans. The exact species of this aeroplane tin live debated, but it may depict the owl resembling African pennant-winged nighttime jounce (Cosmetornis vexillarius). When inwards flight, its white flash of nether feathers is reminiscent of lightning. The birds, known to the Yoruba as ase, the phoneme se referring to a command or order, also evoke larger Yoruba notions of potency together with powerfulness (ase) linked to Oramfe, the thunder, lightning, together with omnipotent solar-linked god who safeguards society together with helps to save effective rule. The pennant-winged nightjar also carries sure enough sorcery associations here, actions that Oramfe was believed to counter, connecting this sculpture to both positive (kingship) together with negative (sorcery) ends.
CELESTIAL- LINKED STONE MONUMENTS
H5N1 grouping of menhirs, or tall standing stones, is amid the most interesting of ancient Ife artworks that send cosmological significance. These monuments were a major component subdivision of the Ife landscape of circa 1300 ce—and soundless are today. Sculpted from granite inwards the same flow as the famous Ife copper alloy castings together with terracottas, they were erected inwards various parts of the city, often inwards conjunction with temples, shrines, together with groves. Many send features that offering insight into ancient Ife beliefs close the cosmos.
One of the city’s most famous monuments is the unopen to 16 feet 10 inches tall (above ground) staff of Oranmiyan, located around a quarter mile south-southwest of the palace, together with identified with King Obalufon II’s main adversary (figs. 11.4a, 11.4b). The Oranmiyan staff is dedicated to the famous warrior together with military machine leader who is said to remove hold conquered Ife together with forced King Obalufon II from the throne, the latter eventually returning to powerfulness together with bringing peace to the together with so warring citizens. Before or after this event, Oranmiyan is credited with founding novel dynasties
at Republic of Benin together with Oyo. Oral tradition suggests that this tall granite staff represents the sword Oranmiyan used to savage Ife’s citizens, a weapon he purportedly thrust into the ground before leaving Ife for good. Most likely this monument was created together with positioned inwards Ife inwards the era next his divergence during Obalufon II’s 2nd reign, inwards conjunction with the truce he forged after Ife’s painful civil war. This was a flow when many of the famous early on Ife heroes appear to remove hold been commemorated with shrines together with associated sculptures.
This staff integrates on its surface a sculpted ram horn or ax motif (evoking ase, or vital power/force) together with a pattern of atomic number 26 nails. Although various interpretations of the unusual atomic number 26 pattern remove hold been given, most likely it depicts a multi-branched staff, a three-arm version of the Y-shaped
beaded staff carried past times the Ooni inwards the course of study of the annual Olojo ceremony, a context inwards which the richly costumed together with crowned manlike someone monarch is said to attract rain. As such the Oranmiyan monument also seems to symbolize the powerfulness of kings to command storms together with rain, a characteristic linked both to Oramfe (the ancient thunder god) together with to Sango (the Oyo-linked god identified with Oranmiyan).
Another of import ancient Ife rock menhir comprises a 7 pes 8 inch tall piece of occupation known as Ita Ogun Esa, a sculpture identified past times Leo Frobenius as a “sun dial” (fig. 11.5; consider also fig. 11.2). This menhir is located southeast of the palace on Itapa Street close the temple of Obatala. H5N1 tall, narrow, three-sided work, the menhir appears to remove hold had calendrical functions. As Frobenius explains, “When the shadow of this stela savage inwards sure enough directions together with reached a dot drawn on a circle around it, it was fourth dimension for sure enough sacred festivals.”18 H5N1 rock sundial of this type would remove hold been critical for determining non only festival times, but also other events. The identification of this
rock with the Obatala temple complex reinforces the larger celestial associations of Obatala with both the heavens together with related light.
An additional rock menhir was positioned inwards the now-destroyed Ijugbe temple on Famia Road inwards the city’s western Modakeke sector, a site dedicated to the Obatala-linked agricultural deity, Orisa Teko. This work, a long, sparse 6 pes 6 inch rectangle, was identified past times Willett as the temple’s monument to Ogun, consistent with the importance of atomic number 26 inwards agricultural (and other) tools. Orisa Teko is known inwards Ife today as an early on yam farmer (now the god of yams), the forerunner of the Yoruba agriculture god, Orisa Oko. Historically, the priest of the Ijugbe temple also is said to remove hold been inwards accuse of rain. This menhir, similar the Ita Ogun Esa monument discussed above, possibly
functioned as a sundial (calendar stone, gnomon), inwards this instance likely helping to determine the best fourth dimension for planting yams together with other agricultural produce. This menhir, similar the i identified with the Obatala temple, is thus linked inwards of import ways to the bike of time.
Yet some other menhir, a piece of occupation i time positioned inwards the Ore Grove (and at nowadays located inwards the National Museum, Ile Ife), stands close 5 feet 2 inches to a higher spot ground together with incorporates the unusual pattern of 4 holes cutting roughly equidistant from the other (and betwixt xi together with 16 inches apart) inwards such a way that they run downward each side of the four-sided column. Iron inserts were secured inwards 4 of the holes, only the bases of which remain. The piece of occupation is thought to remove hold had spiral-shaped inserts of atomic number 26 similar to those embedded inwards the Oranmiyan staff. Frank Willett notes that these holes were positioned consistent with the key directions, suggesting that the menhir is associated with cosmological order. An additional rock shape with a plausible cosmological reference was housed at the palace Ogun temple, Ogun Ladin, this piece of occupation integrating a pattern of 4 holes marking the corners of a square, at the oculus of which was a 5th stone, suggesting the 4 key points together with the Sun at the middle. In many ways this shape also suggests a schematic model of the metropolis itself, with its historic 4 main entries leading through the walls into the metropolis oculus where they run into at the palace together with nearby market.
IFE, H5N1 CARDINAL CITY
Ife is an unusual metropolis inwards many respects, non the to the lowest degree of which is the number of different plans that figure inwards its conceptualization. At its most basic, Ife is a central-plan urban center, with its (originally four?) main avenues at i fourth dimension piercing the metropolis walls close the key points together with joining at the palace together with marketplace spot that delimit the center, a computer programme similar to many other early on Yoruba walled cities. In addressing both the Ife metropolis computer programme together with the key directions, the local Yoruba concept of northward (traditional north, e.g., northwest) is employed, i that defines the directions vis-à-vis orientations several degrees off truthful north, likely as determined around the fourth dimension of the wintertime solstice when the Sun sets on the horizon inwards its most westerly position.
P. A. Talbot provides additional insight into Yoruba views of the cosmos together with how issues of shape together with directionality figure inwards them. He notes that the Yoruba spot the ground as foursquare together with that their names for the key directions reverberate this understanding: the E is known as ila orun (appearing of the sun), the due west as iwaw orun (the sinking of the sun), the northward as igun keta (third corner, or ariwa otun ila orun, the coming to the correct of the earth), together with the due south as igun kerin aiya (fourth corner of the world). Leo Frobenius provides a version of the Yoruba creation myth that speaks direct to this dynamic, noting that a key computer programme is identified with the earth’s creation, a
procedure said past times Idowu to remove hold taken 4 days. Frobenius also identifies each management with a specific god (deity complex): the E as Edju/Eshu, the due west as Sango, the northward as Ogun, together with the due south as Obatala (fig. 11.6). H5N1 complementary sculptural shape tin live seen inwards the double Janus (four-headed) figure documented past times Idowu26 at the Odudua temple. This unusual Ife sculptural
work, similar several others, references the 4 faces (directions) of the Ifa oracular divinity Orunmila (fig. 11.7). Other motifs on this sculpture correspond eternal knots, double-headed serpents, an Odu head, together with figures of the messenger god, Eshu. The unique shapes of Yoruba Ifa divination boards (rectilinear, circular, a one-half circle, or a combination thereof) underscore ideas of cosmological scheme as well. While rectilinear forms evoke fourth dimension together with infinite as delimited past times the key points, the circle suggests circular celestial bodies together with ideas of perpetuity. According to Idowu, when
a worshipper creates a circle of ashes or white chalk on the ground, inwards the oculus of which he places an offering, the circular shape is seen to reference eternity.
The key directions clearly constitute i of the key way through which the Ife space, planning, together with fourth dimension are delimited together with experienced, a factor reinforced through the array of ancient potsherd or rock together with potsherd pavements that grade this oculus together with its past. These are largely oriented unopen to northeast to southwest or to northwest to southeast, consistent with an overall key management primacy. In the historic Ife metropolis plan, the palace is at the oculus (see fig. 11.1). Each grouping of gods also has its spot consistent with their religious together with cosmological associations. In the department of the metropolis broadly to the E of the palace are the shrines of Ifa (Orunmila), the god of divination, located atop Ife’s highest loma (Oke Tase). Also E of the palace is the main Edju (Eshu, Esu) shrine, dedicated to the Ifa divination-linked messenger god. The temple of Olurogbo, the ancient Ife messenger betwixt humans together with gods is located inwards this sector as well, as is the Ife shrine to the Luna goddess. These Ife temples seem to part an association with heavenly communication, consistent with the positioning of the king’s residence (bedroom) on the eastern side of the palace.
West of the palace are temples linked especially to pelting together with storms, including non only that of Oramfe, the ancient Ife deity of thunder together with lightning (Ife’s precursor to Sango) together with Ogbon Oya
(Sango’s wife), but also the Ife god of agriculture, Orisa Teko. At this latter temple, also sometimes called Ijugbe, were observed rock seats, a large copper alloy frog pierced past times an arrow, together with a ram fashioned from quartz, the latter used for offerings during the annual March festival cycle. The military machine conqueror together with cultural hero, Oranmiyan, who is identified variously as the begetter or boy of Sango inwards Oyo (Yoruba) contexts, has his monument due west of the palace as well.
In the northern quadrant of the metropolis is the main Ogun temple, dedicated to the powerful god of war, iron, together with the advancement of civilization. Also found inwards Ife’s northern quadrant is the temple of Orisa Akire, the autochthonous Ife warrior god. Another temple, this i dedicated to King Obalufon II, founder of Ife’s 2nd dynasty together with the main king/deity credited with enlarging Ife’s route scheme together with establishing its metropolis plan, is sited inwards the city’s northern sector as well, non far from the western metropolis wall together with gate leading toward Ibadan. Both the Ife palace together with the Obalufon temple human face northward (northwest), the management of import to Ogun. In the southern quadrant of Ife is some other grouping of Ife sanctuaries. These are identified with Obatala (the sky god), Olokun (the sea god, also Olokun Walode), together with an array of royal burial sites or shrines (Wunmonije, Lafogido, together with Igbo Odi).
Each cluster of Ife gods thus is identified with a different quadrant of the city, consistent with its key together with broader cosmological associations: E (with life together with renewal: Ifa, Eshu), due west (with dark skies together with storms: the thunder together with agriculture gods: Oramfe, Orisa Teko), northward (with power, war, together with technology: Ogun), together with due south (with creation, fertility, together with the ocean: Obatala, Olokun). The importance of the Sun together with Luna within the metropolis landscape together with the key orientation of the 4 main avenues together with palace exhibit that infinite inwards Ile-Ife carried sustained cosmological significance.
Taken together these various sculptural, architectural, together with ritual forms dot to the high grade of early on together with ongoing Ife involvement inwards cosmology, issues referenced non only inwards the primacy of cosmological attributes (the sun, the moon, lightning) but also inwards an array of of import calendrical features (stone menhirs functioning as fourth dimension markers), as good as roads, pavements, palaces, together with temples linked to the key directions.
source:http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/blier/files/blier_cosmic_references_in_ancient_ife._african_cosmology_ed._kreamer_2012.pdf
Olojo Festival
The Olojo Festival is a festival inwards Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. It is the celebration of the remembrance of “Ogun” the god of Iron, who is believed to live the initiatory of all boy of Oduduwa, progenitor of the Yoruba people.
On this day, the Ooni (king of Ife) appears after several days of seclusion, communing with the ancestors together with praying for his people. This ritual is to brand him pure together with ensure the efficacy of his prayers. Before the Ooni emerges, women from his maternal together with paternal families sweep the Palace, symbolically ridding the Palace of evil.
The Ooni later appears inwards public with the Are crown (King’s Crown), which is believed to live the original crown used past times Oduduwa to Pb a procession of traditional Chiefs together with Priests to perform at the Shrine of Ogun. The next stage of the ceremony is to Pb the crowd to Okemogun’s shrine. Here he performs duties including the renewal of oath, divination for the Ooni at the pes of Oketage loma past times Araba (Chief Priest), as good as visiting places of historical importance.
At the shrine, the traditional Chiefs with the swords of business office marked with chalk together with cam wood, appear inwards ceremonial attire together with trip the low-cal fantastic toe to rhythms from Bembe, a traditional drum. The style of drumming together with singing for each Chief is different. Only the Ooni tin trip the low-cal fantastic toe to the drum called Osirigi.
Olojo has remained pop inwards Ile-Ife due to its myth together with history. It connotes the twenty-four sixty minutes flow inwards the twelvemonth specially blessed past times Olodumare (the creator of the Universe). Olojo tin also live literally translated as the “Owner for the day”. Prayers are offered for peace together with tranquility inwards Yoruba together with Nigeria. All historic flow groups participate together with it’s significance is inwards the unification of the Yorubas.
Tradition holds that Ile-Ife is the cradle of the Yorubas, the metropolis of survivors, spiritual spot of the Yorubas, together with Blue Planet of the ancients
Photo source:http://orishada.com/wordpress/?p=267
Ife people celebrating their Obatala festival at Ile Ife
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the source of the Yoruba people together with it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on flow of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to found when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the initiatory of all King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) together with Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that in that location were betwixt 90 3 to 90 7 kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards together with around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to remove hold encountered indigenous people inwards the part (Falola together with Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong remove hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
Ile ife women inwards their traditional dress
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ or and the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the spot where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwards upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher spot suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded together with situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual source (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental together with continuity of nifty bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a oculus from which Yoruba civilisation emanates together with a spot for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997).
Diasporan Ifa priests undergoing their initiation at Ifa temple inwards Ile Ife, Nigeria
The early on written records that mentionss Ife was during the early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era when the well-known adventurer, historian together with travelor Ibn Battûta(1325–1354) mentioned them inwards his travelogue. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a province called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is i of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is i of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a province that “No white human being tin go inwards … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing together with mercantile interests, amid these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, atomic number 26 smelting together with forging, together with textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife remove hold been found as far due west as Mali, Mauritania, together with modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good remove hold learned of this oculus inwards the course of study of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the call Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the instance inwards maps from this era, the call Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a belatedly fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions close an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amid others)
Ife is good known as the metropolis of 401 or 201 deities. It is said that every twenty-four sixty minutes flow of the twelvemonth the traditional Ifa worshippers celebrate a festival of i of these deities. Often the festivals extend over to a greater extent than than i twenty-four sixty minutes flow together with they involve both priestly activities inwards the palace together with theatrical dramatisations inwards the ease of the kingdom. Because of Ife’s importance inwards the realm of creation, it has many traditional festivals to commemorate the many deities known inwards the history of the metropolis together with inwards Yoruba land. The most spectacular festivals demand the King's participation. These include the Itapa festival for Obatala together with Obameri, the Edi festival for Moremi Ajasoro, together with the Igare masqueraders, together with the Olojo festival for Ogoun. During the festivals together with at other occasions the traditional priests offering prayers for the approving of their ain cult-group, the metropolis of Ile Ife, the Nigerian land together with the whole world.
Ile Ifa Ifa practitioners inwards a street procession inwards celebration of the anniversary of the Orisha Obatala festival.
The Oòni (or king) of Ife claims direct descent from Oduduwa, together with is counted initiatory of all amid the Yoruba kings. He is traditionally considered the 401st deity (òrìshà), the only i that speaks. In fact, the royal dynasty of Ife traces its source dorsum to the founding of the metropolis to a greater extent than than 2 K years ago. The nowadays ruler is Alayeluwa Oba Okunade Sijuwade, Olubuse II, styled His Imperial Majesty past times his subjects. The Ooni ascended his throne inwards 1980. Following the formation of the Yoruba Orisha Congress inwards 1986, the Ooni acquired an international status the likes of which the holders of his championship hadn't had since the city's colonisation past times the British. Nationally he had e'er been prominent amongst the Federal Republic of Nigeria's society of royal Obas, beingness regarded as the primary priest together with custodian of the holy metropolis of all the Yorubas. In one-time times, the palace of the Oni of Ife was a construction built of authentic enameled bricks, decorated with artistic porcelain tiles together with all sorts of ornaments.
Statue of Oduduwa, the progenitor of Yoruba people
Ife people together with their ancient metropolis of Ile Ife which is regarded as the ancient metropolis of Old Yoruba, are so precious together with sacred to the Yoruba people so much that every Yoruba sub-group is forbidden to assail them no affair how they provoke a particular sub-group. Attacking an Ife citizen or Ile Ife town is an abomination, high treason together with sacrilegious human activity that tin Pb to consummate extermination of a particular Yoruba group, as all other Yoruba groups volition come upwards together to acquire by against whatever Yoruba that acquire by or assail Ife citizen or towns. The instance inwards dot is how combined Yoruba forces led past times Ijebu, Ife together with their allies completely destroyed the original habitat of Orile-Owu or Owu-Ipole together with their Ikija allies forcing them to flee to seek sanctuary at Abeokuta amid the Egbas, when Owu people nether the leadership of Olowu Amororo attacked Ife towns. The final result result of Olowu`s activeness became a disaster for the Owu people inwards their original abode together with threw the whole of Yoruba Blue Planet into civil war. In fact, the Owu were thoroughly defeated past times the combined forces of Ibadan together with Ijebu, together with the Oni of Ife, the spiritual caput of the Yorubas, ordered with his constitutional authority, that the Owu capital, Orile-Owu must live destroyed with no human existence. According to Samuel Johnson inwards his renowned bulk "The History of the Yoruba" Owu was rendered helpless as famine emerged together with they "began for the initiatory of all fourth dimension to eat those large beans called popondo (or awuje) hitherto considered unfit for food; hence the taunting songs of the allies : —
"Popondo I'ara Owu nje. (The Owus at nowadays live on propondo)
Aje f'ajaga bo 'run." (That done, their necks for the yoke)
Unto this day, whoever would hum this ditty within the hearing of an Owu man, must hold back out for an accident to his ain person. Ikija was the only Egba town which befriended the metropolis of Owu inwards her straits hence after the autumn of the latter town, the combined armies went to punish her for supplying Owu with provisions during the siege. Being a much smaller town, they presently made curt piece of occupation of it. After the devastation of Ikija,^ the allies returned to their one-time army camp at Idi Ogungun (under the Ogiingun tree). "Owu was thenceforth placed nether an interdict, never to live rebuilt ; together with it was resolved that inwards future, nevertheless nifty mightiness live the population of Oje — the nearest town to it — the town walls should non extend as far as the Ogungun tree, where the army camp was pitched. Consequently to this day, although the Blue Planet may live cultivated yet no i is allowed to build a theatre on it." (Johnson, 1928)
According to Fashogbon (1995) recounting the oral historical handout of the ancient Yoruba town of Ile-Ife submits that “it is the initiatory of all creation inwards this world”. Ile-Ife is the holy city, the dwelling of divinities together with mysterious spirits, the source of all oceans together with the gateway to heaven. H5N1 schoolhouse of thought fifty-fifty speculates that Ile-Ife was the spot of civilization from where Arab Republic of Egypt received its civilization which later spread to the Hebrews together with the Babylonians together with so to the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans together with finally to the Britons (Fabunmi, 1969).
Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' together with 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline. Generally, therefore, Ile-Ife has earned many enviable appellations, viz:
Ile-Ife, ile Owuro Ile-Ife, the Blue Planet of the most ancient days
Ile-Ife, Oodaye Ile-Ife, where the news of creation took place
Ile-Ife, Ibi ti ojumo ti mowa Ile-Ife, where the dawn of the twenty-four sixty minutes flow was initiatory of all experienced
Ile-Ife, Ori yeah gbogbo Ile-Ife, caput of the whole universe
Ile-Ife, Ooye Lagbo Ile-Ife the metropolis of the Survivors.
(Fashogbon, op.cit)
Ori-olokun sculpture which sits at the entrance of the ancestral metropolis of Ile Ife. The ancient metropolis is dwelling to beautifully preserved artworks inwards bronze together with terra cotta which holds the potential for authentic ethnological studies of Yoruba culture, these are on exhibit inwards its museum of Ife antiquities located inwards the Kings palace at Enuwa Square Ile Ife.
Yoruba oral history fifty-fifty testifies to it that Oduduwa the progenitor of the Yoruba, together with other ‘Leaders of Mankind’ (deities together with divinities) were the Survivors (Ooye Lagbo) after the deluge together with that they were the founders of Ile-Ife whence the people migrated to the different territories they presently occupy (Fashogbon, 1995).
Yoruba people consider Ife as a spot where the founding deities Oduduwa together with Obatala began the creation of the world, as directed past times the paramount deity Olodumare. Obàtálá created the initiatory of all humans out of clay, spell Odùduwà became the initiatory of all divine manlike someone monarch of the Yoruba. But it must live emphasised that Oduduwa together with Obatala met aboriginal people on the land. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all remove hold on i factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established in that location (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to remove hold come upwards downward with the initiatory of all political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures together with Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the call of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
Yoruba religious history, emerged most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s 2nd dynasty inwards close 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to remove hold been made, a flow closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, together with with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis computer programme inwards which the palace together with marketplace spot are located inwards the oculus surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This computer programme features 4 main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were i time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The computer programme of Ile-Ife, which may remove hold housed some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology together with directional primacy.
In Ife artistic works, of import people were often depicted with large heads because the artists believed that the Ase was held inwards the head, the Ase beingness the inner powerfulness together with unloose energy of a person. Their rulers were also often depicted with their mouths covered so that the powerfulness of their vox communication would non live also great. They did non idealize private people, but they tended rather to idealize the business office of the king. The metropolis was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th together with 12th centuries, with houses featuring potsherd pavements. Ilé-Ifè is known worldwide for its ancient together with naturalistic bronze, rock together with terra cotta sculptures, which reached their peak of artistic human face betwixt 1200 together with 1400 A.D. After this period, production declined as political together with economical powerfulness shifted to the nearby kingdom of Republic of Benin which, similar the Yoruba kingdom of Oyo, developed into a major empire.
Bronze together with terra cotta fine art created past times this civilization are important examples of realism inwards pre-colonial African art.
Ile Ife - Western Nigeria - Oranmiyan Obelisk, the source of the world according to Yoruba mythology
In his book, "The Oral Traditions inwards Ile-Ife," Yemi D. Prince referred to the terra cotta artists of 900 A.D. as the founders of Art Guilds, cultural schools of philosophy, which today tin live likened to many of Europe's old institutions of learning that were originally established as religious bodies. These guilds may good live some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centres of learning to remain as feasible entities inwards the contemporary world. A major exhibition entitled Kingdom of Ife: Sculptures of West Africa, displaying works of fine art found inwards Ife together with the surrounding area, was held inwards the British Museum from 4 March to 4 July 2010.
Today a mid-sized city, Ife is dwelling to both the Obafemi Awolowo University together with the Natural History Museum of Nigeria. Its people are of the Yoruba ethnic group, i of the largest ethnolinguistic groups inwards Africa together with its diaspora (The population of the Yoruba exterior of their homeland is said to live to a greater extent than than the population of Yoruba inwards Nigeria, close 35 million).[citation needed] Ife has a local television set station called NTA Ife, together with is dwelling to various businesses. It is also the merchandise oculus for a farming part where yams, cassava, grain, cacao, together with tobacco are grown. Cotton is also produced, together with is used to weave cloth. Hotels inwards Ilé-Ife include Republic of Cameroon Hotel, Hotel Diganga Ife-Ibadan road, Mayfair Hotel, Obafemi Awolowo University Guest House etc. Ilé-Ife has a stadium with a capacity of 9,000 together with a 2nd partitioning professional person league football game team.
The Orunmila Barami Agbonmiregun, the World Ifa Festival was held Sat June 4-5, 2011 at Oketase the World Ifa Temple, Ile-Ife.
Mythic source of Ife, the holy city: Creation of the world
The Yoruba claim to remove hold originated inwards Ife. According to their mythology, Olodumare, the Supreme God, ordered Obatala to create the ground but on his way he found palm wine, drank it together with became intoxicated. Therefore the younger blood brother of the latter, Oduduwa, took the 3 items of creation from him, climbed downward from the heavens on a chain together with threw a handful of ground on the primordial ocean, together with so spot a cockerel on it so that it would scatter the earth, thus creating the Blue Planet on which Ile Ife would live built. Oduduwa planted a palm nut inwards a hole inwards the newly formed Blue Planet together with from in that location sprang a nifty tree with xvi branches, a symbolic representation of the clans of the early on Ife city-state.
The usurpation of creation past times Oduduwa gave ascension to the ever lasting conflict betwixt him together with his elderberry blood brother Obatala, which is soundless re-enacted inwards the modern era past times the cult groups of the 2 clans during the Itapa New Year's Day festival. On business concern human relationship of his creation of the world Oduduwa became the ancestor of the initiatory of all divine manlike someone monarch of the Yoruba, spell Obatala is believed to remove hold created the initiatory of all humans out of clay. The pregnant of the news "ife" inwards Yoruba is "expansion"; "Ile-Ife" is thence inwards reference to the myth of source "The Land of Expansion". Due to this fact, the metropolis is unremarkably regarded as the cradle of non only the Yoruba culture, but all of humanity as well, especially past times the followers of the Yoruba faith.
Oduduwa had sons, daughters together with a grandson who went on to found their ain kingdoms together with empires, namely Ila Orangun, Owu, Ketu, Sabe, Popo, Oyo together with Benin. Oranmiyan, Oduduwa's in conclusion born, was i of his father's principal ministers together with overseer of the nascent Edo empire after Oduduwa granted the plea of the Edo people for his governance. When Oranmiyan decided to go dorsum to Ile Ife after a flow of service inwards Benin, he left behind a kid named Eweka that he had inwards the interim with an indigenous princess. The immature man child went on to acquire the initiatory of all legitimate ruler of the 2nd Edo dynasty that has ruled what is at nowadays Republic of Benin from that twenty-four sixty minutes flow to this. Oranmiyan later went on to found the Oyo empire that stretched at its superlative from the western banks of the river Niger to the Eastern banks of the river Volta. It would serve as i of the most powerful of Africa's medieval states prior to its collapse inwards the 19th century.
Oba Adesoji Aderemi Ooni of Ife. Circa 1940
Language
The people of Ife speak a unique together with authentic Central Yoruba (CY) dialect of Yoruba linguistic communication which belongs to the larger Niger-Congo linguistic communication family. Apart from Ife, the other Yoruba sub-groups that speak Central Yoruba (CY) dialects are Igbomina, Yagba, Ilésà, Ekiti, Akurẹ, Ẹfọn, together with Ijẹbu areas.
History of Ife Kingdom
In the southern forested part of Nigeria, the largest centralized states were the kingdoms centered on Ile-Ife together with Republic of Benin which emerged past times 1500 CE together with the origins of the Ife natives are lost inwards antiquity (Falola together with Heaton 2008, Osasona et al 2009). According to Biobaku (1955) the town was likely founded betwixt the seventh together with tenth centuries AD; Jeffrey (1958) opines that it had acquire a flourishing civilization past times the 11th Century. Carbon-dating yielded from piece of occupation of archaeologists appears to back upwards these views, as it establishes that Ile Ife “was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th together with 12th centuries” (Willett, 1971:367, Smith 1988). Drewal et al (1998)also suggested that the site of Ile–Ife was occupied as early on as 350 B.C. together with consisted of a cluster of hamlets; though piffling is known close the early on occupants except for a metropolis wall at Enuwa together with later the construction of some other outer metropolis wall. Traditionally, Ile-Ife was divided into 5 quarters namely Iremo, Okerewe, Moore, Ilode together with Ilare together with within each quarter were compounds with spot unit of measurement lineages (Eluyemi 1978). The traditional Ife kingdom, schematically, could live described as a wheel, with the Oba’s palace as the hub, from which roads radiated similar spokes together with inwards relation to which the en-framing town wall represented the rim (Krapf-Askari, 1969; Obateru, 2006). Ile–Ife is regarded thence as the metropolis of old Yoruba. Though suggested past times various scholars including Johnson (1921); Lucas (1948); together with Ajayi together with Crowther (1972) that Ile-Ife is fabled as the spot where God created man, white together with dark together with from whence they dispersed all over the ground it is yet to live scientifically proven. Fabunmi (1969) farther argued that Ile Ife is farther regarded together with believed to live the cradle of the world. The history of Ile Ife though unwritten is based on oral traditions together with referred to as the original dwelling of all things, the spot where the twenty-four sixty minutes flow dawns; the holy city, the dwelling of divinities together with mysterious spirits (Okelola, 2001). It is nevertheless believed that the tradition of the world together with of the source of the peoples together with their province centers on Ile Ife, the source whence all the major rulers of the together with so southern Nigeria derive the sanctions of their kingship where gods, shrines together with festivals forms the oculus of faith (Smith 1988).
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ together with the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the spot where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwards upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher spot suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded together with situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual source (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental together with continuity of nifty bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a oculus from which Yoruba civilisation emanates together with a spot for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997). There was a monarch called Ogane who reigned inwards ancient Ife whom modern scholars remove hold identified as the Ooni of Ife (Pereira 1937, Krapf-Askari 1969, Harris, 1997). The Ooni or Onife is regarded as the spiritual caput of the Yoruba whose influence was non confined to his ain kingdom but was also exercised over other Yoruba kingdoms through the sanctions of kinship together with past times ancient constitutional devices (Smith 1988). The Ooni is believed to live a sacred beingness because he sits on the throne of Oduduwa at Ile-Ife.
Statue of Moremi at Moremi Hall (UNILAG) . Moremi was the married adult woman of Oranmiyan. A adult woman of tremendous beauty together with a faithful together with zealous supporter of her hubby together with the Kingdom of Ile Ife.
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the source of the Yoruba people together with it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on flow of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to found when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the initiatory of all King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) together with Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that in that location were betwixt 90 3 to 90 7 kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards together with around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to remove hold encountered indigenous peop,le inwards the part (Falola together with Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa . has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong remove hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
The metropolis of Ile-Ife today sits inwards what is today Osun State inwards southern Nigeria located on the longitude 4.6N together with 7.5°N, surrounded past times hills together with is close l miles (80.467kms) to Ibadan together with Osogbo (Philips, 1852; White, 1876). The metropolis popularly known to as Ile-Ife together with the people are referred to as 'Ife' who also refer to the town as 'Ife' or 'Ilurun' which way ‘the gateway to heaven’ (Eluyemi 1986:16). Confirmed to live situated on the site of ancient Ile Ife due to the location of the 7 brass castings excavated from the ancient Ife sites which were inwards corresponding stratigraphic positions confirming that a small town of substantial size existed in that location betwixt the 9th together with 12th centuries (Willet, 1967). He also confirmed that the terra cotta sculpture together with lost wax (cire-perdue) castings were made in that location from early on inwards the nowadays millennium. Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' together with 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline.
Freedom’ ceremony. Taken at Ile-Ife inwards nowadays twenty-four sixty minutes flow Osun State. 1968. Freedom ceremonies marked women’s graduation into professions such as nursing together with tailoring
Among the initiatory of all of the Ife works to gain the West were those brought to Europe past times the British colonial governor Gilbert Thomas Carter. According to Samuel Johnson (p. 647) "three of those national together with ancestral works of fine art known as the 'Ife marbles' "were given to Carter inwards 1896 by
Adelekan, the together with so of late crowned manlike someone monarch of Ife. Johnson explains that the manlike someone monarch gave them to Governor Carter inwards an effort to gain a positive determination concerning the resettlement of Modakeke residents exterior the city.
Past Ooni of Ife
1ST ODUDUWA
2ND OSANGANGAN OBAMAKIN
3RD OGUN
4TH OBALUFON OGBOGBODIRIN
5TH OBALUFON ALAYEMORE
6TH ORANMIYAN
7TH AYETISE
8TH LAJAMISAN
9TH LAJODOOGUN
10TH LAFOGIDO
11TH ODIDIMODE ROGBEESIN
12TH AWOROKOLOKIN
13TH EKUN
14TH AJIMUDA
15TH GBOONIJIO
16TH OKANLAJOSIN
17TH ADEGBALU
18TH OSINKOLA
19TH OGBORUU
20TH GIESI
21ST LUWOO (FEMALE)
22ND LUMOBI
23RD AGBEDEGBEDE
24TH OJELOKUNBIRIN
25TH LAGUNJA
26TH LARUNNKA
27TH ADEMILU
28TH OMOGBOGBO
29TH AJILA-OORUN
30TH ADEJINLE
31ST OLOJO
32ND OKITI
33RD LUGBADE
34TH ARIBIWOSO
35TH OSINLADE
36TH ADAGBA
37TH OJIGIDIRI
38TH AKINMOYERO
1770-1800
39TH GBANLARE
1800-1823
40TH GBEGBAAJE
1823-1835
41ST WUNMONIJE
1835-1839
42ND ADEGUNLE ADEWELA
1839-1849
43RD DEGBINSOKUN
1849-1878
44TH ORARIGBA
1878-1880
45TH DERIN OLOGBENLA- He was a powerful warrior!
1880-1894
46TH ADELEKAN (OLUBUSE I)- He was the initiatory of all Ooni to go exterior Ile-Ife to
Lagos inwards 1903 when he was invited past times the together with so Governor General to settle the
dispute involving Elepe of Epe. All Yoruba Kings including the Alaafin left
their respective thrones as a grade of honour for the Ooni. They returned to
their respective stools after Ooni returned to Ile-Ife from Lagos. Oba Adelekan
Olubuse was nicknamed 'ERIOGUN'; Akitikori; Ebitikimopiri.
1894-1910
47TH ADEKOLA
1910-1910
48TH ADEMILUYI (AJAGUN) - He also was reputed to live a powerful Monarch.
1910-1930
49TH ADESOJI ADEREMI- Very intelligent with expert foresight, he was invited to be
government minister without portfolio when he ruled from 1951 to 1955. He was the first
indigenous governor of Western Nigeria. One of his most laudable achievements
was the establishment of the GREAT University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo
University) at Ile-Ife.
1930-1980
His Royal Highness, Aleyeluwa, Oba Okunade Sijuade, Olubuse II, The Oni of Ife, Ile Ife, Osun State, arriving at the National Museum, Onikan Lagos for the opening ceremony inwards his car, on Friday, May 18, 2012..
Religion
Like most towns, the people are faith conscious. The 3 main religions inwards the metropolis are Christianity, Islam together with traditional. Traditional faith appears flourishing than the other 2 as most people who belong to either of the one-time 2 also remove hold soft spot for the age-long religion. So beingness a Christian or a Moslem does non foreclose you lot from the traditional religion, which the elders remove hold inwards high esteem. It is non uncommon to live a leader inwards a denomination together with soundless remove hold chieftaincy championship that has to do with shrine.
Here, Olojo is the biggest festival on the Ife cultural calendar. This festival is held annually to commemorate Oduduwa’s descent from heaven. It is during the Olojo festival that Ooni wears Aare crown. Aare is a mysterious crown worn only i time inwards a twelvemonth together with it is believed to possess the powerfulness that forthwith transfigure Ooni to the rank of Orisa (god). With 201 traditional religious festivals, it is only i twenty-four sixty minutes flow that is gratis that the people do non offering sacrifice at the various shrines that dot the town. This particular twenty-four sixty minutes flow remains a clandestine the primary together with priests of the kingdom hold so dear to the heart.
Ifa is some other sect that attracts expert number of the people. Unlike what obtains inwards most other towns where Ifa worship is individualized together with confined to illiterate priests or Babalawo inwards ramshackled buildings, it has been modernised such that i may error its worship centre for a church. Incidentally, their worship session is on Dominicus similar their Christian counterparts. When Dominicus Sun visited the imposing Ifa Auditorium on top of a hill, close Ife Town Hall, children were seen playing unmolested. The children admitted that they also worship inwards the Ifa hall along with the elders. The main auditorium is the Headquarters of Ifa Worship Worldwide, which was beingness prepared to host a coming together of all worshippers circular the globe in conclusion month. Araba is the primary priest.
Some of the main gods they worship include Obatala, Ogun, Olokun, Orunmila, Olojo, Sango, Ifa, Osun, Ela, Oya, Yemoja, Oranmiyan. These are what they telephone cry upwards ‘sky gods’ that command virtually everything on earth. Many remove hold that Ife is a fetish town ruled past times powers of darkness, but the chiefs together with leaders of the town think otherwise. Such views to them tin only live from i who is mentally unstable.
One of the oldest Stone buildings inwards Ile-Ife is the beautifully preserved Seventh Day Adventist church building built over a 100 years ago.
Dressing
The people love dressing good inwards either their native attire or westernized way. Though English linguistic communication garb has eroded the traditional pattern of dressing similar inwards other Nigerian cities, native wears are soundless prevalent amid the middle historic flow together with the elderly. When an Ife human being puts on Buba, he dons cap to consummate the dressing. The women are fifty-fifty to a greater extent than compliant inwards matters of tradition. Though Chief Ijaodola claimed that Aso Ofi is the main custume of his people, Ankara cloth is the commonest textile of the people today. The Ooni himself is an illustration inwards excellent sartorial taste. Each fourth dimension he comes out, he is pleasant to behold inwards his expensive apparel.
One thing real noticeable inwards the dressing of Ife people is that a high feel of dependent together with morality is soundless displayed. It is almost impossible to consider a lady-young or old inwards revealing clothes or inwards i that shows the upper or lower cleavage. Not fifty-fifty with Ife beingness a academy town volition i consider beckoning types of dressing on its streets.
Sola Omisore has an explanation for the decent dressing. “Discipline is instilled through spot unit of measurement lineage. We know ourselves. So if a lady dresses indecently, people volition say: Is this non the kid of so so? Don’t think because Ife is a metropolis that nosotros don’t know ourselves.”
Art inwards Ancient Ife, Birthplace of the Yoruba
Suzanne Preston Blier
Artists the world over shape cognition together with stuff into works of unique historical importance. The artists of ancient Ife, ancestral dwelling to the Yoruba together with mythic birthplace of gods together with humans, clearly were interested inwards creating works that could live read. Breaking the symbolic code that lies behind the unique meanings of Ife’s ancient sculptures, however, has vexed scholars working on this stuff for over a century. While much remains to live learned, thank you lot to a improve agreement of the larger corpus of ancient Ife arts together with the history of this of import southwestern Nigerian center, key aspects of this code tin at nowadays live discerned. In this article I explore how these arts both inform together with are enriched past times early on Ife history together with the leaders who shaped it.1 In add-on to
core questions of fine art iconography together with symbolism, I also address the rigid social, political, religious, together with historical import of these works together with what they let on close Ife (Ile-Ife) as an early
cosmopolitan center.
(Fig 1) Ile-Ife, Nigeria, c. early on 14th century ce
Copper. Height: 33 cm
Retained inwards the palace since the fourth dimension of its manufacture
(through the early on twentieth century) where it
was identified as King Obalufon Alaiyemore (Obalufon
II). Nigeria National Museums, Lagos Mus. reg.
no. 38.1.2.
Photo: Karin Willis, courtesy of the National Commission
of Monuments together with Museums, Nigeria together with The
Museum for African Art, New York
My analysis moves away from the recent framing of ancient Ife fine art from the advantage of Yoruba cultural practices collected inwards Nigeria to a greater extent than broadly, and/or the indiscriminate exercise of regional together with modern Yoruba proverbs, poems, or linguistic communication idioms to inform this city’s unique 700-year-old sculptural oeuvre. Instead I focus on historical together with other considerations inwards metropolitan Ife itself. This shift is an of import i because Ife’s history, language, together with fine art forms are notably different than those inwards the wider Yoruba part together with later eras. My approach also differs from recent studies that either ahistorically superimpose contemporary cultural conventions on the reading of ancient works or unilinearly posit fine art evolution models concerning shape or stuff differences that lack grounding inwards Ife archaeological evidence. My aim instead is to reengage these remarkable ancient works amongst various evidence on this center’s past times together with the fourth dimension frame specific to when these sculptures were made. In this way I select fine art together with history into direct engagement with each other, enriching both within this process.
One of the most of import events inwards ancient Ife history with honour to both the early on arts together with later era religious together with political traditions hither was a devastating civil state of war pitting i group, the supporters of Obatala (referencing today at i time a god, a deity pantheon, together with the region’s autochthonous populations) against affiliates of Odudua (an opposing deity, religious pantheon, together with newly arriving dynastic group). The Ikedu oral history text addressing Ife’s history (an annotated kings listing transposed from the early on Ife dialect; Akinjogbin n.d.) indicates that it was during the reign of Ife’s 46th king—what appears to live 2 rulers prior to the famous King Obalufon II (Ekenwa? Fig. 1)—that this vehement civil state of war broke out. This conflict weakened the metropolis plenty so that in that location was piffling resistance when a military machine strength nether the conqueror Oranmiyan (Fig. 2) arrived inwards this historic city. The dispute likely was framed inwards component subdivision around issues of command of Ife’s rich manufacturing resources (glass beads, amid these). Conceivably it was i of Ife’s feuding polities that invited this outsider strength to come upwards to Ife to aid rectify the province of affairs for their side.
As Akinjogbin explains (1992:98), Oranmiyan together with his calvary, after gaining command of Ife “… stemmed the … uprising past times siding with the weaker … of the disunited pre-Oduduwa groups .…
[driving Obalufon II] into exile at Ilara together with became the Ooni.” Eventually, the deposed King Obalufon II with the aid of a large segment of Ife’s population was able to defeat this military
leader together with the latter’s supporters. In Ife today, Odudua is identified inwards ways that complement Oranmiyan. As Akintitan explains (p.c.): “It was Odudua who was the in conclusion to come upwards to Ife, a man
who arrived as a warrior, together with took wages of the province of affairs to impose himself on Ife people.” King Obalufon II, who came to dominion twice at Ife, is positioned inwards local manlike someone monarch lists both at the end
of the initiatory of all (Obatala) dynasty together with at the commencement of the 2nd (Odudua) dynasty. He is also credited with bringing peace (a negotiated truce) to the i time feuding parties.
Fig 2, Oranmiyan Staff
Political History together with Art at Ancient Ife
What or whom do these early on arts depict? Many of the ancient Ife sculptures are identified today with individuals who lived inwards the era inwards which Ife King Obalufon II was on the throne and/
or participated inwards the civil state of war associated with his reign. This together with other evidence suggests that Obalufon II was a key sponsor or patron of these ancient arts, an thought consistent with this
king’s modern identity as patron deity of bronze casting, textiles, regalia, peace, together with wellbeing. It also is possible that a bulk of the ancient Ife arts were created inwards conjunction with the famous
truce that Obalufon II is said to remove hold brokered i time he returned to powerfulness betwixt the embattled Ife citizens as he brought peace to this long embattled metropolis (Adediran 1992:91; Akintitan p.c.).
As component subdivision of his computer programme to reunite the feuding parties, Obalufon II also is credited with the creation of a novel metropolis computer programme with a large, high-walled palace at its center. Around the perimeters, the compounds of key chiefs from the i time feuding lineages were positioned. King Obalufon II seems at the same fourth dimension to remove hold pressed for the erection of novel temples inwards the metropolis together with the refurbishment of older ones, these serving inwards component subdivision to laurels the leading chiefs on both sides of the dispute. Ife’s ancient fine art works likely functioned as related temple furnishings.
One peculiarly art-rich shrine complex that may remove hold come upwards into novel prominence as component subdivision of Obalufon II’s truce is that honoring the ancient hunter Ore, a deity whose call also features
inwards i of Obalufon’s praise names. Ore is identified both as an of import autochthonous Ife resident together with as an opponent to “Odudua.” H5N1 number of remarkable granite figures inwards the Ore
Grove were the focus of ceremonies into the mid-twentieth century. One of these works called Olofefura (Fig. 4) is believed to correspond the deified Ore (Dennett 1910:21; Talbot 1926 2:339;
Allison 1968:13). Features of the sculpture suggest a dwarf or sufferer of a congenital disorder inwards keeping with the identity of many initiatory of all (Obatala) dynasty shrine figures with body anomalies or disease. Regalia details also offering clues. H5N1 three-strand choker encircles Olofefura’s neck; 3 bracelet coils embellish the wrist; 3 tassels hang from the left hip knot. These features link this work—and Ore—to the earth, autochthony, together with to the Ogboni association, a grouping promoted past times Obalufon II inwards component subdivision to save the rights of autochthonous residents.
The left hip knot shown on the wrapper of this work, as good as that of the taller, to a greater extent than elegant Ore Grove priest or retainer figure (Fig. 5), also recalls i of Ife’s little-known source myths within the Obatala priestly spot unit of measurement (Akintitan p.c.). According to this myth, Obatala hid the ase (vital force) necessary for Earth’s solidity within this knot, requiring his younger blood brother Odudua, after his theft of materials from Obatala, to hold back for the latter’s aid inwards completing the task. Consistent with this, Ogboni members are said to necktie their cloth wrappers on the left hip inwards retention of Obatala’s exercise of this knot to safeguard the requisite ase (Owakinyin p.c.). Iron inserts inwards the coiffure of the taller Ore figure complement those secured inwards the surface of the Oranmiyan staff (Fig. 2), indicating that this sculpture—like many ancient Ife works of stone—were made inwards the same era, e.g. the early
fourteenth century.
An additional noteworthy characteristic of these figures, together with others, is the importance of body proportion ratios. Among the Yoruba today, the body is seen to comprise 3 principal parts: head, trunk, together with legs (Ajibade n.d.:3). Many Ife sculptural examples (see Fig. 4; compare also Figs. 15–16) emphasize a larger-thanlife size scale of the caput (orí) inwards human relationship to the ease of the body (a roughly 1:4 ratio). Yoruba scholars remove hold seen this headprivileging ratio as reinforcing the importance of this body component subdivision as a symbol of ego together with destiny (orí), personality (wú), essential
nature (ìwà), together with potency (àse) (Abimbola 1975:390ff, Abiodun 1994, Abiodun et. al 1991:12ff).6 Or as Ogunremi suggests (1998:113), such features highlight: “The wealth or poverty of the land … [as] equated with the ‘head’ (orí) of the ruler of a particular locality.”
Both hither together with inwards ancient Ife fine art to a greater extent than generally, however, in that location is striking variability inwards related body proportions. Such ratios gain from roughly 1:4 for the Ore grove deity figure (Fig. 4), the consummate copper alloy manlike someone monarch figure (Fig. 15), the twosome from Ita Yemoo (Fig. 8), together with many of the terra cotta sculptures, to roughly 1:6 for the taller rock Ore grove figures (Fig. 5) together with the copper seated figure from Tada (Fig. 11). Why these proportional differences be inwards Ife fine art is non clear, but issues of course of study and/or status appear to live key. Whereas sculptures of Ife royals together with gods often exhibit 1:4 ratios, most nonroyals exhibit proportions much closer to life. In ancient Ife art, the higher the status, the greater likelihood that body proportions volition differ from nature inwards ways that greatly get upwards the size of the head. This non only highlights the caput as a prominent status together with potency marker, but also points to the primacy of social difference inwards visual rendering.
While many Ife (and Yoruba) scholars remove hold focused on how the caput is privileged inwards human relationship to the body, what also is important, together with to appointment overlooked, is that the belly is as important. The full, plump torsos (chest together with stomachs) of Ife figures depicting rulers together with deities complement modern Yoruba beliefs close wellness together with good beingness on the i hand, together with wealth together with powerfulness on the other. Related ideas are suggested past times the modern Yoruba term odù (“full”) which, when applied to an individual, way both “he has approving inwards abundance” together with “fortune shines on him”(Idowu 1962:33). H5N1 total belly is vital to royals together with deities non only as a reference to qualities of wellbeing but also as markers of province together with religious fullness. In his extended news of the concept of odù, the indigenous Ife religious scholar Idowu notes (1962:33) that the same term also indicates a “very
large together with deep pot (container)” together with past times extension anything that is of “sizable worth” and/or “superior quality.” This news features centrally inwards the request the high god, Ol-odù-marè. According to Idowu (1962:34) the latter exercise of the term signifies “He is One who is superlative,” odù hither invoking his real extraordinariness. Because large ceramic vessels called odù were employed inwards ancient Ife contexts as containers for highly valued goods such as beads together with fine art (including the Ita Yemoo manlike someone monarch figure, Fig. 16), this idiom offers an interesting modern complement together with descriptor for early on Ife sculptural portrayals of gods together with kings as containers belongings many benefits. H5N1 complementary characteristic of many ancient Ife works is that of composure or inner calm (àìkominún, “tranquility of the mind” inwards modern Yoruba; Abraham 1958:388). This notable lineament finds potential human face through the consummate tranquillity shown inwards their faces of early on Ife fine art (Figs. 1, 15, 16), a lineament that increases the feel of monumentality together with powerfulness inwards these remarkable works.
The ancient Ife arts from Ife’s Ore shrine, which appear to remove hold been carved as a unmarried sculptural group, include a rock vessel with crocodiles on its sides (Fig. 6). On its lid a frog (or toad) is shown inwards the jaws of a snake. The latter motif references the contestation betwixt Obatala together with Odudua for the center’s command (Akintitan p.c.; Adelekan p.c.). According Akintitan (p.c.), this blueprint addresses the less-than-straight way inwards which Odudua asserted command over Ife, since poisonous snakes are thought non to eat frogs (and toads). The crocodile, similar several other creature figurations from this grove, laurels Ore’s hunting together with angling prowess. Carved crocodiles, giant eggs, a mudfish (African lung fish), together with an elephant tusk reference the watery realm that dominated primordial Ife. H5N1 granite slab from this same site shows evenly placed holes (Fig. 7). This piece of occupation served perhaps as a existent or metaphoric measurement device for Ife’s changing H2O levels, inwards keeping both with frequent flooding hither (referenced inwards local accounts close Obalufon II’s wife
Queen Moremi) as good as Ife source myths inwards which the world is said to remove hold been formed only after Odudua sprinkled dirt upon the water’s surface (Idowu 1962, Blier 2004). One especially striking art-rich Ife site that also seems to remove hold been identified with Obalufon II together with his famous political truce is Ita Yemoo, the term yemoo serving as the championship for initiatory of all dynasty Ife queens. This temple complex lies close the site where the annual Edi festival terminates. The Edi ritual is dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Moremi, who also at i fourth dimension was married to Obalufon II’s adversary, the conqueror Oranmiyan. One of the most striking works from Ita Yemoo is a copper alloy casting of a manlike someone monarch together with queen (Fig. 8) with interlocked arms together with legs. The manlike someone royal wears a simian skull on his hip, a symbol of Obatala (monkeys evoking the region’s early on occupants) together with this deity’s identity with Ife’s autochthonous residents together with initiatory of all dynasty line. The woman someone points toward the ground, gesturing toward Odudua as both 2nd dynasty founder together with later Yoruba ground god. This royal twosome appears to reference inwards this way non only the painful Ife dynastic struggle betwixt competing Ife families together with chiefs, but also the political together with religious union promoted past times Obalufon II betwixt the these groups as component subdivision of his truce. Interestingly, a steatite caput recovered past times Frobenius at Offa (Moremi’s hometown northward of Ife) wears a similar queen’s crown. Offa is next to Esie where a grouping of similar steatite figures were found.
These Esie works conceivably also were identified with Moremi, the local heroine who became Ife’s queen.
H5N1 2nd copper alloy figure of a queen from the Ita Yemoo site is a tiny sculpture showing a recumbent crowned woman someone circumscribing a vessel laid atop a throne. She holds a scepter inwards i hand; the other grasps the throne’s curving handgrip (Fig.9). Her spot depicts a miniature of the quartz together with granite stools identified inwards the modern era primarily with Ife’s autochthonous (Obatala-linked) priests. The scepter that she holds is similar to some other piece of occupation from Ita Yemoo depicting a human being with unusual (for Ife) diagonal cheek grade (Willett 2004:M26a), a pattern similar to markings worn past times northern Yoruba residents from Offa amid other areas. The recumbent queen’s unusual composition appears to reference the transfer of powerfulness at Ife from the initiatory of all dynasty rulership grouping to the novel (second) dynasty line of kings, hither symbolized through a queen, what appears to be
Queen Moremi, the married adult woman of Obalufon II.
Another striking Ita Yemoo sculpture, a Janus staff mountain shares similar symbolism. The piece of occupation depicts 2 gagged human heads positioned back-to-back, i with vertical line facial marks, the other plain-faced, suggesting the union of 2 dynasties. This scepter likely was used as a society and
evokes both the penalty that befell supporters of either dynastic grouping committing serious crimes together with the unity of the 2 factions inwards province rituals involving human offerings, amid these coronations. This scepter mount’s weight together with heightened arsenic content reinforces this identity. H5N1 larger Janus scepter mountain from this same site depicts on i side a youthful caput together with on the other a real elderly man, consistent with 2 different dynasty portrayals, together with the complementary royal unification/division themes.
H5N1 large Ife copper figure of a seated manlike someone was recovered at Tada (Fig. 11), an of import Niger River crossing dot situated some 200 km northeast of Ife. This sculpture is linked inwards important
ways non only to King Obalufon II, but also to Ife trade, regional economical vitality, together with the key role of this ruler inwards promoting Ogboni (called Imole inwards Ife), the association dedicated to both autochthonous rights together with trade. The piece of occupation is stylistically real similar to the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1). Both are made of pure copper together with were likely cast past times members of the same workshop. Although the forearms together with hands of the seated figure are at nowadays missing, plenty remains to suggest that they may remove hold been positioned inwards front end of the body inwards a way resembling the well-known Ogboni association gestural motif of left mitt fisted to a higher spot correct (Fig. 12). This same gesture is referenced inwards the smaller standing figure (also cast of pure copper) from this same Tada shrine (Fig. 13). Obalufon descendant Olojudo reaffirmed (p.c.) the gestural identity of the standing Tada figure. As I remove hold argued elsewhere (1985) Yoruba works of copper are associated primarily with Ogboni together with Obalufon, consistent with the latter ruler’s association with bronze casting together with economical wellbeing.
Another notable Ogboni reference inwards these 2 copper works from Tada is the diamond-patterned wrapper (Morton Williams 1960:369, Aronson 1992) tied at the left hip with a knot. How the ancient Ife seated sculpture (and other works) found their way to this Tada shrine has been a dependent of consider able scholarly debate. I concur with Thurstan Shaw inwards his sentiment (1973:237) that these sculptures most likely were brought to this critical river-crossing dot because of the site’s identity with Niger River trade. As Shaw notes (1973:237) these works seem to live linked to Yoruba commercial engagement along the Niger River “… marking perhaps of import toll or command points of that trade.” Specifically, the seated Tada figure offers of import evidence of Ife’s early on command of this critical Niger River crossing point. Copper alloy castings of an elephant together with 2 ostriches (animals identified with valuable regional merchandise goods) which were found on this same Tada site likely reference the importance of ivory together with exotic feathers inwards the era’s long distance trade. The goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) who spans both the initiatory of all together with 2nd dynasty religious pantheons, is closely identified with promoting related commerce.
Contesting Dynasties: Politics of the Body
Two copper alloy castings depicting royals (Figs. 15–16) offering of import insight into early on Ife society, politics, together with history. One is the half-figure of a manlike someone from Ife’s Wunmonije site,
where a corpus of life-size copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed. The other sculpture is the notably similar full-length standing figure from the Ife site of Ita Yemoo, the locale where
the royal twosome (Fig. 8), tiny enthroned queen sculpture (Fig. 9), together with metallic scepter (Fig. 10) were created. Based on style together with similarities inwards form, the 2 works clearly were fashioned around the
same time, conceivably during Obalufon II’s reign. Their crowns are different from the tall, conical, veiled are crowns worn past times Ife monarchs today. The latter crown a shape also seen on the tiny Ife
figure of a manlike someone monarch found inwards Republic of Benin (Fig. 17).
Based on both their cap-form caput coverings together with the horn each holds inwards the left hand, the figures remove hold been identified as portraying rulers inwards battle (Odewale p.c.). Not only are the rulers’ caps reminiscent of the smaller crowns (arinla) worn past times Yoruba rulers inwards battle, suggests Odewale (p.c.), but historically, antelope horns similar to those carried inwards their left hands were used inwards battle. These horns were filled with powerful ase (authority/force/command), substances that could plough the course of study of state of war inwards one’s favor. When so filled, the horns assured that the king’s words would come upwards to pass, a key attribute of Yoruba statecraft. The 2 appear to live competitors (e.g. competing lineages) vying for theIfe throne, references to the ruling heads of Ife’s initiatory of all (Obatala) and
2nd (Odudua) dynasties shown hither inwards ritual battle.
While these 2 royal sculptures are real similar inwards style together with iconography, in that location are notable differences, including the handling of the rulers’ faces—one showing vertical line marks, the
other lacking facial lines. There are also notable distinctions inwards headdress details, specifically the diadem shapes together with cap tiers. The diadem of the Wunmojie manlike someone monarch with striated facial marks (Fig. 15) displays a rosette pattern surmounted past times a pointed plume, this motif resting atop a concentric circle. The headdress diadem on the plain-faced (unstriated) Ita Yemoo manlike someone monarch figure instead consists of a uncomplicated concentric circle surmounted past times a pointed plume. The rosette diadem of the manlike someone monarch with facial striations seems to send somewhat higher rank, for his diadem is laid to a higher spot the disk-form, as if to grade superior position. Moreover, the cap of the manlike someone monarch with vertical facial markings integrates four
tiers of beads spell the plain-faced king’s cap shows only three.
These differences both inwards crown diadem shapes together with bead rows suggest that, amid other things, the manlike someone monarch bearing the vertical line facial marks together with rosette-form diadem (the Wunmonije site ruler) carries a rank that is both different from together with inwards some ways higher than that of the plain-faced royal.
There also are striking distinctions inwards facial marking together with regalia details of these 2 manlike someone monarch figures, differences that offering additional insight into the pregnant together with identity of these together with other works from this center. Similar rosette together with concentric circle diadem distinctions tin live seen inwards many ancient Ife works. The Aroye vessel (Fig. 18), which displays rosette motifs together with a monstrous human caput referencing ancient Ife ground spirits (erunmole, imole; Odewale p.c.), may remove hold functioned as a divination vessel linked to Obatala, a shape today inwards Ife that employs a water-filled pot. The copper alloy caput of initiatory of all dynasty Ife goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also incorporates a rosette with sixteen
petals. Ife chiefs together with priests today sometimes have on beaded pendants (peke) that contain similar eight-petal blossom forms or rosettes. These individuals include a gain of primarily Obatala (first dynasty) affiliates: Obalale (the priest of Obatala), Obalase (the Oluorogbo priest), Obalara (the Obalufon priest), together with Chief Woye Asire (the priest of Ife springs together with markets. Rosette-form
diadems such as these also tin live seen on ancient Ife terra cotta animals identified with Obatala, amid these the elephant (Fig. 20) together with duiker antelope heads from the Lafogido site. These
rosettes suggest the importance of plants (flowers), together with the primacy of ancient Blue Planet ownership together with gods to the Obatala group.
Seated figure
Ile-Ife, Nigeria, c. early on 14th century ce
Copper. Height: 53.7 cm
Found on a shrine inwards Tada, on the Niger River, 192
km. northeast of Ife. Nigeria National Museums,
Lagos: 79. R. 18. Photo: Karin Willis, courtesy of the National Commission
of Monuments together with Museums, Nigeria together with The
Museum for African Art, New York
Concentric circle-form diadems, inwards contrast, seem to reference political agency as linked inwards component subdivision to the novel Odudua dynasty (Akintitan p.c., Adelekan p.c.). In component subdivision for this reason, a concentric circle is incorporated into the atomic number 26 gate at the front end of the modern Ife palace. Agbaje-Williams notes (1991:11) that the burial spots of of import chiefs sometimes are marked with rock circles as well. Concentric circle shape diadems are displayed on the terra cotta sculptures of ram together with hippopotamus
heads from Ife’s Lafogido site. Both animals seem to live connected to the Odudua line together with the associated sky deity pantheon of Sango amid others (Idowu 1962:94, 142; Matory 1994:96).
If, as Ekpo Eyo suggests (1977:114; consider also Eyo 1974) the grouping of Lafogido site creature sculptures were conceived as royal emblems, their distinctive crown diadems suggest that these
works, similar the 2 manlike someone monarch figures, were intended to correspond 2 different dynasties and/or the gods associated with them. The manlike someone monarch figure with vertical facial markings together with a rosette-form diadem
instantiates the initiatory of all dynasty or Obatala rulership line. The plain-faced ruler with concentric circle diadem evokes the 2nd or Odudua royal line.
Number symbolism inwards diadem together with other forms is of import inwards these together with other ancient Ife fine art works serving to grade grade together with status. According to Ife Obatala Chief Adelekan (p.c), eightpetal rosettes are associated with higher Obatala grades. That the Wunmonije manlike someone monarch figure wears an eight-petal rosette (Fig. 15) spell the Aroye vessel (Fig. 18) together with Olokun caput (Fig. 14) contain sixteen-petal forms is based on powerfulness difference. Eight is the highest number accorded humans, suggests Chief Adelekan, whereas xvi is used for gods.
Facial Marking Distinctions: Ife as a Cosmopolitan Center
One of the most striking differences inwards the 2 royal figures together with other Ife arts tin live seen inwards the variant facial markings. Scholars remove hold spot frontwards several explanations for these facial pattern disparities inwards Ife together with early on regional arts. Among the earliest were William Fagg together with Frank Willett (1960:31), who identified vertical line facial marks with royal crown veils together with the “shadows” cast onto the human face past times associated strings of beads. This is highly unlikely, however, since many ancient works depicting women together with non-royals without crowns display the same vertical facial patterns. Moreover, of the 2 copper-alloy manlike someone monarch figures (Figs. 15–16), only i shows vertical marks, together with they both have on a form of cap (oro) that does non include a beaded veil. Modern woodcarvings of Ife royals wearing traditional veiled crowns also do non exhibit vertical line facial marks. Due to related inconsistencies, Willett would later retract his original shade-line theory together with Fagg would non i time again beak over this inwards his later scholarship. As suggested above, the presence together with lack of vertical facial marks on the 2 Ife manlike someone monarch figures farther reinforces the identity of these rulers as leaders of the 2 competing dynasties.
An array of early on together with later artistic evidence supports this. Among these is a Lower Niger style vessel (Fig. 21) collected close Republic of Benin that displays a human human face with vertical markings beneath the caput of an elephant, an creature that inwards Ife is closely identified with Obatala together with the initiatory of all dynasty. This elephant caput has its complement inwards the Lafogido site terra cotta elephant caput with a rosette-form diadem (Fig. 20), a site where a terra cotta caput with vertical facial marks also was buried (Eyo 1974). Nineteenth together with early on twentieth century royal masks of the Igala (a Yorubalinked group) associated with the ancient Akpoto dynasty (who are ancestors of the electrical flow Igala rulers), display similar sparse vertical line facial markings referencing the early on royals of this grouping (Sargent 1988:32; Boston 1968:172) (Fig. 22). The ancient Ife terra cotta caput that represents Obalufon I (Osangangan Obamakin, the begetter of Obalufon II) displays vertical marks (Fig. 23) consistent with the king’s first-dynasty associations. Vertical line facial marks such as these appear to reference Ife royals (as good as other elites) together with ideas of autochthony to a greater extent than generally. The fact that some 50 per centum of the ancient Ife terra cotta heads together with figures exhibit vertical line facial markings suggests
how of import this grouping soundless was inwards the early on 2nd dynasty era when these works were commissioned. The 2nd largest grouping of Ife terra cotta works—around 35 percent—show no
facial markings at all, inwards keeping with modern Ife traditions forbidding facial marking for members of Ife resident families.
Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 13th-14th cent., terracotta
Ife oral tradition maintains that facial marking practices were at i dot outlawed. Accordingly, belatedly nineteenth to early on twentieth century fine art together with cultural practices display a strong aversion to facial marks of whatever type. Most likely it was Ife King Obalufon II who helped promote this alter after his homecoming to powerfulness as component subdivision of his computer programme for a to a greater extent than lasting truce. This change, together with the demand sometimes to concealment one’s historical spot unit of measurement together with dynastic identity for reasons of political expediency, is also suggested past times 2 masks, i of terra cotta together with i of copper, both identified with Obaufon II. One of these (Fig. 1) is plain-faced together with the other (Fig. 24) has prominent vertical markings. Consistent with Obalufon II’s role inwards bringing to Ife, together with serving as a key early on fine art patron, his association with masking forms that shield (cover) the identities of the once-competing Ife groups is
noteworthy. Like a bulk of ancient Ife sculptures with together with without facial marks, these works appear to appointment to the same period, underscoring the fact that different groups were living together at Ife at this time.
Like the Wunmonije manlike someone monarch figure (Fig. 15), the bronze caput associated with the goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also has vertical facial marks together with a rosette-decorated crown. Olokun, the ancient Ife finance government minister together with later commerce, bead, together with sea god, is said to appointment to Ife’s initiatory of all dynasty. The copper alloy caput at nowadays inwards the British Museum, with both vertical facial marks together with a concentric circle diadem, appears to reference a primary inwards i of Ife’s autochthonous lineages (e.g. a number of initiatory of all dynasty elite) who lived inwards Ife inwards the early on 2nd dynasty era before the ban on facial marking took effect.
Several Ife heads exhibit thick vertical facial lines. These marks seem to depict individuals participating inwards rituals inwards which blister beetles or leaves (from the bùjé plant) were employed to grade the human face with short-term patterns on the pare (Willett 1967:Fig. 23). These temporary “marks” may remove hold served as references to initiatory of all dynasty elites or their descendants during sure enough Ife rituals
(Owomoyela n.d. n.p.; Willett 1967:Figs. 13–14, pl. 23; consider also news inwards Fagg together with Willett 1960:31, Drewal 1989:238–39 n. 65). Interestingly, sculptures depicting these thick lines characteristically exhibit flared nostrils together with furled brows, suggesting the hurting that accompanied facial blistering practices such as these. Several Florescence Era Ife terra cotta heads (roughly 5 per centum of the whole) display 3 elliptical “cat whisker” facial marks at the corners of the rima oris (Fig. 25) similar to those associated with to a greater extent than recent northeastern Yagba Yoruba, a grouping who later came nether Nupe rule.17 In i such sculpture, the marks extend into the cheeks inwards a way consistent with later Yoruba abaja facial markings, indicating an historic connectedness betwixt the two. According to Andrew Apter (p.c.), a grouping of Yagba Yoruba occupy an Ife ward where the Iyagba dialect is soundless sometimes spoken. Most historic Yagba communities are found inwards the Ekiti Yoruba part where early on atomic number 26 working sites remove hold been found (Obayemi 1992:73, 74).19 It is possible that Ife’s Yagba population was involved inwards complementary iron-working together with smelting activities at this center. This tradition also offers interesting insight into Republic of Benin figures belongings blacksmith tools with 3 similar facial marks, works said to depict messengers from Ife.
H5N1 rather unusual Janus figure from ancient Ife shows a human being with diagonal facial markings similar to those of historic together with modern Igbo Nri titleholders, suggesting the role a similar grouping may remove hold played inwards early on Ife as well. Today it is Chief Obawinrin, caput of Ife’s Iwinrin lineage, who represents Ife’s historic Igbo population during the annual Ife Edi festival. Associated rites are inwards component subdivision dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Queen Moremi, who is credited with stopping local Igbo (Ugbo) groups attacking Ife inwards the era inwards which she lived. Today Igbo residents also live inwards nearby regions due south of Ife, amid these communities such as Ijale (Abimbola p.c., Lawal p.c., Awolalu 1979:26).21 These Ife surface area Igbo populations appear to live distant relatives of autochthonous Igbo families, many of whom were forced out of the metropolis past times members of the novel Odudua dynasty. Sculptures from Ife’s Iwinrin Grove, an Ife site closely linked to Ife’s “Igbo” population,
characteristically exhibit vertical line facial markings consistent with works linked to initiatory of all dynasty Ife history together with autochthony. Another 5 per centum of Ife sculptures portray Edo (Benin) style facial marks (forehead keloids) or patterns today characteristic of northeastern Yoruba/Nupe communities (a diagonal cheek line and/or vertical forehead line). The remaining 5 per centum of the extant Ife terra cotta works exhibit unusual “mixed” facial patterns (generally “cat whisker” motifs along with other forms). These marks may reference intermarriages (social or political) at Ife inwards the early on years of the novel dynasty. The notable variety of these facial patterns inwards ancient Ife fine art makes clear the center’s importance as a cosmopolitan metropolis sought out past times people arriving from various regional centers. Features of Ife cosmopolitanism revealed inwards component subdivision through these variant facial markings are consistent with Ife’s identity as a oculus of manufacturing together with trade. Similar issues are raised inwards Ife source myths that spot this metropolis as the dwelling (birthplace) of humans of multiple races together with ethnicities.
H5N1 Corpus of Remarkable Copper Heads Personifying Local Ife Chiefs
H5N1 striking grouping of life-size copper together with copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed inwards the 1930s at the Wunmonije site behind the Ife palace along with the above-discussed manlike someone monarch figure
(Fig. 15).23 In add-on to the original corpus of 15 life-size heads from this site, a clearly related 4.25 inch high fragment of a copper alloy caput consisting of a portion of a human face showing a
olfactory organ together with component subdivision of a rima oris also was collected at an estate inwards Ado-Ekiti together with has been described as “identical with those from Wunmonije” (Werner together with Willett 1975: facing p. 142).
These xvi life-size heads appear to remove hold been created as component subdivision of the truce that Obalufon II established betwixt the embattled Ife residents. One of the heads (Fig. 27) indeed is so similar to the Obalufon mask as to depict the same individual. Frank Willett, who published photographs of many of the life-size metallic heads inwards his monograph on Ife, suggests (1967:26–28) that these works
had of import royal mortuary functions inwards which each was displayed with a crown together with robes of office, inwards the course of study of ceremonies next each ruler’s death. Willett proposes farther that
the heads were commissioned as memorial sculptures (ako) consistent with a later era Ife together with Yoruba tradition of carved wooden ako effigy figures used inwards commemorating deceased hunters. This theory, which identifies the corpus of life-size cast heads as effigies of successive rulers of the Ife metropolis state, however, is premised on an thought (now largely discredited; consider also Lawal 2005:503ff.) that the works were made past times artists over a several-hundred-year flow (the reigns of xvi monarchs). This theory is problematic non only because the styles together with stuff features of the heads are consistent, but also because the heads were found together (divided into 2 groups) together with part a remarkably similar status apart from blows that some of them received during their discovery. The shared status indicates that they were interred for a similar length of fourth dimension together with nether similar circumstances.
Figure of a Queen, Ife
The formal similarities inwards these heads remove hold led most scholars, myself included (Blier 1985), to fence that the works were created inwards a curt flow of fourth dimension together with past times fewer than a handful of artists. With honour to style, as Thurstan Shaw notes (1978:134), “…they are of a slice together with hold back similar the piece of occupation of i generation, fifty-fifty perhaps a unmarried nifty artist.” These heads, I posited inwards this same article, were cast inwards component subdivision to serve as sacred crown supports together with used during coronation rituals for a grouping of powerful Ife chiefs who caput the various core initiatory of all together with 2nd dynasty lineages inwards the city. These rites appear also to remove hold been associated with Obalufon since related priests remove hold a role inwards Ife coronations soundless today. The site where the heads were found today is identified as Obalufon
II’s burial site (Eyo 1976:n.p.). Ife Chief Obalara (Obalufon II’s descendant together with priest) crowns each novel monarch at a Obalufon shrine (Igbo Obalara) close the Obatala temple a curt distance
from hither (Verger 1957:439, Fabunmi 1969:10, Eluyemi 1977:41). Today, when a descendant of King Obalufon wishes to committee shrine arts inwards conjunction with his worship, 2 copper alloy
heads, i land faced, the other with vertical line facial markings, are created (Oluyemi p.c.) (Fig. 30). Some of these ancient Ife life-size heads remove hold land faces. Others exhibit vertical lines. These facial marking variables back upwards the likely exercise of these heads inwards coronations together with other rites associated with the powerful early on Ife first- together with second-dynasty-linked chiefs who were brought together as component subdivision of Obalufon II’s truce. The grouping of these heads, which inwards many ways also resemble the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1), together reference (and honor) the leaders of key families (now seen as orisa or gods) who had participated inwards this conflict. Obalufon II also created a novel metropolis computer programme as component subdivision of this truce, i inwards which the homesteads of these lineage leaders were relocated to sites circumscribing the oculus of Ife together with its palace (Blier 2012). In the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries, when the metropolis came nether attack, the heads appear to remove hold been buried for prophylactic keeping close their original shrine locale after many centuries of exercise together with their location eventually forgotten.
There are several ways that the heads could remove hold been displayed inwards early on Ife ritual contexts, amid these earthen stepform altars together with tall supports similar to i photographed with heads inwards Republic of Benin inwards the belatedly nineteenth century (Fig. 29). The latter staff would business concern human relationship for the presence of holes close the bases of these works. Wooden mounts such as those known today hither as ako were fashioned to commemorate Ife elephant hunters. These also could remove hold been used for display purposes. H5N1 perhaps related Ijebu-Ode known as okute together with discussed past times Ogunba (1964:251) features roughly 4-foot wooden staffs with a symbolic human head. These pole-like forms were secured inwards the ground together with “dressed” during annual rites commemorating early on (first dynasty) rulers of the region.
H5N1 striking terra cotta vessel (Fig. 30) buried at the oculus of an elaborate potsherd pavement at Obalara’s Land, an Ife site long affiliated with the Obalufon family, also offers clues important
to early on display contexts of these heads. This vessel incorporates the depiction of a shrine featuring a naturalistic caput with vertical line striations flanked past times 2 cone-shaped motifs described past times Garlake (1974:145) as crowns. The scene seems to portray an Obalufon altar with different types of crowns together with a an array of Obalufon together with Ogboni ritual symbols that regain exercise inwards coronations,
amid these edan Ogboni, consistent with the exercise of the Ife life-size heads inwards chiefly together with royal enthronements overseen past times the center’s Obalufon priesthood.
In a community exterior of Ife, I learned of an of import tradition that offers additional insight into this corpus of ancient Ife life size heads. In the local Obalufon shrine are found xvi copper
alloy heads. While I was unable to consider these works, inwards the course of study of several interviews with the elderly temple chief, I learned a considerable amount close them. He described them as erunmole
(imole, ground spirits).28 This identity underscores the likely association of the heads as sacred icons honoring ongoing offices and/ or titles (Abiodun 1974:138) rather than uncomplicated portraits (i.e. references to a specific person) (Underwood 1967:nos. 9, 11, 12). Consistent with this, each of the xvi copper alloy heads located inwards this rural Obalufon temple is said past times the priest to remove hold been identified with a “powerful” private from Ife’s distant past times who was later deified, amid these Oramfe (the thunder god), Obatala (god of the autochthonous residents), Oluorogbo (the early on messenger deity), Obalufon (King Obalufon II), Oranmiyan (Obalufon’s adversary, the military machine conqueror), Obameri (an ancient warrior associated with both dynasties), together with Ore (the autochthonous Ife hunter). These names harken dorsum to of import early on personages together with gods in
the era of Obalufon II together with the Ife civil state of war when the Ife life-size metallic heads were made. The descendants together with priests of these ancient heroes soundless play a role inwards the ritual life of this center. As
explained to me past times the priest of this temple: “These imole are xvi inwards number, all xvi heads are kings [Oba, hither pregnant also deified chiefs], the xvi kings of erunmole.” The Ogboni
association, of which this rural priest also was a member, similarly comprise hither xvi core members (titled officers). Lisa Aronson (1992:57) notes for the Yoruba oculus of Ijebu-Odu
that nearly 90 per centum of the chiefs inwards this oculus are members of Ogboni. There are other connections betwixt the tradition of Obalufon metallic heads honoring historic leaders together with Ogboni
arts. Not only are a bulk of modern Yoruba copper alloy sculptures identified with both Ogboni together with Obalufon, but the “sticks” (staffs) said to live secured to the modern Obalufon heads during display (Oluyemi p.c.), a ritual together with aesthetic continuum extending dorsum to the ancient Ife Florescence Era.
*As with the 2 Ife manlike someone monarch figures (Figs. 15–16), differences inwards the ancient Ife life-size heads’ facial markings together with other features offering additional insight to their identity together with meaning. Half of these xvi life-size metallic heads display vertical line marks that I remove hold identified with autochthonous (first dynasty) elites; the others remove hold land faces complementing the novel dynasty’s denunciation of facial marking. As explained to me past times the priest at the rural Obalufon temple where the grouping of copper alloy heads were housed: “there were xvi crowns inwards the olden days, 8 tribal together with 8 nontribal.” In using the term “tribal” here, he is referring to Ife’s autochthonous residents. Like the novel metropolis computer programme created past times Obalufon II as component subdivision of his truce, these heads give primacy to the display together with sharing of powerfulness past times lineage heads of both dynasties.
Other features of these works also are important. H5N1 bulk of the plain-faced heads, but non the striated ones, include holes around the beard line likely for the attachment of an artificial beard of beads or hair. In the twentieth century, beards inwards Yoruba fine art often spot of import leaders, priests, together with others past times signaling senior historic flow status together with rank.30 Because all the plain-faced heads include beard holes, but only a few with facial markings do, the plain-faced works seem to live linked to powerfulness and/or status different than that of the heads with vertical facial lines. The non-bearded heads conceivably reference ritual status together with sacral powerfulness consistent with Obatala lineages today; the bearded heads instead seem to convey ideas of lineage leadership together with political status consistent with the center’s novel rulership line.
Interestingly, 4 of the 8 heads with facial lines are—like the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1) together with the 2 of the Tada figures (Figs.11, 13)—cast of nearly pure copper (96.8–99.7 percent), a feat that
artists of ancient Hellenic Republic together with Rome, the Italian Renaissance, together with Chinese bronze casters never achieved. The pure copper heads inwards this way differ materially from the stylistically similar heads that contain sizable amounts of alloys along with the copper (the associated copper content ranging from 68.8–79.8percent). H5N1 bulk of the latter are without vertical facial lines. The five
nearly-pure copper heads additionally contain no detected zinc, a mineral that inwards the copper alloy heads ranges from 9.3–13.9 percent. Since one-half of the nearly- pure copper striated heads (two of the four) remove hold beard holes, this pocket-size subset of works may remove hold been intentionally differentiated inwards monastic say to spot chiefs of both sacred together with political status. One of these pure copper heads additionally displays carmine together with dark lines around the eyes (Fig. 28). This characteristic is said past times Adedinni (p.c.) to spot a “most powerful person,” someone who is also a powerful imole (sacral power). To Obatala diviner Akintitan (p.c.), these oculus surrounding lines reference someone who “can really see,” i.e., a someone with unique access to the supernatural powerfulness that imbues i with spiritually charged insight.
Metal differences inwards these heads also send of import color differences that were important to the ancient Ife patrons together with artists. The pure copper works would remove hold been redder, spell those made from copper alloys were to a greater extent than yellow. The redder, nearly pure copper heads may remove hold been linked to ideas of heightened potency or danger. And since casting pure copper is technically far to a greater extent than hard than casting copper with alloy mixtures, the one-time heads also display greater skill, challenge, together with remove chances on the component subdivision of the artist, attributes no incertitude of import to the meanings of these heads as well. This stuff feature, inwards short, also gives them special iconic power. The exercise of nearly pure copper inwards these works suggests non only how knowledgeable Ife artists were inwards the materials together with technologies of casting, but also how willing they were to select related risks to attain specific visual together with symbolic ends inwards these works.
Dating Ancient Ife Art
How do the various forms together with meanings of Ife’s early on arts inform dating together with other related questions? Dating ancient Ife fine art has posed many challenges to scholars, largely because many
of these artifacts come upwards from secondary sites, rather than from contexts that tin live dated scientifically to the flow when the works were made together with initiatory of all used (e.g. primary sites). While developing a chronology of Ife fine art has proven difficult, several schema remove hold been published inwards recent decades. Following the belatedly Eko Eyo, some Ife scholars remove hold utilized the term “Pavement Era” (and concomitantly “Pre-Pavement” together with “Post-Pavement” periods) to distinguish those fine art works that are linked to the flow of Ife’s famous potsherd pavements. However, because these
pavements are soundless seen (and used) inwards abundance inwards the oculus today, together with inwards some cases let on several different construction periods, the term “Pavement Era” is problematic. Ife historian
Akinjogbin instead takes upwards (1992:96) local temporal price to beak over Ife chronology. Without attributing dates, he notes that i such local term, Osangangan Obamakin, inwards some situations
designates Ife King Obalufon I (the begetter of Obalufon II) together with inwards others the early on (first) dynasty with which he was affiliated ....” Drewal ([1989:46] 2009:79) has attempted a temporal ordering
of ancient Ife sculpture based on differences inwards media (stone vs. terra cotta or metal) and/or assumed “expressive” qualities, but this has been dismissed past times archaeologists due to contradictory
evidence from related sites.
Yoruba archeologist Akin Ogundiran (2001:27–28, 2003) provides a to a greater extent than scientifically grounded chronology for Ife together with the broader area. His overview of artifact remains together with other sources contributes to my ain Ife chronology, i that combines archaeological with stylistic, oral historical, together with other data. For some periods, however, I employ different price together with distinguishing features than does Professor Ogundiran. Most significantly, I remove hold simplified this chronology into 3 main periods (with subgroupings) using the term Florescence (cultural “flowering”) for the flow of Ife’s major artistic together with cultural innovation, along with periods prior to (pre-Florescence) together with next (post-Florescence) this era. An early on Ife appointment of c. 350 bce. purportedly based on
radiocarbon (Folster inwards Ozanne 1969:32), cited past times both Ogundiran (2002, p.c.) together with Drewal
(2009:80), has been rejected past times Frank Willett (2004) together with others for lack of supporting
scientific evidence. I concur with this assessment.
The main art-producing era of early on Ife, what I define as the Florescence Period (Ogundiran’s Classical Period) is distinguished past times both roulette- together with cord-decorated ceramics. Within a relatively curt fourth dimension span inwards this period, what I spot as Ife’s High Florescence, most of the early on arts appear to remove hold been made. One tin appointment this flow to c. 1250–1350 ce based on a gain of factors, including the thermoluminescence tests of key metallic works together with the likely reign era of Obalufon II as delimited inwards Ife oral histories together with manlike someone monarch lists. It is this era that appears to grade the commencement of the “Odudua” or 2nd dynasty of Ife. Associated with this High Florescence era are arts non only inwards “bronze” (Fig. 1) together with rock (Fig. 2), but also terra cotta (Fig. 24).
The to a higher spot fourth dimension frame is consistent with the dating for Ife together with its arts past times Peter Garlake (1977:72), based on his excavations at the Obalara’s Land together with Woye Asiri sites, both of which are closely linked to King Obalufon II whose descendant together with electrical flow priest is Chief Obalara. From piece of occupation Garlake undertook at the Obalara Land site, he would spot out 5 radiocarbon dates reflecting 3 likely phases. The initiatory of all is an initial business flow of circa the 12th century ce. The 2nd stage constitutes a c. fourteenth century business flow identified with the laying of the pavements, the creation of an array of sculptures, along with the site’s eventual fourteenth–fifteenth century abandonment. The tertiary together with terminal stage at the Obalara Land site consists of Post-Florescence era finds subsequent to the main site business together with abandonment.
Garlake’s recalibrated radicarbon dates (1974:146) for the Ita Yemoo site layer of terra cotta sculptures excavated past times Willett dot a flow potentially coeval with the radiocarbon dates of the Obalara’s Land sculptures (1312–1420 ce). As Garlake observes for this of import together with various grouping of terracottas (1974:146): “… on the dating evidence presently available, it seems that Obalara’s Land was occupied at the same fourth dimension as Ita Yemoo although it is likely, but non certain, that Ita Yemoo was initiatory of all occupied at an before appointment than Obalara’s Land.” The likely flow of overlap betwixt these 2 sites is 1310–1350 ce, or what I posit as the High Florescence Era. Thermoluminescence dates for the clay cores extracted from 2 of the Wunmonije site life-size heads dot a similar flow of 1221–1369 ce (Willett 1997:28). This flow also is consistent with the likely reign era of Ife King Obalufon II. This dating additionally conforms with this king’s identity as the ruler who introduced bronze casting at Ife. H5N1 bulk of Ife’s ancient arts thus were created inwards a relatively curt fourth dimension period, within a unmarried generation of artists, inwards the early on fourteenth century.
An in-depth analysis of ancient Ife sculptural style past times fine art historian Barbara Blackmun (n.d. inwards Willett 1994) reveals that works from a variety of Ife sites exhibit discernable clusters of similarity
consistent with artists working within the same broader fourth dimension frame. Significantly, Garlake also furnishes evidence (1974, 1977) that Ife’s High Florescence Era came to a relatively quick end, a alter accompanied past times a notable shift inwards pottery ornament forms, specifically from roulette to cord impressions (see also Shaw 1978:155).
Possible exterior confirmation for this Ife early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era is found inwards a well-known (but unexplored for the Yoruba) written source, namely Ibn Battûta’s 1325–1354 go account. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a province called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is i of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is i of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a province that “No white human being tin go inwards … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing together with mercantile interests, amid these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, atomic number 26 smelting together with forging, together with textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife remove hold been found as far
due west as Mali, Mauritania, together with modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good remove hold learned of this oculus inwards the course of study of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the call Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the instance inwards maps from this era, the call Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a belatedly fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions close an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amid others). On vessel from Obalara’s Land, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Terracotta Ancient Ife fine art works, as nosotros remove hold seen, are works non only of nifty visual power, striking beauty, together with rare technical accomplishment, but also objects that speak to core issues of history together with politics inwards this early on center. As such these sculptures offering unique together with critical insight into the social cloth of the city. Looking at the complex visual codes of these remarkable objects through details of body shape together with proportion, gesture, facial marking, stuff properties, regalia form, creature symbolism,
site locations, oral history, mapping together with traveler accounts, as good as modern twenty-four sixty minutes flow Ife beliefs together with rituals close this oculus together with its arts allows us to consider these ancient Ife works as a vital component subdivision of the city’s early on history. The artists of these works clearly were interested inwards the sculptural meanings beingness known, together with through an in-depth analysis of the variant symbolic formula at play, we
at nowadays remove hold a much improve agreement of both this of import early on metropolis together with its arts.
Kings, Crowns, together with Rights of Succession: Obalufon Arts at Ife together with Other Yoruba Centers
Suzanne Preston Blier
The life-size copper mask from Ife (Fig. 1), the ancient religious oculus of the Yoruba inwards southwestern Nigeria is i of the most familiar, yet enigmatic, of all African works inwards metal.1 It was initiatory of all published inwards 1937 past times the belatedly manlike someone monarch (Oni) of Ife, Adesoji Aderemi, inwards the mag Nigeria.
Copper mask said to correspond Ife manlike someone monarch Obalufon II, 12th-
15th century A.D., h. 29.5cm. From king's palace, Ife. Nigeria,
Museum of Ife Antiquities, No. 12
The manlike someone monarch identified the mask at the fourth dimension as representing Obalufon II, a legendary early on ruler of Ife who is credited with the conception of brass-casting at that center. This lifesize mask was said past times the manlike someone monarch to remove hold been kept on an altar inwards the Omirin room of the royal palace at Ife ever since its manufacture. H5N1 close flawless casting inwards ninety-nine per centum pure copper, it is i of the most beautiful together with technically accomplished of all works from ancient Ife. Ekpo Eyo together with Frank Willett appointment the mask to the 12th through fifteenth centuries A.D.
(Fig 3) Ife copper head, 12th-15th century A.D., h. 29cm. Traces of
white paint inwards corners of eyes, dark on pupils, together with red
around eyes together with on neck. From Wunmonije chemical compound of
king's palace, Ife. Nigeria, Museum of Ife Antiquities, No. 6
Like related Ife brass together with copper heads (Figs. 3, 4), the Obalufon mask is a piece of occupation of extraordinary naturalism. Except for the characteristic Ife-style almond-shaped eyes together with the distinct stylization of the ears, the human face of the mask shows striking physiognomic accuracy. The naturalism of this piece of occupation is heightened past times its fully life-size proportions, together with past times the fact that it was apparently intended to contain an attached beard, for holes remove hold been placed around the rima oris together with mentum areas so that a beard could live inserted.
(Fig 4) Zinc brass caput from Ife, 12th-15th century A.D., h.29.5cm.
Wunmonije chemical compound of king's palace, Ife. Nigeria, Museum
of Ife Antiquities, No. 12
from Ife, the Obalufon mask is distinct from these, for it was intended to live worn, together with has narrow slits beneath the eyes, so that its wearer could see. In addition, holes remove hold been placed around the mask's lower border for the attachment, presumably, of a costume or robe.
(Fig 5) Ife terra-cottam inquire from Obalara'sC ompound( Obalufon
St.), Ife, 12th-15th century, A.D., h. 32cm. Nigeria Museum of
Ife Antiquities, No. OC2
Unlike Ife brass together with copper heads that at i fourth dimension were buried (and eventually forgotten), this mask, remaining at the palace, could remove hold retained its original identity. H5N1 recent regain at Ife offers evidence that supports the identification of this mask with Obalufon. The regain consists of a stylistically similar life-size mask - this i inwards terra-cotta- which was unearthed on Obalufon Street, appropriately enough, 20 feet from the site of the city's Obalufon shrine. This mask (Fig. 5), similar the copper Obalufon mask, was also intended to live worn, for slits are incorporated beneath the eyes. The terra-cotta mask is different from the copper one, however, inwards that incised striations concealment the face, together with both a headdress together with stylized beard remove hold been included inwards the modeling. Eluyemi, who published the mask, notes that this regain does non necessarily offering conclusive proof of the identity of the copper mask with Obalufon, but it does suggest the possibility that the two
may ultimately live linked. Masks inwards whatever medium are extremely rare amid extant works from ancient Ife. The identification of the life-size copper mask from Ife with Obalufon II is farther supported past times the importance of metallic masks inwards the corpus of later Yoruba Obalufon religious arts.
It is quite possible that the copper Obalufon mask may remove hold served as a image for this later Obalufon cireperdue tradition.
The pregnant together with role of the Obalufon mask at ancient Ife remove hold non been thoroughly explored. Only 3 scholars remove hold attempted to beak over the possible business office of this work. Leon Underwood was the first. He noted that "The slits beneath the eyes dot its exercise . . . inwards some sort of ceremony."
Justine Cordwell next commented that it may remove hold had a funerary use, asserting that ". . . the life-size, naturalistic portrait mask . . . could live worn on the caput of a living man, who. . . bowing together with waving, thus [carried] to the ultimate the illusion of the homecoming of the dead ruler."
Most recently, Frank Willett presented 2 theories for its possible exercise (pp. 29, 150). His initiatory of all theory supports Cordwell's sentiment that the piece of occupation may remove hold been worn during funerals. He noted that:
"Unlike the other [Ife] bronzes, this is a truthful mask intended
to live worn over the face, with slits below the eyes
so that the wearer could consider out . . . In the course of study of
Yoruba funerals nowadays an egungun masquerader
takes it upon himself to speak as the vox of the deceased,
to reassure the living that he has been satisfied
with his burial . . . It is possible that this mask was used
inwards such a funeral ceremony . ."
According to Willett's 2nd theory, the mask may remove hold been linked to an Ife tradition inwards which a retainer impersonating the manlike someone monarch spot on the robes together with crown of province inwards monastic say to prolong the ruler's reign. The mask, Willett suggests, mightiness remove hold been used inwards the course of study of such an
impersonation."
Except for Underwood's real full general thought close a ceremonial use, in that location is no existent evidence to back upwards these theories. The key to the mask's symbolism, it is suggested here, is found instead inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, both as a historic ruler at Ife, and, next his death, as a deity
of the Yoruba people. In this analysis the initiatory of all theme volition live coronation ceremonies at Ife. It volition live argued that the mask is integrally associated with these ceremonies together with with the related rites of rulership transition. Following this, the figure of Obalufon II together with his spot inwards the early on formation of the Ife province volition live discussed. The mask volition live seen to symbolize Obalufon's role inwards assuring the futurity of the citystate through his association with problems of the succession of rulers together with pop back upwards for the throne. Later Obalufon religious arts together with liturgies (explored as a distinct corpus hither for the initiatory of all time), tin live seen to reinforce the identity of the mask both with themes of coronations together with with the exigencies of autochthonous rule. The well-known Ife brass together with copper heads as good as a number of other cire-perdue works from the flow also may live associated with these ideas, for they, similar the mask, appear to live identified with Obalufon together with with succession to the throne.
The Arts together with the Succession of Rulers: Ife Coronation Ceremonies together with the Obalufon Mask
Present-day traditions at Ife provide us with clues as to the possible functioning together with symbolism of the Obalufon mask inwards the metropolis inwards ancient times. Contemporary evidence suggests that the mask traditionally may remove hold had a role inwards Ife coronation ceremonies. M. A. Fabunmi, writer of a 1969 catalogue that inventories local Ife religious shrines together with ceremonies, explains inwards this low-cal that during Ife coronations the royal crown was placed on "the caput of Obalufon" before the novel ruler was allowed to have on it (p. 11). What is meant hither past times the phrasing "the caput of Obalufon" is non clear, but it appears to live a reference to a sculpture from the Ife shrine of Obalufon. Perhaps the ancient Obalufon mask also i time had a role inwards Ife coronation rites. Because it is life-size, it could easily remove hold been worn inwards related ceremonies. Holes placed around the hairline likely served to secure a crown. Fabunmi notes that the priest inwards accuse of Obalufon is primary Obalara (p. 10). Obalara's
descendants, this writer explains, play a major component subdivision inwards the coronation ceremonies of the novel king. The original Obalara was the boy of Obalufon, and, as Eluyemi has noted (p. 41), the Obalufon priesthood to this twenty-four sixty minutes flow has remained within this family.
The possible association of the Obalufon mask with Ife coronations is reinforced past times the fact that, according to the belatedly manlike someone monarch of Ife (quoted inwards Verger, 439), the crown is brought from the Obalufon shrine (a sanctuary identified with the deified Obalufon). As the belatedly manlike someone monarch of Ife explained it, "The
Oni of Ife is proclaimed manlike someone monarch at the temple of Odudua but he receives his crown the next twenty-four sixty minutes flow at the temple of Orisala [Obatala] where it has been brought from the temple of Obalufon." By maintaining command over the crown inwards this way, the Obalufon priests could also command those who were to live crowned, thereby assuring that a legitimate ruler was indeed coming to the throne. The importance for Ife coronations of Obatala, the deity of the autochthonous people, should non live underestimated. Not only does the coronation select spot at the temple of Obatala, but the royal scepter is also associated with this deity (Idowu, 28-29). However Willet suggest that the crowns were likely kept inwards the palace. The coronation rites at Ife are discussed past times several scholars. Fabunmi (p. 25) notes that the novel manlike someone monarch is crowned on a spot called Igbo Kubolaja at Ideta inwards the Ilode quarter. According to K.C. Murray (in Willett, personal communication, March 7, 1985), the manlike someone monarch is crowned at Ojubo Obalufon. This is close the shrine of Obatala. The king, according to Fabunmi (p. 25), must also ". . . pass a flow of probation before taking upwards residence at the palace at Atobatele house, at nowadays occupied past times Barclays Bank, which stands to the northwest of the palace." Abraham also describes (p. 279) the coronation of the Ife king. He notes that "the coronation is a long ceremony as he has to attend rites at many of the 201 shrines traditionally believed to remove hold been established past times Odudua inwards Ife . . On some other twenty-four sixty minutes flow occurs the iwesu ceremony wherein a rock is washed to ward off the evil influence of Esu . . . On his appointment . . . a
ceremony takes spot at the Igbo-ade where he receives gifts inwards multiples of 201 on the twenty-four sixty minutes flow before the piece of occupation of the novel Oni begins."
On this same day, the novel manlike someone monarch pays homage to the dignitaries together with people of Ife, showing them
the throne of Obalufon, according to Palau-Marti (p. 22). Additional back upwards for this linking of the Obalufon mask with ceremonies of royal investiture is found inwards the fact, discussed past times Ogunba, that the news Obalufe (the championship for sure enough Ife priest-chiefs), way "king or primary at Ife" or the "the manlike someone monarch or of import someone who owns Ife."
The news "Oba" inwards Obalufon likewise refers to "king," implying that Obalufon was closely identified with Ife dominion and, past times extension, with the transfer of royal power. If the mask was worn, as its blueprint suggests it was intended to be, it was likely inwards the context of related coronation
ceremonies. According to Lloyd, during Yoruba coronations reenactment scenes drawn from the early on flow of the city-state were often presented. In such performances, the indigenous inhabitants of the metropolis had a telephone substitution place. Indeed inwards many Yoruba cities, the lawsuit often took spot at i of their compounds. In sentiment of the of import spot of Obalufon inwards the Ife coronation rite, it is quite possible that a scene drawn from the life of Obalufon (similar perhaps to the Ede reenactment - consider p. 389) may remove hold been incorporated. H5N1 priest wearing the Obalufon mask mightiness remove hold had a telephone substitution role inwards such a dramatization.
Obalufon II: H5N1 King Who Ruled Twice
In sentiment of the apparently unopen association of the Obalufon mask with coronations, the interrogation naturally arises as to why Obalufon II would remove hold been so closely identified with the succession of rulers at Ife. The respond appears to prevarication inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, who, as Ife's tertiary ruler, played a decisive role inwards political events of the early on city-state. Obalufon II is presented inwards Ife oral accounts as a powerful ruler who, after beingness dethroned, returned to powerfulness together with brought the city's various factions into accord, thereby assuring the futurity of the newly emerging state.
Three aspects of his reign volition live explored here: his dethronement past times Oranmiyan together with subsequent homecoming to power; second, his identity as a valiant warrior, protector of the local populace, together with symbol of political harmony, together with third, his association with the Ogboni society together with the arts of casting. Obalufon's telephone substitution role inwards the early on Ife citystate is reinforced past times the pregnant of his name, which, as suggested above, incorporates the news "Oba" (king), indicating his of import spot inwards Ife rule. Obalufon II, similar many Yoruba kings, also had several subsidiary names. One of these was Alaiyemore, pregnant "owner of the world known as Oreluere," Ore or Oreluere referring to an aboriginal hunter who was a menace to the unusual ruler "Odudua." The significance of this in conclusion call volition live seen shortly, inwards that Obalufon II played a telephone substitution component subdivision inwards the dispute betwixt the autochthonous peoples of Ife together with supporters of "Odudua" over dominion of the city-state. Since the
oral accounts do non beak over whatever trauma or difficulty associated with Obalufon II's death, it tin live inferred that he died peacefully of old age. Following his death, Obalufon II is said to remove hold been buried close the Wunmonije compound) at the palace. Frank Willett, however, believes that this grave is identified with Lafogido rather than Obalufon. It is hither that the brass together with copper heads that are stylistically similar to the Obalufon mask were also buried.
The events surrounding Ife's founding together with Obalufon II's role inwards the early on Ife city-state are described inwards some particular inwards Ife oral accounts. Present-day scholars of Yoruba faith such as Idowu (p. 23) together with Awolalu (p. 27) consider the metropolis as developing its political together with religious primacy as a final result of the arrival of a militarily powerful grouping of foreigners who were component subdivision of a distant branch of the Yoruba people. Unfortunately the call of the leader of this grouping is non known, because inwards the accounts his identity is subsumed past times that of his patron deity, Odudua.
At the fourth dimension of the arrival of this outsider together with his party, Ife was occupied past times an indigenous people who were nether the leadership of a hunter named Ore (Oreluere). Not surprisingly, the original
inhabitants of Ife do non appear to remove hold supported this foreigner, "Odudua," inwards his attempts to gain command of the city. The leader "Odudua" also appears to remove hold suppressed the worship of the local Ife deity, Obatala. Awolalu summarizes (p. 27) the province of affairs at Ife at this fourth dimension as follows:
"(a) that the original inhabitants of Ife knew together with acknowledged Obatala
as the deity that created the ground together with to whom worship was due and
given; b) that at a stage inwards the early on history of Ife, some intruders who
were migrating from somewhere, came into Ife, together with conquered the original
inhabitants who were devotees of [Obatala]; c) that the newcomers
suppressed the worship of Obatala together with embraced that of Oduduwa who
was mayhap a woman someone divinity; d) that at the decease of the conquering
leader, his followers together with admirers deified him together with called him Odudua
after the primordial divinity whose worship he had encouraged. Thus
Odudua is portrayed as a primordial divinity together with as a deified ancestor."
This unusual ruler was, however, past times all accounts a strong together with politically effective leader. One of his most of import decisions was to found a serial of union alliances with the local populace. Accordingly, both he together with his political party married indigenous women "of the land," inwards monastic say to create a novel generation of Ife residents who, inwards Idowu's words (p. 24), "... . would live at dwelling inwards both worlds . . . people who were without bitterness towards either of the opposing parties." In the course of study of these marriages, the novel ruler fathered a number of children, many of whom eventually laid out to found their ain dynasties inwards other Yoruba states.
On "Odudua's" death, i of his sons, Obalufon I (Ogbogbodirin), succeeded him to the throne. Obalufon I's reign appears to remove hold been beset with problems. Unlike his father, "Odudua," he was a weak ruler. Indeed, the province that his begetter had of late formed seems already to remove hold begun to disintegrate inwards the course of study of his reign. According to the Oni of Ife (in Verger, 141-42), Obalufon I's father, Odudua, would remove hold preferred to acquire out the throne to his oldest son, the warrior Ogun. When the latter died, Odudua remarked, "I remove hold no longer a powerful boy to sentry over the totality of my kingdom; Obalufon is non plenty the warrior, together with he volition dissever the lands amid his diverse
sons." Odudua hither seems to live anticipating the breakup of the kingdom nether the reign of Obalufon I. It was this division, together with the interrogation of who would dominion at Ife, which, as volition live seen, played a telephone substitution component subdivision inwards the dominion of Obalufon I's ain son, Obalufon II. Little else is known close the
reign of Obalufon I, but in that location is some evidence that the deity Obatala (the god of the autochthonous people - together with presumably of Obalufon I's mother) may remove hold been made a province deity around that time. This was most likely inwards reply to the continued pressure level on the novel ruler past times the local public for royal back upwards of local religious belief. Evidence for this comes from the statements of Johnson (p. 11) together with Beier (p. 18) that during the reign of Obalufon I's eventual successor, Oranmiyan, an Obatala priest had a spot of nifty importance inwards the palace. Presumably this priesthood had already been established past times the fourth dimension he came to power. As already noted, Odudua together with his successors married local women, together with they also may remove hold been instrumental inwards bringing Obatala into the palace
In addition, during his dominion in that location appear to remove hold been frequent attacks against the palace past times the indigenous occupants of Ife. Into this insecure political province of affairs Obalufon II was thrust when, next Obalufon I's death, he appears to remove hold ascended the throne. So weakened was the city-state of Ife past times this time, that presently after he came to power, Obalufon II was forced from the throne past times a human being named Oranmiyan. According to i business concern human relationship (Verger, 329), it was against Obalufon I that Oranmiyan fought to select over Ife rule. This business concern human relationship states that when Oranmiyan ". . . learned that Odudua had died together with that Obalufon had inherited from his mother, together with had acquire initiatory of all manlike someone monarch of Ife, Oranmiyan sent a message to Obalufon, menacing him with death; Obalufon fled to Ido, 15 miles from Ife. Oranmiyan . . . stayed a sure enough fourth dimension at Ife, together with so went to Oko Igboho together with finally Oyo... " The confusion of the 2 Obalufons together with their respective reigns also occurs inwards Yoruba religious ritual associated with Obalufon (see n. 35).
This latter figure, a powerful warrior who is also said to remove hold ruled at Oyo together with Benin, is identified variously as Obalufon's I's blood brother together with as his nephew. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3); Smith (p. 19); Fabunmi (pp. 16-17). The accounts also vary as to whether or non Oranmiyan had whatever legitimate claim to the throne. The "official" version (Fabunmi, 16) suggests that it was Oranmiyan together with non Obalufon II who had been the intended successor of Obalufon I. According to this version, at the fourth dimension of the latter's death, Oranmiyan was away from courtroom on a military machine have together with could not
live found. For this ground Obalufon II was crowned instead. When Oranmiyan returned, he proceeded to claim what was rightfully his. Other evidence suggests, however, that Oranmiyan had no legitimate right, together with was indeed a usurper. This evidence is that Oranmiyan is identified as the youngest boy of "Odudua" (Smith, p. 34). Since Oranmiyan is said to remove hold had many older brothers, he would non remove hold been called on to succeed his father. Furthermore, the accounts suggest that on Odudua's death, Oranmiyan inherited none of his father's moveable properties
(Johnson, 8). This sentiment of Oranmiyan as a usurper is also suggested past times Frobenius (p. 205), who notes that Oranmiyan's begetter was a human being named Laro, together with that Oranmiyan had ". . . i time conquered [Ife], but was driven forth again." Ulli Beier argues inwards plough (Yoruba Myths, Cambridge, 1980, 65) that Oranmiyan may non fifty-fifty remove hold been component subdivision of the royal line. He asserts that Oranmiyan is ". . . apparently representing a belatedly immigrant with no existent Blue Planet rights."
Little is told of Obalufon II's curt reign prior to his overthrow, but he appears to remove hold already had the strong backing of the local populace, for it was he, rather than Oranmiyan, who they are said to remove hold supported as ruler. Obalufon II, although forced from the throne past times Oranmiyan, waged a hard battle to regain command of the kingdom. In the end, his endeavors appear to remove hold been successful,
for the accounts dot that eventually he returned to power. According to John Abiri (in Adedeji, 327) the defeat/return of Obalufon II may remove hold taken spot after Oranmiyan's decease during the reign of his son, Layiamisan. This, as Adedeji points out, also ". . . usefully explains the ground for Alaiyemore's [Obalufon II 's] homecoming to the throne as i of the price of the rapprochement." This also explains Obalufon II's eventual union to Moremi, who inwards some accounts is said to remove hold been previously married to Oranmiyan. In his acquire by against Oranmiyan to regain rule, he benefited from the back upwards of the indigenous Ife population. According to Adedeji, this conflict betwixt Obalufon II together with Oranmiyan over the throne parallels a conflict inwards religious doctrine betwixt the followers of Obatala together with Odudua, the patron gods of Obalufon together with Oranmiyan respectively. This dispute, which is oftentimes discussed inwards the Yoruba literature, centers on the interrogation of who deserves credit for creating the world. Most accounts suggest that it was Odudua who really did so, but that Obatala (Orishanla) rightfully should have. The correct was said to remove hold been taken away from him because he was viewed as unfit (he had gotten drunk); then, spell he lay sleeping (i.e., inwards a province of beingness unaware), the powerfulness was assumed past times Odudua (Idowu, 23; Willett, 121- 23). As Idowu points out, however, a number of accounts contradict this view, some stating non only that Obatala did non acquire boozer but was able to send out the creation. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all remove hold on i factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the
most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established in that location (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to remove hold come upwards downward with
the initiatory of all political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures together with Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the call of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
The legends portray Obalufon II at this fourth dimension as an ingenious military machine leader. In his have against Oranmiyan, he is said to remove hold dressed the local warriors inwards straw masks which made them appear to live spirits from some other world. This disguise frightened together with confused Oranmiyan's warriors so that they were unable to acquire by effectively. Eventually, however, Obalufon II's masking deception was discovered. On i of his raids, a local Ife adult woman named Moremi allowed herself to live taken captive past times Obalufon's forces. In her captivity, Moremi was able to larn that it was non spirits from some other world but rather the original Ife inhabitants nether Obalufon II's management who
were menacing the capital. When she later escaped, she went dwelling to tell Oranmiyan of her discovery. In Obalufon II's subsequent raid, his men were met past times Oranmiyan's torch-bearing warriors who presently "unmasked" together with defeated the autochthonous troops.
This same Moremi helped to select Obalufon dorsum to the throne. She was viewed as a heroine because of her role inwards Obalufon's capture, together with with her novel status she insisted that a to a greater extent than permanent peace live established at Ife. With this inwards mind, she asked that Obalufon II, the exiled king, live returned to power. In turn, she became his wife. Moremi, as a local woman, clearly had allegiance inwards both camps. Accordingly, the solution that she proposed benefited both equally, together with indeed, her determination to seek a to a greater extent than permanent peace was a critical i for the long-term stability
of Ife. This movement brought to the throne non only a forceful leader, but also i who had the strong back upwards of the original Ife inhabitants. With the homecoming of Obalufon II to Ife, the autochthonous Ife citizens also appear to remove hold returned to this center, together with the 2nd component subdivision of Obalufon II's reign appears to remove hold been marked past times peace together with prosperity.
Many sculptures together with shrines inwards together with around Ife are identified with persons together with events inwards this dispute. The most of import are the mask of Obalufon II together with a large rock "staff" associated with Oranmiyan. There are also a number of sacred areas together with sculptures that refer to the family, supporters, together with patron deities of these 2 historic figures. Many of these are described inwards Fabunmi's analysis of Ife shrines. One such shrine is associated with Moremi; some other is identified with her boy Ela. H5N1 quartz stool that is at nowadays inwards the British Museum is identified with some other son,
Alashe (Oluorogbo). Alashe (Oluorogbo) is also said inwards some accounts to live Moremi's hubby (R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies, London, 1910, 23; Fabunmi, 9). Other examples of Ife fine art of this flow remove hold been found inwards the Iwinrin or Igbo Grove, a sacred surface area closely identified with the original Ife inhabitants. In addition, both Obatala, Obalufon's patron deity, together with this deity's wife, Yemo, remove hold shrines at Ife. Odudua together with several of this god's wives, Olokun together with Omitoto-Ose, also remove hold shrines. Oranmiyan's father, Ogun, together with several of Oranmiyan's warriors remove hold shrines with fine art of this flow as well. According to Willett (pl. 77), this stool was found inwards the Ife Oluorogbo grove. The leader of the autochthonous peoples, Ore (Oreluere), also has a shrine. At the dorsum of this surface area is a rock carving representing Ore's gate man, Edena (this sculpture is at nowadays inwards the palace museum).
The nifty twenty-four sixty minutes flow inwards Ife history when Obalufon II was returned to the throne next his defeat is reenacted at Ife inwards a special yearly pageant at nearby Ede. In it, a grapheme named Ajagemo, who simultaneously symbolizes the autochthonous peoples, the deity Obatala, together with Obalufon II, dances to run into his armed opponent Olunwi who represents the newcomers, "Odudua," together with Oranmiyan. In this combat, "Obalufon II" is overpowered together with is taken into the palace. He is presently released, together with is carried triumphantly dorsum to the arena. This reenactment takes spot during the
festival held inwards laurels of Obatala, the deity associated with Obalufon, together with the original residents of Ife. The associated song/prayers reinforce the importance of Obatala together with the indigenous Igbo at this festival. The next was recorded past times Adedeji (p. 329).
"Obatala
The Oba that nosotros praise
The genuinely king
Who was born inwards the metropolis of Igbo
And went to acquire manlike someone monarch inwards the metropolis of Iranje
The nifty Orisa
The divinity of Igbo
They showed him ingratitude
They tricked him with palm wine
They together with so deserted the divinity from heaven
When they had vanished
They together with so asked where else could the clandestine live found?"
At the opening of this lawsuit is a ceremony dedicated to the Ogboni society. Adedeji, 328. The human relationship betwixt Ogboni together with Yoruba rulership is clear. According to Justine Cordwell ("Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba together with Republic of Benin Cultures," Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1952, 43), "The Ogboni society acts non only as advisor to the ruler together with courtroom of judge but inwards some areas really controls the ruler together with his decisions." Furthermore, both Obalufon together with Ogboni are associated with the left hand. "Osi la njo ijo Obalufon" or "It is towards the left mitt that you lot move
when you lot trip the low-cal fantastic toe inwards laurels of Obalufon," say his worshippers (Awolalu, 107). H5N1 somewhat parallel ceremony is also performed at Ijebu-Ife, at which fourth dimension Obalufe priest-chiefs are identified with persons having prior claim to the land, who were ousted wrongly from political power. These prior claimants are inwards command of many of the sacred aspects of political rule. The ritual, Ogunba suggests (as inwards n. 14, 99), "... gives the impression that the priest-chief has inwards fact been cheated of powerfulness together with the yearly coming together together with parting becomes something of an atonement for the irrevocable seizure, so that the indigenous gods of the Blue Planet may non revolt against the novel political overlord." Appropriately, during the festival it is the priest Obalufe who sacrifices to the Earth, a grade of his unopen association with it. Ogunba notes inwards this study (p. 99), inwards turn, that "priestchiefs similar . . . the Obalufe, send names which audio to a greater extent than akin to the ownership of the Blue Planet than the priest kings." Henry Drewal suggests (personal communication, Apr 9, 1984) that at this shrine, Obalufe is also
the caput of the Odudua association. This society, which is of import inwards Yoruba fine art patronage today, is said to remove hold been formed around the fourth dimension of the to a higher spot conflict past times the followers of Obatala to acquire by political injustice. According to Idowu (p. 24):
"Everything points to the fact that it was at this fourth dimension that
the Ogboni cult began. This was a clandestine cult formed, in
all probability, to protect the indigenous institutions of
the Blue Planet from annihilation nether the influence of the new
regime. It must remove hold been originally an exclusive organization
limited to the original owners of the land."
The unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon II together with the Ogboni society is of considerable significance because Obalufon is said to remove hold introduced brass casting at Ife. According to Idowu (p. 208) at Ife in that location was also a theatre associated with the brass casters; this theatre was called Ile Asude, "the theatre of those who smelt brass." It is interesting that Obatala, the deity Ogboni had been formed to support, is oftentimes identified as the sculptor divinity (Awolalu, 21). Today this same society is i of the principal patrons of Yoruba brass casting arts. Unfortunately, the historical accounts
provide few farther details on this matter. Most probably, however, Obalufon II's unopen association with the Ogboni society was the footing of his identification with the introduction of brass casting. It seems real plausible that with the homecoming of Obalufon II to the throne, the Ogboni society gained legitimacy together with considerable powerfulness at the palace.
Their arts presumably also flourished at this time. It was, it would appear, because of Obalufon's association both with brass casting together with with peace together with legitimate dominion at Ife that the copper mask bearing his call came to live associated with coronation ceremonies at Ife. Further evidence that reinforces the identity of the Obalufon mask with coronations together with themes of rulership is found inwards the religious rituals together with beliefs that developed next Obalufon II's eventual decease together with deification. In the nowadays era he has been, as nosotros volition see, viewed both as the god of expert authorities together with as the patron deity of the arts of beadwork, brass casting, together with weaving. In addition, brass crowns and masks shape a important component subdivision of the Obalufon fine art corpus.
Obalufon, a God with Many Identities: Deity of War, Peace, Prosperity, together with the Arts of Beads, Brass, together with Weaving
Obalufon II, similar many nifty Yoruba rulers, was deified at his death. According to Idowu (p. 69) "Obalufon is i of the divinities worshipped at Ile-Ife together with all over Yorubaland. But he began past times beingness an ancestor." Unlike other Yoruba deities such as Shango, Eshu, Ogun, Odudua, together with Ifa, this god has non been the object of whatever study, nor remove hold the wealth together with diverseness of religious ritual together with fine art associated with him been examined. Although today Obalufon's followers are found inwards many parts of Yorubaland, Ile-Ife soundless remains an of import oculus for Obalufon worship. Ulli Beier notes (Yoruba Beaded Crowns, London, 1982, 9), that spell Obalufon is worshipped inwards a number of Yoruba towns, his worship is especially identified with Ife - only as Shango's worship is especially associated with Oyo. Although it is Obalufon II who is to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the ruler who is deified as "Obalufon," it should live noted that Obalufon the god seems inwards some cases simultaneously linked to both rulers bearing that name. Thus spell Abraham asserts (p. 491) that it was Alaiyemore (i.e., Obalufon II) who is worshipped as Obalufon, Fabunmi indicates (p. 10) that the worship of Obalufon is identified with Ogbogdirin (Obalufon I). Although the assimilation of the 2 kings inwards Obalufon worship appears to live a natural outgrowth of their unopen association with each other (and the fact that they part the same name), most of the rituals, religious tenets, together with works of fine art of the Obalufon association seem to live identified to a greater extent than closely with Obalufon II together with the various attributes of his rule.
Other places where worship of Obalufon (Balufon, Obalifon, Abalufon, Abalifon) is especially strong include towns inwards Ekiti where Obalufon II is said to remove hold taken refuge during the flow of his banishment. Still other major centers of Obalufon worship are identified with places where the children of Obalufon II eventually settled. Once established inwards these towns, his descendents are said to remove hold laid upwards shrines to their father. Thus Verger notes (p. 453) that "... at Ido Osun, close Osogbo, i finds a temple for Obalufon, it was said to me: 'Olufande, boy of Obalufon, installed himself at Owaluse close Isesa, together with so at Igbokiti where he died. His successor... went to Igbo Oyao
together with so came to found himself hither at Ido Osun.' " Unlike most deities inwards the Yoruba pantheon, Obalufon is surrounded with considerable confusion inwards the literature. In Yoruba Ifa divination, William Bascom notes (Ifa Divination: Communication Between Gods together with Men inwards West Africa, Bloomington, 1969, 49) that the 8th odu (owonrin meji) refers to Obalufon. But the ranking
of this odu with honour to the total of xvi odu, shows, as with the life of Obalufon, a conflict over legitimacy together with place. According to Bascom, although owonrin meji is seen to live equal to ofun meji, inwards rank they are seen to acquire by each other for 8th place. H5N1 legend provided past times Bascom
explains this conflict:
"Ofun meji was the initiatory of all born of all the figures together with the initiatory of all to come upwards to
earth. He was the caput of all the other figures together with ruled them similar a
king, but because things went badly nether his rule, they sent to Ifa in
sky to tell him how hard things were on earth. Then Ifa sent Ogbe
Meji downward to ground to select Ofun Meji's spot as the caput of the other
figures. Ofun Meji fought [to retain his place] defeating all combinations
until he reached Owonrin Meji. These 2 fought together with fought and
fought, until the others sent to Ifa inwards heaven. Ifa ruled that Ofun Meji
together with Owinrin Meji should live equal inwards rank, taking turns inwards priority.
This is why Ofun Meji outranks Owonrin Meji when Ofun Meji is
thrown first; but when Owonrin Meji is thrown first, it outranks Ofun
Meji."
There are interesting parallels betwixt this Ifa business concern human relationship together with legends of Obalufon's life, together with that of his ain deity, Obatala (see n. 23). This is peculiarly truthful inwards the discussions of his powers, habits, together with associated symbols. Interestingly, inwards the partitioning of orisa at Ife betwixt those who are followers of Obatala together with those who are followers of Odudua, Obalufon (along with Agemon, Osonyin, Esidale, Obameri, Oranyon, Moremi, Obameri, Eleshije, Ija, together with Olokun) is often identified as a supporter of Odudua (Forde, as inwards n. 27, 37; Abraham, 483).
According to Fadipe, Obalufon is the god of warriors; to Farrow he is the god of peace or, to a greater extent than specifically, peace of the kingdom. S. S. Farrow, Faith, Fancies, together with Fetish, London, 1926, 59. Obalufon, inwards his deification, is also associated with uprightness together with high ethical standards. This appears to remove hold partial footing inwards Obalufon's back upwards of Obatala (the god identified with ethical purity) against the insurgent followers of Odudua (Adedeji, 336). Adedeji suggests accordingly that ". . . similar Obatala, he is the embodiment of morals together with ethics of the Yoruba." These qualities are especially of import inwards the alternative of Obalufon priests. Thus, Awolalu notes (p. 170), Obalufon worship is sometimes suspended if a priest of high moral grapheme cannot live found. At Owu-Ijebu he explains, ". . . worship was suspended because it was hard to acquire a human being of high probity together with integrity to preside at the shrine of Obalufon. The Oba explained to the people the high standards required of a presiding priest together with added 'If a human being has evil hear together with soundless has the audacity of coming to officiate at the shrine of Obalufon such a human being volition non in conclusion the year.
J. Johnson (in Verger, 457) together with Dennett offering a similar view, signaling that Obalufon is the "god of the prosperous empire." Also of significance is the fact that Ore (Oreluere), the original hunter whom Obalufon supported, is also associated with ethical standards together with morality. According to Idowu (p. 23), Oreluere himself ".o. . was the guardian of domestic morality together with preserver of audio spot unit of measurement traditions." Talbot (II, 60, 87) calls him the god of fortune, success, together with greatness. Obalufon also has a spot inwards agricultural ceremonies, peculiarly those linked to yams together with to their harvest. Thus at Ido Osun ". . . yams cannot live eaten before i has celebrated the offering of initiatory of all fruits to Obalufon inwards September" (Verger, 453). Obalufon's identity with agriculture seems to live founded at to the lowest degree inwards component subdivision on the mythical dispute betwixt Obatala together with Odudua (see n. 26). According to i myth (Idowu, 94), during the flow of their dispute a nifty drought prevailed inwards which all crops failed together with many people died. It was only after the conflict had been resolved, together with peace had been restored, that the fields i time again flourished. It is also non surprising that Obalufon, as the representative of the original owners of the land, would play a telephone substitution component subdivision inwards ceremonies associated with the productivity of the fields. Like many benevolent Yoruba deities, Obalufon is also said to select children to his followers (Awolalu, 150). The Yoruba literature suggests
that Obalufon may remove hold been the deity of vox communication as good (Talbot I, 87; Verger, 452). This is based on the identification of Obalufon as the initiatory of all human being on Earth. According to Bowen (as inwards n. 26, 314) "the call of the initiatory of all human being was . . . Obbalufoh, together with the call of his married adult woman was Iye. They came from sky together with had many children. . . Obbalufoh way the King or Lord of Speech, because the initiatory of all human being was the initiatory of all speaker; Iye .. signifies life." Verger points out, however, that this identity appears to live a false i since Bowen apparently confused Obalufon with Osalufon (or Obatala).
These associations with war, peace, together with prosperity clearly accommodate with what nosotros know about
Obulafon II's life. He was known as a valiant, relentless, together with ingenious state of war leader who never gave upwards inwards his acquire by to gain dorsum his throne, together with who never turned his dorsum on the autochthonous peoples without whose back upwards peace would remove hold been impossible. It is Obalufon II's association with peaceful together with prosperous rulership that is emphasized accordingly inwards the Obalufon offerings inwards Ilawe, Ekiti, where Obalufon is the tutelary deity. The human relationship betwixt Obalufon together with prosperous rulership is reinforced inwards the religious ceremonies associated with this deity. According to Awolalu (p. 105), during the offerings to Obalufon inwards Ilawe, it was the representative of the manlike someone monarch who brought the offerings of the people to the Obalufon priest. This royal representative knelt downward before the priest... together with prayed for everybody together with everything inwards the community."
In add-on to beingness closely tied with kings together with the peace together with prosperity of their reigns, the deity Obalufon is also associated with a number of Yoruba fine art forms. Thompson identifies Obalufon as the patron god of beadworking, today the principal stuff of the royal crowns together with scepters. Robert Farris Thompson (Black Gods together with Kings: Yoruba Art at U.C.L.A., Los Angeles, 1971, 8:1) explains accordingly that, "Men similar to live different. The deity Obalufon thence invented beads together with strung them inwards different colors on bracelets together with necklaces so that gods, together with men who follow them, mightiness stand upwards inwards proud distinction . . ." In other Yoruba areas, however, beadwork is to a greater extent than often associated with Olokun. Verger (p. 452) together with Abraham (p. 501) depict Obalufon (Balufon) as the patron deity of weaving together with clothing. Obalufon is also to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the patron deity of the various brass-casting arts. William Fagg suggests that this association is fairly mutual throughout Yorubaland.
The sculptural forms that today are found inwards the various Obalufon shrines also add together to our agreement of the possible pregnant together with role of the before Ife Obalufon mask. Many of these works, similar the original Obalufon mask, are cire-perdue castings. Some of the most of import information on these arts comes from the town of Obo Ile which was settled past times immigrants from Ife. The land notes of William Fagg document the unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon together with brass casting at this center. At Obo Ile, the tradition itself was said to remove hold originated at Ife. Fagg's fieldnotes dot that brass arts were so of import inwards the nineteenth century that i tertiary of the population may remove hold been brass casters. In this town, furthermore, the manlike someone monarch of the brass casters, Oba Legbede, is also the caput of the Obalufon association. Additional back upwards for the identification
of Obalufon with the brass-casting arts is found inwards the fact that at Obo Ile, Obanifon (Obalufon) is used as the generic news for all works inwards this medium.
Several types of Obalufon arts from Obo Ile remove hold been documented past times Fagg. One tradition indicates that a brass object (perhaps a staff) was brought to Obo Ile from Ife. This object has the call of Obalufon. Interestingly, at Ife a brass staff is carried past times Chief Obalara together with other Obalufon
priests, Fagg also saw several brass masks associated with Obalufon when he was inwards Obo Ile area. He describes the masks as modern castings, oval inwards shape, together with roughly 5 to 6 inches inwards height. Possible parallels with these masks should also live noted. Denis Williams has published 2 brass masks from Oyo, likely of the 19th century, which were used inwards conjunction with Shango, the patron deity together with initiatory of all ruler of Oyo ("Art inwards Metal," Sources of Yoruba History, ed. S.O. Biobaku, Oxford, 1973, 163-64). These were worn at the annual Bere festival, a ceremony that, similar many of those of Obalufon, took spot at the yam harvest. The call of these masks, alakoro, derives from the word, akoro, pregnant chief's headgear. Thus these masks, similar that of Obalufon, may live ultimately identified with crowns. One of these Oyo alakoro brass masks has 3 markings converging at the lips (Williams, 61) a motif similar to that found on a number of Ife works. Several pocket-size brass alakora masks also appear on a Shango drum documented past times Thompson (as inwards n. 42,
1/18). One of these masks also was called Obanifon (Obalufon).
At Isare, Fagg's information suggests that Obalufon arts remove hold a clear royal identity. Here it is the local Alare (king/ chief) who is caput of the Obalufon (Onifon) association. The emphasis both on brass masks together with on ideas of rulership inwards these traditions suggests of import secondary support
for the identity of the classic Ife copper mask with Obalufon together with with coronations. This parallel, inwards turn, offers evidence for a possible thematic continuum inwards Obalufon arts extending from the nowadays era dorsum to the fourth dimension when the Ife Obalufon mask was made. In add-on to brass masks together with scepters, Obalufon is also associated with brass crowns. Several of these remove hold been documented; i is illustrated past times Thompson (p. 10). This Obalufon crown (Fig. 7) is from Obo-Aiyegunle, Ekiti. It incorporates telephone substitution together with side faces around its base, together with is surmounted past times a bird. Frank Willett photographed some other brass crown associated with Obalufon (Obanifon) at Obo Aiyegunle (Thompson, p. 13, personal communication from Willett). The identification of these brass crowns with Obalufon suggests some other parallel with Ife Obalufon traditions, for inwards these, it volition live recalled, crowns together with coronations were all-important concerns.
(Fig 7 Obalufon brass crown from town of Obo-Aiyegunle, Ekiti.
After photograph past times R. F. Thompson (pl. 10)
Figural traditions inwards brass are also associated with Obalufon. Geoffrey Parrinder, inwards his description of the Obalufon shrine at Ibadan, notes (Religion inwards an African City, London, 1953, 30) that the door of that shrine could non live opened past times the uninitiated for fright that they would live struck blind, suggesting to Parrinder that the piece of occupation within could remove hold been of brass, a stuff whose polish mightiness remove hold been identified with such a response.
The only illustration of an Obalufon brass sculpture that has been published to appointment is inwards the Nigerian National Museum at Lagos. This piece of occupation is i of a pair of Obalufon brass sculptures from Ijebu-Ode. H5N1 distinctive attribute of this sculpture is the portrayal of fisted hands placed parallel to the ground inwards front end of the body. The piece of occupation appears to portray serpents issuing from the nostrils, a characteristic real unusual inwards Ogboni brass sculptures but occasionally found inwards ancient Ife fine art together with inwards Republic of Benin brass-casting traditions. The motif of the serpent issuing from the nostril is also found on Republic of Benin "Spirit" heads together with Agwe masks, on the headdress of the "Tsoede" warrior figure, together with on several works from ancient Ife. Stylistically, the published Obalufon brass figure shares closest ties with human face bells from the Yoruba surface area around Ijebu-Ode. These bells, Thompson notes (79, n. 13), are identified with royal lineage chiefs. This similarity is reinforced past times the fact that the caput of the published Obalufon brass figure is cast separately from the body, so that the head, when seen alone, looks remarkably similar these bells. H5N1 spike that extends from this caput is inserted into the hollow brass torso, the 2 parts together with so beingness strapped together.
The corpus of Obalufon-related arts is, as nosotros remove hold seen, quite diverse. Several features of these sculptures, however, suggest that they may remove hold parallels with the Obalufon mask from ancient Ife. These attributes include the predominance of brass inwards Obalufon fine art inwards general; second, the importance of crowns together with masks amid these cireperdue works, together with third, an emphasis on rulership together with coronation themes inwards the rituals together with religious forms of Obalufon worship. These to a greater extent than recent Obalufon works clearly reinforce the identification of the ancient Obalufon mask.
Obalufon together with the Head of Lajuwa: A Terra-Cotta Identified with a Tale of Court Intrigue
Visual together with thematic evidence suggests that the Obalufon mask may live associated with the ancient Ife terra-cotta caput of a courtroom retainer named "Lajuwa" (Fig. 9). The terra-cotta caput that is said to correspond Lajuwa was published past times the belatedly Ife king, Adesoji Aderemi, at the same fourth dimension as the Obalufon mask.
(Fig nine Ife terra-cottah ead said to representL ajuwa,1 2th-15thc entury
A.D., h. 32. 8cm. From king's palace, Ife. Nigeria, Museum
of Ife Antiquities, No. 20 (79.R.1)
Although the dating of the manlike someone monarch identified with Lajuwa is opened upwards to some dispute, this terra-cotta head
was clearly made around the fourth dimension of both the Obalufon mask together with the life-size brass together with copper heads. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3) identifies this manlike someone monarch as Aworokolokin. In style, Willett suggests (p. 58) that it "is almost identical with the Wunmonije bronzes together with could good remove hold been made past times one
of the same artists." The 2 works also appear to live closely tied because they were kept inwards the same chamber at the palace. Both sculptures, Willett suggests, may remove hold been associated with an incident inwards Ife history inwards which a retainer assumed the role of a manlike someone monarch inwards monastic say to extend his rule. At
Ife together with other Yoruba city-states, sure enough courtroom servants had the correct to personify the king. We know from Johnson (p. 59) that at Oyo on a number of occasions, surrogates of the manlike someone monarch would correspond him past times assuming his robes together with crown. Here, according to Talbot (iII, 569), it was a eunuch with the championship of Olosi or Osi'efa' who took on the king's identity during judicial proceedings, battles, together with sure enough affairs of state. This Olosi had considerable powerfulness inwards the palace, for he was i of the principal advisors of the king, together with had a major role at each coronation. As Johnson suggests
(p. 59),
"The Osi'efa or Olosi . . . represents the manlike someone monarch inwards all occasions
together with inwards all matters civil as good as military. He
sometimes acts as commander inwards primary inwards military machine expeditions,
he is allowed to exercise the crown, the province umbrella,
together with the kakaki trumpet, together with to remove hold royal honors
paid to him. On such occasions, he is privileged also to
dispense the king's prerogatives."
Johnson farther notes (p. 163), that "The Osi-efa is e'er the initiatory of all as good as the in conclusion inwards the king's chamber. If the manlike someone monarch is ill, he takes his spot on province occasions, putting on his robes together with crown; inwards state of war he appears as the king's deputy, invested inwards all the paraphernalia of royalty." Perhaps related to this practise of a courtroom figure beingness asked to portray the manlike someone monarch for sure enough province events is a tradition at Ife described past times Idowu (p. 208) together with Willett (p. 150) inwards which it is said that a peculiarly dear manlike someone monarch died, together with i of his servants decided to cover his body together with pretend that he was soundless live past times wearing the royal regalia himself. The hoax worked for a time, but eventually it was discovered. The novel king, furious that he had been kept from the throne, ordered the retainer together with the palace artists to live killed. The courtroom retainer who is said to remove hold masterminded the deception is identified as Lajuwa, the chamberlain of King Aworokolokin. Lajuwa, Willett notes (p. 57), is at nowadays identified as the patron deity of palace servants.
Interestingly, Hambly, inwards his description of the Lajuwa caput (p. 465) identifies it as "Lajuwa, the messenger of Onis," suggesting that Lajuwa's role at Ife may remove hold been to a greater extent than that of a representative/advisor than a retainer per se. He may remove hold acted as a trusted assist together with surrogate of the king. The Obalufon mask, as Willett has noted (p. 150), could easily remove hold been worn past times someone intending to impersonate the king. It is tempting to suggest inwards this low-cal that the Obalufon mask may also remove hold been worn past times designated courtroom officials inwards their roles as representatives of the king. Yoruba crowns today contain a long fringe of beads that cover the ruler's face. Sculptural portrayals of ancient Ife crowns (see Fig. 10) exhibit no such fringe, suggesting that a naturalistic mask mightiness remove hold been an of import component subdivision of the representative's costume. Possibly the Obalufon mask, through its identity with royal investiture, also had a secondary role inwards masking those at courtroom whose duty it was to serve as royal personifiers.
(Fig 10) Ife brass figure of a king, 12th-15th century A.D., h.
47.11cm. From the Ita Yemoo site, Ife. Nigeria, Museum of Ife
Antiquities, (79.R.12)
Ife's Life-Size Brass together with Copper Heads: Evidence for Their Identification with Obalufon
The copper Obalufon mask is also stylistically related to the ancient Ife brass together with copper heads (Figs. 3, 4) that were unearthed inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound close the palace. The Obalufon mask is unopen plenty to i of them to live a portrait of the same person. Frank Willett, who published many of these naturalistic copper together with brass heads inwards 1967 inwards his piece of occupation on Ife, presented a theory as good of their possible exercise together with meaning. This theory, which had originally been suggested past times William Fagg together with and so supported past times Justine Cordwell, suggests that the heads likely played a telephone substitution role inwards the Yoruba establishment of Ako, a tradition inwards which memorial figures were constructed to correspond the deceased. The life-size brass together with copper heads, this theory suggests, were incorporated into memorial figures that served as surrogates for deceased Ife kings during funerary
commemorations. At Owo the documented exercise of a naturalistic wooden Ako memorial figure was seen to offering a contemporary counterpart for this tradition.
This theory, though soundless held past times most African fine art historians, has been brought into interrogation past times several scholars. Kenneth Murray inwards a missive of the alphabet to Odu was the initiatory of all to get upwards doubts close this view, basing himself primarily on the stylistic congruity of the works involved. He notes that these cast life-size heads appear to remove hold been produced within a relatively curt period, likely past times i or 2 artists working within a close-knit school. Indeed, according to Murray, ". . . it mightiness live argued that only i artist, working perhaps for only a twosome of years, made the bulk of the heads."
The stylistic congruity of these works would thus dominion out the possibility that the 15 heads were commissioned as funeral memorials for successive Ife kings. To the contrary, the likely average reign of 20 years which Willett suggests for the Ife kings (p. 130), or i of 13 years at nowadays considered to live to a greater extent than realistic, would stretch their execution over 2 or 3 hundred years (i.e.,
twenty, or thirteen, years times 15 heads). This fourth dimension span is far also long, since they exhibit remarkably few stylistic or formal elements of variance. Equally problematic is the fact that the heads are all inwards a somewhat similar status (apart from blows that some of them received) suggesting that, rather than having differential lengths together with places of burial, they were likely all buried for close the same length of time, nether the same or similar conditions.
Furthermore, if nosotros hold back at sculptural forms elsewhere inwards Africa, it is clear that artistic traditions exhibit real important stylistic changes over comparable periods of time. At the royal city-state of Benin, for example, Dark notes that in that location is an enormous stylistic difference inwards the bronze heads
made over the course of study of several centuries. Garrard has shown that brass "gold weights" from the kingdom of the Ashanti inwards Republic of Ghana during the same fourth dimension span exhibit as striking changes. Great differences tin also live seen, as Rosenwald points out, betwixt the early on together with belatedly commemorative figures of the Kuba kings, fifty-fifty though they were made over a much shorter period. Willett was aware of the problems inwards the several hundredyear flow of industry that his memorial theory necessitated. He suggested accordingly (p. 130) that Ife kings may remove hold been ritually killed after a curt reign of only 7 years. There is, however, no evidence for the ritual killing of kings inwards whatever of the accounts of Ife history, nor inwards the other Yoruba city-state histories. The only evidence that Willett cites as back upwards for his controversy is an business concern human relationship given past times Ulli Beier coming from the southern Yoruba metropolis of Ijebu, which refers to traditions close events assumed to remove hold taken spot inwards Ife.
Even if nosotros were to remove hold a seven-year reign for the kings of Ife, however, this would soundless dot a flow of industry of roughly 112 years, a span of fourth dimension soundless also long for these stylistically similar works. Willett also appears to remove hold been aware of this difficulty, for he suggests (p. 130) that the heads may remove hold portrayed non only kings but also palace retainers - i.e., those who would remove hold been killed to accompany the manlike someone monarch at the fourth dimension of his death. The possibility that whatever of these copper together with brass heads represented courtroom servants, however, is extremely slight, inwards sentiment non only of the scarcity of copper together with brass at Ife at this time, but also because, as Willett notes, each caput appears to remove hold been intended to have on a crown. More of late Rowland Abiodun has raised farther questions close Willett's memorial theory for these heads. Abiodun points out that ". . .if the 'effigy represents the dignitas of the business office itself,' it is unusual that nosotros remove hold non yet found a unmarried instance where the ako effigy has been made specifically for [a king] . . ." He goes on to banknote that
"..if [kings] are honored as seconds of the gods . ..
together with if 'it is unsafe to stare at his naked face' . . . and
if at his decease in that location is fifty-fifty greater secrecy together with mystery
surrounding his person, would it non live incongruous to
carve an ako or fifty-fifty to brand whatever image of him inwards the
characteristically naturalistic style together with parade the town
with it the way the known ako are treated?"
Murray together with Abiodun remove hold not, however, suggested whatever alternatives for the possible pregnant together with exercise of these heads. It is only such an alternate theory that the to a higher spot news of the Obalufon mask may at nowadays permit.
I suggest inwards this low-cal that these heads, similar the life-size copper mask, may remove hold been identified with Obalufon II together with with his later worship as a god. There is considerable evidence to back upwards this view. First, all the brass together with copper life-size heads from Ife were found inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound (Fig. 6),6 a component subdivision of the working capital missive of the alphabet that is said to live close the spot where Obalufon II himself was buried. According to Fabunmi's map (n.p.), this is also close the spot where the novel kings of Ife are crowned. It is also possible that these heads may remove hold originally been housed on an Obalufon shrine, on the analogy that at other Yoruba centers, brass crowns, masks, together with figures are oftentimes found on shrines identified with this deity.
The only other major shrines specifically associated with brass sculptures are those of the Ogboni together with Agemo societies. The placement of these heads on the Ife Obalufon shrine would also accommodate to the Yoruba tradition that identifies Obalufon as the patron deity of brass casting, together with attributes to Obalufon II the introduction of the casting arts. Furthermore, if the heads were intended, as Willett
suggests, to live seen with actual crowns, together with if, as stated above, these crowns were kept on the Obalufon shrine, it follows that the heads together with the crowns would remove hold been kept together.
The association of these heads with Obalufon also emerges from the likely circumstances of their belatedly burial inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound inwards the palace. When the works were brought into the palace for interment, which Willett suggests (pp. 27-28) likely took spot sometime before the early on nineteenth century, it seems likely that this was done with the intention of protecting them from farther attack. With this inwards mind, the spot selected for their burial undoubtedly would remove hold been chosen with considerable care. Assuming this to live the case, it would follow that the heads would live buried inwards a palace surface area closely associated with the patron deity inwards whose shrine they had
originally been found. Since the heads were buried close the assumed grave of Obalufon II, it seems likely that originally they had also been associated with this ruler.
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Cosmic References inwards Ancient Ife
Suzanne Preston Blier
THIS ESSAY CONSIDERS i of the most of import Yoruba cosmological referents, the computer programme of the working capital missive of the alphabet Ile-Ife together with its palace (fig 11.1), together with examines a number of artworks associated with this urban center, especially at its superlative around 1300 CE. The Yoruba cosmos has often been compared to a gourd or calabash cutting horizontally so as to shape a separate base of operations together with cover, with the upper one-half identified with the sky-linked creator god, Obatala, the lower one-half with the ground god together with novel dynasty founder, Odudua (see Lawal, this volume). The shape of the gourd sometimes is used inwards scholarly diagrams that seek to exhibit the Yoruba cosmos as a well-ordered layering of human together with supernatural actors (see fig. 12.6). In my view, however, this neatly delimited model reflects inwards component subdivision a Western taxonomic conception, since to the Yoruba, religious forces together with persona are continually moving, intersecting, cross-pollinating, challenging, together with energizing i some other (and humans) across a myriad of celestial together with earthly spheres. Human together with sacral worlds, inwards short, are conjoined here.
There also are noteworthy historical contradictions around the identity of this calabash-form as cosmological model, peculiarly inwards its references to Obatala together with Odudua. Both of these deity pantheons appear to live relatively belatedly inventions inwards Yoruba religious history, emerging most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s 2nd dynasty inwards close 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to remove hold been made, a flow closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, together with with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis computer programme inwards which the palace together with marketplace spot are located inwards the oculus surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This computer programme features 4 main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were i time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The computer programme of Ile-Ife, which may remove hold housed
some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology together with directional primacy.
SUN, MOON, THUNDER, AND LIGHTNING
There is compelling evidence supporting the importance of both the Sun together with Luna inwards early on Ife together with broader Yoruba thought. Celestial light, P. A. Talbot points out, is identified past times the Yoruba with the Sun (male), the Luna (female), together with the stars (their children), all traveling each twenty-four sixty minutes flow inwards enormous canoes beneath the ground together with across the sky. In ancient Ife contexts sure enough sculptural forms are identified with these heavenly bodies. The Sun is referenced here, inwards part, past times a tall, triangular menhir (fig. 11.2; consider also fig. 11.5), which seems to remove hold served as a calendrical device. In Ife in that location are beliefs (taboos) close the sun’s importance to the exercise together with display of sure enough ancient Ife
sculptural arts, inwards particular, the ancient terra cotta caput identified with the early on King Osangangan Obamakin (Obalufon I), which was non supposed to ever consider the sun.
Ife oral histories banknote that this sculpture was shielded past times an overturned pot to safeguard it from daylight. This practise also may remove hold political together with temporal connections to this manlike someone monarch based on his prominent associations with the initiatory of all dynasty at Ife, the era prior to Odudua’s arrival together with cultural enlightenment. Significantly, it was this same manlike someone monarch (now god) who is credited inwards Obalufon spot unit of measurement myths with bringing low-cal to earth, an human activity that complements the exercise of shining, reflective mica for the diadem on the royal Ife crown (are) that Ife’s Obalufon priest places on the caput of each newly crowned king.
The Luna finds notable reference here, too. Not only is the festival calendar a lunar one, but according to Euba, Ife rituals of divine kingship that shape component subdivision of the yearly. Oduduwa festival necessarily “take spot on a moonless nighttime because the existent Luna inwards the sky must non human face upwards the symbolic Luna of ‘Oduduwa,’ the latter, a apartment slab of rock referred to as orun Oduduwa, ‘Oduduwa’s heaven,’ that is carried past times the high priest circular the various spots inwards the town where sacrifices are made.” Another moon-linked stone, thought to live of quartz (or mica), was reportedly “stolen” inwards the early on component subdivision of the twentieth century past times a European visitor intent on discovering the properties of “electricity” presumed to live associated with it. This rock carries associations, Euba
suggests, with the ancient thunder together with lightning god Oramfe (Ora). Its name, osupa Ijio, “the Moonstone of Ijio,” also links it to Ife Chief Obajio (Oba Ijio), the caput priest of Olokun, the ancient god of large H2O bodies (the ocean), trade, together with beads. The unopen link betwixt lightning, thunder, rain, bodies of water, together with the annual bike of the seasons seems inwards this way to remove hold informed this unusual now-missing object.
(Fig11.2) Ita Ogun Esa “sun dial” menhir (dating ca. 1300 CE) located close the Obatala Temple, Ife.
The early on Ife god of thunder together with lightning Oramfe (Oranfe/Aramfe, Ora, the precursor of Sango) is identified at i time with pelting (storms), royal power, together with jurisprudence. E. B. Idowu identifies Oramfe additionally with command of the solar system. Euba non only describes Oramfe as Ife’s i time powerful “solar-thunder god,” but also characterizes this “high god” as Ife’s “most senior of the humanized spirits,” honored simultaneously as Onile Ina, “Owner of the House of Fire,” together with Ooni Ale, “Owner of the Land.” She also highlights Oramfe’s identity as “the Olodumare of the Ife” (since both are “worshipped inwards the same uncomplicated way”), noting that Oramfe’s Oriki praise names spot him, inwards turn, as the “supreme ase,” namely Orisa.
The latter creative force, she adds, is non only symbolized past times “whiteness together with personified as the sky god” but also evokes “the humanized ase emanating from the dark earth,” the latter also oftentimes linked to Odudua. There is some other cosmological aspect as well, for as Euba explains: “In the Ife creation myth it is Olodumare (sometimes said to live Ora) who sent downward these divinities to assist ‘him’ inwards the creation of the world together with of mankind.”
The god Oramfe has a political role at Ife, together with is said to convey to Ife kings together with others the powerfulness to attract together with halt rain, to command the seasons, together with to regulate the bike of the universe to a greater extent than generally. Royal powerfulness also is associated with Oramfe, consistent with this god’s affinity with protecting the kingdom together with its rulers. Indeed, as Emmanuel Eze suggests, the human activity of prostration before the manlike someone monarch reinforces this tie: “The practise of lying apartment when inwards a thunderstorm is regarded past times the early on Yorubas as an human activity of worship of Sango [and past times extension Oramfe] who becomes appeased together with consequently spares the life of the worshiper.”
calm that come upwards to Oramfe devotees who follow his laws, the society signals the potential blows that are meted out to social deviants, such as thieves, who go against Oramfe’s wishes. At the bring upwards of the man’s left shoulder is a branch of leaves, most likely akoko, a flora shape that figures prominently inwards Ife enthronement rites, perhaps underscoring the role of Oramfe inwards conveying dynastic power. Ife primary Obaluru, priest of Ife’s Oramfe temple, describes this thunder together with lightning deity inwards ways that inform the sculpture further:
"Fire comes from Oramfe’s mouth, so you lot cannot sit down close him or else you lot will
burn. He also has rock axes [edun àrà] that come upwards from his mouth, together with kills people
when lightning strikes."
Following i peculiarly active lightning tempest inwards Ife inwards 2004, I was told that powerful local babalawo (healers, diviners) would come upwards out to collect the fallen celts (thunderbolts) for later exercise inwards making rigid medicines, pointing to connections betwixt these celts together with an array of protective or empowering medicinal forms.
(Fig 11.4a together with 11.4b) Staff of Oranmiyan (including particular of nails) dating ca. 1300 ce , Ife
On the contrary side of this sculpture (see fig. 11.3b) is a large-eyed aeroplane with looping, snake-like
wings. When asked close the significance of birds with this wing attribute, Chief Obaluru noted “this aeroplane was sent to people past times Oramfe when he wanted to do favors for them.” The bird, he explained, carries Oramfe’s lightning together with thunder celts to earth, together with volition select both penalty together with favors from this god to humans. The exact species of this aeroplane tin live debated, but it may depict the owl resembling African pennant-winged nighttime jounce (Cosmetornis vexillarius). When inwards flight, its white flash of nether feathers is reminiscent of lightning. The birds, known to the Yoruba as ase, the phoneme se referring to a command or order, also evoke larger Yoruba notions of potency together with powerfulness (ase) linked to Oramfe, the thunder, lightning, together with omnipotent solar-linked god who safeguards society together with helps to save effective rule. The pennant-winged nightjar also carries sure enough sorcery associations here, actions that Oramfe was believed to counter, connecting this sculpture to both positive (kingship) together with negative (sorcery) ends.
CELESTIAL- LINKED STONE MONUMENTS
H5N1 grouping of menhirs, or tall standing stones, is amid the most interesting of ancient Ife artworks that send cosmological significance. These monuments were a major component subdivision of the Ife landscape of circa 1300 ce—and soundless are today. Sculpted from granite inwards the same flow as the famous Ife copper alloy castings together with terracottas, they were erected inwards various parts of the city, often inwards conjunction with temples, shrines, together with groves. Many send features that offering insight into ancient Ife beliefs close the cosmos.
One of the city’s most famous monuments is the unopen to 16 feet 10 inches tall (above ground) staff of Oranmiyan, located around a quarter mile south-southwest of the palace, together with identified with King Obalufon II’s main adversary (figs. 11.4a, 11.4b). The Oranmiyan staff is dedicated to the famous warrior together with military machine leader who is said to remove hold conquered Ife together with forced King Obalufon II from the throne, the latter eventually returning to powerfulness together with bringing peace to the together with so warring citizens. Before or after this event, Oranmiyan is credited with founding novel dynasties
at Republic of Benin together with Oyo. Oral tradition suggests that this tall granite staff represents the sword Oranmiyan used to savage Ife’s citizens, a weapon he purportedly thrust into the ground before leaving Ife for good. Most likely this monument was created together with positioned inwards Ife inwards the era next his divergence during Obalufon II’s 2nd reign, inwards conjunction with the truce he forged after Ife’s painful civil war. This was a flow when many of the famous early on Ife heroes appear to remove hold been commemorated with shrines together with associated sculptures.
This staff integrates on its surface a sculpted ram horn or ax motif (evoking ase, or vital power/force) together with a pattern of atomic number 26 nails. Although various interpretations of the unusual atomic number 26 pattern remove hold been given, most likely it depicts a multi-branched staff, a three-arm version of the Y-shaped
beaded staff carried past times the Ooni inwards the course of study of the annual Olojo ceremony, a context inwards which the richly costumed together with crowned manlike someone monarch is said to attract rain. As such the Oranmiyan monument also seems to symbolize the powerfulness of kings to command storms together with rain, a characteristic linked both to Oramfe (the ancient thunder god) together with to Sango (the Oyo-linked god identified with Oranmiyan).
Another of import ancient Ife rock menhir comprises a 7 pes 8 inch tall piece of occupation known as Ita Ogun Esa, a sculpture identified past times Leo Frobenius as a “sun dial” (fig. 11.5; consider also fig. 11.2). This menhir is located southeast of the palace on Itapa Street close the temple of Obatala. H5N1 tall, narrow, three-sided work, the menhir appears to remove hold had calendrical functions. As Frobenius explains, “When the shadow of this stela savage inwards sure enough directions together with reached a dot drawn on a circle around it, it was fourth dimension for sure enough sacred festivals.”18 H5N1 rock sundial of this type would remove hold been critical for determining non only festival times, but also other events. The identification of this
rock with the Obatala temple complex reinforces the larger celestial associations of Obatala with both the heavens together with related light.
An additional rock menhir was positioned inwards the now-destroyed Ijugbe temple on Famia Road inwards the city’s western Modakeke sector, a site dedicated to the Obatala-linked agricultural deity, Orisa Teko. This work, a long, sparse 6 pes 6 inch rectangle, was identified past times Willett as the temple’s monument to Ogun, consistent with the importance of atomic number 26 inwards agricultural (and other) tools. Orisa Teko is known inwards Ife today as an early on yam farmer (now the god of yams), the forerunner of the Yoruba agriculture god, Orisa Oko. Historically, the priest of the Ijugbe temple also is said to remove hold been inwards accuse of rain. This menhir, similar the Ita Ogun Esa monument discussed above, possibly
functioned as a sundial (calendar stone, gnomon), inwards this instance likely helping to determine the best fourth dimension for planting yams together with other agricultural produce. This menhir, similar the i identified with the Obatala temple, is thus linked inwards of import ways to the bike of time.
Yet some other menhir, a piece of occupation i time positioned inwards the Ore Grove (and at nowadays located inwards the National Museum, Ile Ife), stands close 5 feet 2 inches to a higher spot ground together with incorporates the unusual pattern of 4 holes cutting roughly equidistant from the other (and betwixt xi together with 16 inches apart) inwards such a way that they run downward each side of the four-sided column. Iron inserts were secured inwards 4 of the holes, only the bases of which remain. The piece of occupation is thought to remove hold had spiral-shaped inserts of atomic number 26 similar to those embedded inwards the Oranmiyan staff. Frank Willett notes that these holes were positioned consistent with the key directions, suggesting that the menhir is associated with cosmological order. An additional rock shape with a plausible cosmological reference was housed at the palace Ogun temple, Ogun Ladin, this piece of occupation integrating a pattern of 4 holes marking the corners of a square, at the oculus of which was a 5th stone, suggesting the 4 key points together with the Sun at the middle. In many ways this shape also suggests a schematic model of the metropolis itself, with its historic 4 main entries leading through the walls into the metropolis oculus where they run into at the palace together with nearby market.
IFE, H5N1 CARDINAL CITY
Ife is an unusual metropolis inwards many respects, non the to the lowest degree of which is the number of different plans that figure inwards its conceptualization. At its most basic, Ife is a central-plan urban center, with its (originally four?) main avenues at i fourth dimension piercing the metropolis walls close the key points together with joining at the palace together with marketplace spot that delimit the center, a computer programme similar to many other early on Yoruba walled cities. In addressing both the Ife metropolis computer programme together with the key directions, the local Yoruba concept of northward (traditional north, e.g., northwest) is employed, i that defines the directions vis-à-vis orientations several degrees off truthful north, likely as determined around the fourth dimension of the wintertime solstice when the Sun sets on the horizon inwards its most westerly position.
P. A. Talbot provides additional insight into Yoruba views of the cosmos together with how issues of shape together with directionality figure inwards them. He notes that the Yoruba spot the ground as foursquare together with that their names for the key directions reverberate this understanding: the E is known as ila orun (appearing of the sun), the due west as iwaw orun (the sinking of the sun), the northward as igun keta (third corner, or ariwa otun ila orun, the coming to the correct of the earth), together with the due south as igun kerin aiya (fourth corner of the world). Leo Frobenius provides a version of the Yoruba creation myth that speaks direct to this dynamic, noting that a key computer programme is identified with the earth’s creation, a
procedure said past times Idowu to remove hold taken 4 days. Frobenius also identifies each management with a specific god (deity complex): the E as Edju/Eshu, the due west as Sango, the northward as Ogun, together with the due south as Obatala (fig. 11.6). H5N1 complementary sculptural shape tin live seen inwards the double Janus (four-headed) figure documented past times Idowu26 at the Odudua temple. This unusual Ife sculptural
work, similar several others, references the 4 faces (directions) of the Ifa oracular divinity Orunmila (fig. 11.7). Other motifs on this sculpture correspond eternal knots, double-headed serpents, an Odu head, together with figures of the messenger god, Eshu. The unique shapes of Yoruba Ifa divination boards (rectilinear, circular, a one-half circle, or a combination thereof) underscore ideas of cosmological scheme as well. While rectilinear forms evoke fourth dimension together with infinite as delimited past times the key points, the circle suggests circular celestial bodies together with ideas of perpetuity. According to Idowu, when
a worshipper creates a circle of ashes or white chalk on the ground, inwards the oculus of which he places an offering, the circular shape is seen to reference eternity.
The key directions clearly constitute i of the key way through which the Ife space, planning, together with fourth dimension are delimited together with experienced, a factor reinforced through the array of ancient potsherd or rock together with potsherd pavements that grade this oculus together with its past. These are largely oriented unopen to northeast to southwest or to northwest to southeast, consistent with an overall key management primacy. In the historic Ife metropolis plan, the palace is at the oculus (see fig. 11.1). Each grouping of gods also has its spot consistent with their religious together with cosmological associations. In the department of the metropolis broadly to the E of the palace are the shrines of Ifa (Orunmila), the god of divination, located atop Ife’s highest loma (Oke Tase). Also E of the palace is the main Edju (Eshu, Esu) shrine, dedicated to the Ifa divination-linked messenger god. The temple of Olurogbo, the ancient Ife messenger betwixt humans together with gods is located inwards this sector as well, as is the Ife shrine to the Luna goddess. These Ife temples seem to part an association with heavenly communication, consistent with the positioning of the king’s residence (bedroom) on the eastern side of the palace.
West of the palace are temples linked especially to pelting together with storms, including non only that of Oramfe, the ancient Ife deity of thunder together with lightning (Ife’s precursor to Sango) together with Ogbon Oya
(Sango’s wife), but also the Ife god of agriculture, Orisa Teko. At this latter temple, also sometimes called Ijugbe, were observed rock seats, a large copper alloy frog pierced past times an arrow, together with a ram fashioned from quartz, the latter used for offerings during the annual March festival cycle. The military machine conqueror together with cultural hero, Oranmiyan, who is identified variously as the begetter or boy of Sango inwards Oyo (Yoruba) contexts, has his monument due west of the palace as well.
In the northern quadrant of the metropolis is the main Ogun temple, dedicated to the powerful god of war, iron, together with the advancement of civilization. Also found inwards Ife’s northern quadrant is the temple of Orisa Akire, the autochthonous Ife warrior god. Another temple, this i dedicated to King Obalufon II, founder of Ife’s 2nd dynasty together with the main king/deity credited with enlarging Ife’s route scheme together with establishing its metropolis plan, is sited inwards the city’s northern sector as well, non far from the western metropolis wall together with gate leading toward Ibadan. Both the Ife palace together with the Obalufon temple human face northward (northwest), the management of import to Ogun. In the southern quadrant of Ife is some other grouping of Ife sanctuaries. These are identified with Obatala (the sky god), Olokun (the sea god, also Olokun Walode), together with an array of royal burial sites or shrines (Wunmonije, Lafogido, together with Igbo Odi).
Each cluster of Ife gods thus is identified with a different quadrant of the city, consistent with its key together with broader cosmological associations: E (with life together with renewal: Ifa, Eshu), due west (with dark skies together with storms: the thunder together with agriculture gods: Oramfe, Orisa Teko), northward (with power, war, together with technology: Ogun), together with due south (with creation, fertility, together with the ocean: Obatala, Olokun). The importance of the Sun together with Luna within the metropolis landscape together with the key orientation of the 4 main avenues together with palace exhibit that infinite inwards Ile-Ife carried sustained cosmological significance.
Taken together these various sculptural, architectural, together with ritual forms dot to the high grade of early on together with ongoing Ife involvement inwards cosmology, issues referenced non only inwards the primacy of cosmological attributes (the sun, the moon, lightning) but also inwards an array of of import calendrical features (stone menhirs functioning as fourth dimension markers), as good as roads, pavements, palaces, together with temples linked to the key directions.
source:http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/blier/files/blier_cosmic_references_in_ancient_ife._african_cosmology_ed._kreamer_2012.pdf
Olojo Festival
The Olojo Festival is a festival inwards Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. It is the celebration of the remembrance of “Ogun” the god of Iron, who is believed to live the initiatory of all boy of Oduduwa, progenitor of the Yoruba people.
On this day, the Ooni (king of Ife) appears after several days of seclusion, communing with the ancestors together with praying for his people. This ritual is to brand him pure together with ensure the efficacy of his prayers. Before the Ooni emerges, women from his maternal together with paternal families sweep the Palace, symbolically ridding the Palace of evil.
The Ooni later appears inwards public with the Are crown (King’s Crown), which is believed to live the original crown used past times Oduduwa to Pb a procession of traditional Chiefs together with Priests to perform at the Shrine of Ogun. The next stage of the ceremony is to Pb the crowd to Okemogun’s shrine. Here he performs duties including the renewal of oath, divination for the Ooni at the pes of Oketage loma past times Araba (Chief Priest), as good as visiting places of historical importance.
At the shrine, the traditional Chiefs with the swords of business office marked with chalk together with cam wood, appear inwards ceremonial attire together with trip the low-cal fantastic toe to rhythms from Bembe, a traditional drum. The style of drumming together with singing for each Chief is different. Only the Ooni tin trip the low-cal fantastic toe to the drum called Osirigi.
Olojo has remained pop inwards Ile-Ife due to its myth together with history. It connotes the twenty-four sixty minutes flow inwards the twelvemonth specially blessed past times Olodumare (the creator of the Universe). Olojo tin also live literally translated as the “Owner for the day”. Prayers are offered for peace together with tranquility inwards Yoruba together with Nigeria. All historic flow groups participate together with it’s significance is inwards the unification of the Yorubas.
Tradition holds that Ile-Ife is the cradle of the Yorubas, the metropolis of survivors, spiritual spot of the Yorubas, together with Blue Planet of the ancients
Olojo festival at Ife
Photo source:http://orishada.com/wordpress/?p=267
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