Info For Y'all Amhara People: Ethiopia`S Nigh Culturally Dominant In Addition To Politically Powerful People Of Semitic Ancestry
The Amhara people are mostly agriculturist, i of the most culturally dominant in addition to a powerful politically connected equally good equally Afro-Asiatic speaking ethnic grouping of ancient semitic origins inhabiting the northern in addition to cardinal highlands of Ethiopia, especially the Amhara Region. The Amhara State shares mutual borders with the province of Tigray inwards the north, Afar inwards the east, Oromiya inwards the south, Benishangul/Gumuz inwards the due south west, in addition to the Republic of Sudan inwards the west.
The Amhara people are closely related with the Gurage, in addition to the Tigray-Tigrinya people. The Amhara combined with the Gurage, in addition to the Tigray-Tigrinya people are called the Habesha ( (Ge'ez: ሐበሻ Ḥabaśā, Amharic (H)ābešā, Tigrinya: ? Ḥābešā; Arabic: الحبشة al-Ḥabašah) people or Abyssinians.
Amhara girls
The State of Amhara covers an estimated expanse of 170,752 foursquare kilometres in addition to consists of 10 administrative zones, i special zone, 105 woredas, in addition to 78 urban centres. The working capital alphabetic character urban nub of the State of Amhara is Bahir-Dar. According to recent National Population Census, the Amhara constitute well-nigh 23 i grand one thousand people, making upwards to comprising 30.1% of the country's population. Majority of the Amhara population tin last found specifically inwards the provinces of Begender, Gojjam, Wallo, some parts of Shoa in addition to the mountainous areas of Amhara state.
Amhara women
The Amhara who are the 2nd largest ethnolinguistic grouping after the Oromo people are descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled with indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah in addition to delineate their lineage all the way to King Solomon in addition to the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I. They carried that same ancestral line all the way to 1974 with Emperor Haile Selassie. Also, well-nigh 50 % of the Amhara are portion of what is known equally the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which is an ancient Christian church building founded around the 4th century. The Amhara do have got their rituals in addition to ceremonies, including the annual Coptic in addition to national holidays in addition to the monthly saints' days. In addition, daily in addition to monthly rites celebrate spirits whose identity lies exterior the teachings of the Ethiopian Church.
The Amhara are ardent creature husbandry people, well-nigh 40% of the livestock population inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are found inwards their territory. The huge livestock potential of this part gives ample chance for meat in addition to milk production, nutrient processing equally good equally leather in addition to wool production. The Sate of Amhara also has mineral resources such equally coal, shell, limestone, lignite, gypsum, gemstone, silica, sulfur in addition to bentonite. Hot springs in addition to mineral H2O are also found inwards the region.
Most importantly the Amhara province has swell tourism in addition to heritage industry. The twelfth century Rock-Hewn churches of Lalibela, in addition to the palaces inwards Gondar are some of the world known heritages. The traditional mural paintings in addition to manus craft, the preserved corpse of the royalty found inwards the ancient monasteries inwards Lake Tana, equally good equally the Semien mountains national park, which shelters the endemic Walia ibex are spectacular tourist attractions, Three tourist attractions found inwards the part are registered inwards the UNESCO listing of world heritages. Besides these known heritages, the Blue Nile Falls, the caves in addition to unique stones inwards northern Showa, in addition to the Merto Le Mariam church building are special tourist attractions.
Origin of the Name Amhara
The etymology of the call Amhara has different sources. It is said that the ethnolinguistic call (the linguistic communication in addition to its speakers) Amhara comes from the medieval province of Amhara, located around Lake Tana at the headwaters of the Blue Nile in addition to including a slightly larger expanse than Ethiopia's nowadays Amhara Region.
Other people delineate it to amari ("pleasing; beautiful; gracious") or mehare ("gracious"). The Ethiopian historian Getachew Mekonnen Hasen traces it to an ethnic call related to the Himyarites of ancient Yemen. Still others say that it derives from Ge'ez ዓም (ʿam, "people") in addition to ሓራ (h.ara, "free" or "soldier"), although this has been dismissed yesteryear scholars such equally Donald Levine equally a folk etymology.
Beautiful Amhara children from Ethiopia
Geography in addition to Climate
The State of Amhara is topographically divided into 2 main parts, namely the highlands in addition to lowlands. The highlands are higher upwards 1500 meters higher upwards bounding main flat in addition to comprise the largest portion of the northern in addition to eastern parts of the region. The highlands are also characterized yesteryear chains of mountains in addition to plateaus. Ras Dejen (4620 m), the highest peak inwards the country, Guna (4236 m), Choke (4184m) in addition to Abune – Yousef (4190m) are with the mount peaks that are located inwards the highland parts of the region.
The lowland portion covers mainly the western in addition to eastern parts with an height betwixt 500-1500 meters higher upwards bounding main level. Areas beyond 2,300 meters higher upwards bounding main flat autumn within the "Dega" climatic Zone, in addition to areas betwixt the 1,500-2,300 meter higher upwards bounding main flat contour autumn within the "Woina Dega" climatic zone; in addition to areas below 1,500 contour autumn within the "Kolla" or hot climatic zones. The Dega, Woina Dega in addition to Kolla parts of the part constitute 25%, 44% in addition to 31% of the total expanse of the region, respectively.
The annual hateful temperature for most parts of the part lies betwixt 15°C-21°C. The State receives the highest pct (80%) of the total rainfall inwards the country. The highest rainfall occurs during the summertime season, which starts inwards mid June in addition to ends inwards early September.
The State of Amhara is divided mainly yesteryear 3 river basins, namely the Abbay, Tekezze in addition to Awash drainage basins. The Blue Nile (Abbay) river is the largest of all roofing about 172,254 Km2. Its total length to its junction with the white Nile inwards Khartoum is 1,450 Km, of which 800 km is within Ethiopia. The drainage-basin of the Tekeze river is well-nigh 88,800 km2. In addition, Anghereb, Millie, Kessem in addition to Jema are with the major national rivers, which are found inwards this region.
Tana, the largest lake inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is located at centre of the region. It covers an expanse of 3,6000 km2. Besides, other crater lakes similar Zengeni, Gudena Yetilba, Ardibo (75km2) in addition to Logia (35 km2) are little lakes that are found inwards the region.
The rivers in addition to lakes of the part have got immense potential for hydroelectric powerfulness generation, irrigation in addition to fishery development.
Blue Nile
Walia ibex, Semien fox, Gelada-baboon, Grey Duiker, Klipspringer, Hyenas in addition to Corocodile are with the twenty-one species (three endemic) that are found inwards the region, especially at the Semien mount national park. Wild fowls, Francolins, Pelicans, Cranes, Ibises, in addition to Stocks are with the birds that are found inwards the region.
Amhara plateau
Myths (Creation):
It is said that Eve had xxx children, in addition to i solar daytime God asked Eve to demo Him her children. Eve became suspicious in addition to apprehensive in addition to hid xv of them from the sight of God. God knew her human activity of disobedience in addition to declared the xv children she showed God equally His chosen children in addition to cursed the xv she hid, declaring that they go henceforth into the world equally devils in addition to wretched creatures of the earth. Now some of the children complained in addition to begged God’s mercy. God heard them and, existence merciful, made some of them foxes, jackals, rabbits, etc., so that they powerfulness be equally Earth’s creatures inwards a dignified manner. Some of the hidden children he left human, but sent them away with the curse of existence agents of the devil. These human counterparts of the devil are the ancestors of the buda people. There occurs a pleat inwards fourth dimension in addition to the story takes upwards its theme i time again when Christ was baptized at historic catamenia thirty.
Language
Amhara people speak Aramaic language (/æmˈhærɪk/ or /ɑːmˈhɑrɪk/; Amharic: አማርኛ Amarəñña, IPA: [ämärɨɲɲä]) which is a Semitic language that belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic linguistic communication phylum. It is the second-most spoken Semitic linguistic communication inwards the world, after Arabic, in addition to the official working linguistic communication of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Thus, it has official status in addition to is used nationwide. Amharic is also the official or working linguistic communication of several of the states within the federal system. It has been the working linguistic communication of government, the military, in addition to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church throughout medieval in addition to modern times. Outside Ethiopia, Amharic is the linguistic communication of some 2.7 i grand one thousand emigrants. It is written (left-to-right) using Amharic Fidel, ፊደል, which grew out of the Ge'ez abugida—called, inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages, ፊደል fidel ("alphabet", "letter", or "character") in addition to አቡጊዳ abugida (from the foremost 4 Ethiopic letters, which gave ascent to the modern linguistic term abugida).
There is no agreed way of transliterating Amharic into Roman characters. The Amharic examples inwards the sections below utilisation i scheme that is common, though non universal, with linguists specializing inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages.
Writing system
The Amharic script is an abugida, in addition to the graphs of the Amharic writing scheme are called fidel. Each graphic symbol represents a consonant+vowel sequence, but the basic shape of each graphic symbol is determined yesteryear the consonant, which is modified for the vowel. Some consonant phonemes are written yesteryear to a greater extent than than i serial of characters: /ʔ/, /s/, /sʼ/, in addition to /h/ (the finally i has 4 distinct alphabetic character forms). This is because these fidel originally represented distinct sounds, but phonological changes merged them. The citation shape for each serial is the consonant+ä form, i.e. the foremost column of the fidel. H5N1 font that supports Ethiopic, such equally GF Zemen Unicode, is needed to view fidel on typical modern estimator systems.
Alphabet
Chart of Amharic fidels
Gemination[edit]
As inwards most other Ethiopian Semitic languages, gemination is contrastive inwards Amharic. That is, consonant length tin distinguish words from i another; for example, alä 'he said', allä 'there is'; yǝmätall 'he hits', yǝmmättall 'he is hit'. Gemination is non indicated inwards Amharic orthography, but Amharic readers typically do non uncovering this to last a problem. This belongings of the writing scheme is analogous to the vowels of Standard Arabic in addition to Hebrew or the tones of many Bantu languages, which are non ordinarily indicated inwards writing. The noted Ethiopian novelist Haddis Alemayehu, who was an advocate of Amharic orthography reform, indicated gemination inwards his novel Fǝqǝr Əskä Mäqabǝr yesteryear placing a dot higher upwards the characters whose consonants were geminated, but this do is rare.
Punctuation
Punctuation includes:
፠ department mark
፡ give-and-take separator
። total halt (period)
፣ comma
፤ semicolon
፥ colon
፦ Preface colon (introduces speech communication from a descriptive prefix)
፧ enquiry mark
፨ paragraph separator
Grammar
Simple Amharic sentences
One may build elementary Amharic sentences yesteryear using a dependent in addition to a predicate. Here are a few elementary sentences:
ʾItyop̣p̣ya ʾAfriqa wəsṭ nat
(lit., Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Africa within is)
'Ethiopia is inwards Africa.'
Ləǧu täññətʷall.
(lit., man child is.asleep)
'The man child is asleep.'
Ayyäru däss yəlall
(lit., conditions skillful is)
'The conditions is good.'
Əssu wädä kätäma mäṭṭa.
(lit., he to urban nub came)
'He came to the city.'
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
In most languages, at that topographic point is a little issue of basic distinctions of person, number, in addition to often gender that play a piece of work within the grammer of the language. We view these distinctions within the basic set of independent personal pronouns, for example, English linguistic communication I, Amharic እኔ ǝne; English linguistic communication she, Amharic እሷ ǝsswa. In Amharic, equally inwards other Semitic languages, the same distinctions appear inwards 3 other places within the grammer of the languages.
Subject–verb agreement
All Amharic verbs concord with their subjects; that is, the person, number, in addition to (second- in addition to third-person singular) gender of the dependent of the verb are marked yesteryear suffixes or prefixes on the verb. Because the affixes that signal dependent understanding vary greatly with the particular verb tense/aspect/mood, they are ordinarily non considered to last pronouns in addition to are discussed elsewhere inwards this article nether verb conjugation.
Object pronoun suffixes
Amharic verbs often have got additional morphology that indicates the person, number, in addition to (second- in addition to third-person singular) gender of the object of the verb.
አልማዝን አየኋት
almazǝn ayyähʷ-at
Almaz-ACC I-saw-her
'I saw Almaz'
While morphemes such equally -at inwards this instance are sometimes described equally signaling object agreement, analogous to dependent agreement, they are to a greater extent than often thought of equally object pronoun suffixes because, dissimilar the markers of dependent agreement, they do non vary significantly with the tense/aspect/mood of the verb. For arguments of the verb other than the dependent or the object, at that topographic point are 2 separate sets of related suffixes, i with a benefactive pregnant (to, for), the other with an adversative or locative pregnant (against', to the detriment of, on', at).
ለአልማዝ በሩን ከፈትኩላት
läʾalmaz bärrun käffätku-llat
for-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-opened-for-her
'I opened the door for Almaz'
በአልማዝ በሩን ዘጋሁባት
bäʾalmaz bärrun zäggahu-bbat
on-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-closed-on-her
'I closed the door on Almaz (to her detriment)'
Morphemes such equally -llat in addition to -bbat inwards these examples volition last referred to inwards this article equally prepositional object pronoun suffixes because they correspond to prepositional phrases such equally for her in addition to on her, to distinguish them from the direct object pronoun suffixes such equally -at 'her'.
Possessive suffixes
Amharic has a farther set of morphemes that are suffixed to nouns, signalling possession: ቤት bet 'house', ቤቴ bete, my house, ቤቷ; betwa, her house.
In each of these 4 aspects of the grammar, independent pronouns, subject–verb agreement, object pronoun suffixes, in addition to possessive suffixes, Amharic distinguishes 8 combinations of person, number, in addition to gender. For foremost person, at that topographic point is a two-way distinction betwixt singular (I) in addition to plural (we), whereas for 2nd in addition to 3rd persons, at that topographic point is a distinction betwixt singular in addition to plural in addition to within the singular a farther distinction betwixt masculine in addition to feminine (you m. sg., you lot f. sg., you lot pl., he, she, they).
Amharic is a pro-drop language. That is, neutral sentences inwards which no chemical ingredient is emphasized ordinarily do non have got independent pronouns: ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', ጋበዝኳት gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'. The Amharic words that interpret he, I, in addition to her do non appear inwards these sentences equally independent words. However, inwards such cases, the person, number, in addition to (second- or third-person singular) gender of the dependent in addition to object are marked on the verb. When the dependent or object inwards such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: እሱ ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ǝssu ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', እኔ ጋበዝኳት ǝne gabbäzkwat 'I invited her', እሷን ጋበዝኳት ǝsswan gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'.
The tabular array below shows alternatives for many of the forms. The alternative depends on what precedes the shape inwards question, usually whether this is a vowel or a consonant, for example, for the 1st mortal singular possessive suffix, አገሬ agär-e 'my country', ገላዬ gäla-ye 'my body'.
Amharic Personal Pronouns
Within second- in addition to third-person singular, at that topographic point are 2 additional "polite" independent pronouns, for reference to people that the speaker wishes to demo honour towards. This usage is an instance of the so-called T-V distinction that is made inwards many languages. The polite pronouns inwards Amharic are እርስዎ ǝrswo 'you (sg. polite)'. in addition to እሳቸው ǝssaččäw 's/he (polite)'. Although these forms are singular semantically—they refer to i person—they correspond to third-person plural elsewhere inwards the grammar, equally is mutual inwards other T-V systems. For the possessive pronouns, however, the polite 2nd mortal has the special suffix -wo 'your sg. pol.'
For possessive pronouns (mine, yours, etc.), Amharic adds the independent pronouns to the preposition yä- 'of': የኔ yäne 'mine', ያንተ yantä 'yours m. sg.', ያንቺ yanči 'yours f. sg.', የሷ yässwa 'hers', etc.
Reflexive pronouns
For reflexive pronouns ('myself', 'yourself', etc.), Amharic adds the possessive suffixes to the substantive ራስ ras 'head': ራሴ rase 'myself', ራሷ raswa 'herself', etc.
Demonstrative pronouns
Like English, Amharic makes a two-way distinction betwixt close ('this, these') in addition to far ('that, those') demonstrative expressions (pronouns, adjectives, adverbs). Besides number, equally inwards English, Amharic also distinguishes masculine in addition to feminine gender inwards the singular.
Amharic Demonstrative Pronouns
There are also separate demonstratives for formal reference, comparable to the formal personal pronouns: እኚህ ǝññih 'this, these (formal)' in addition to እኒያ ǝnniya 'that, those (formal)'.
The singular pronouns have got combining forms starting fourth dimension with zz instead of y when they follow a preposition: ስለዚህ sǝläzzih 'because of this; therefore', እንደዚያ ǝndäzziya 'like that'. Note that the plural demonstratives, similar the 2nd in addition to 3rd mortal plural personal pronouns, are formed yesteryear adding the plural prefix እነ ǝnnä- to the singular masculine forms.
Nouns
Amharic nouns tin last primary or derived. H5N1 substantive similar əgər 'foot, leg' is primary, in addition to a substantive similar əgr-äñña 'pedestrian' is a derived noun.
Gender
Amharic nouns tin have got a masculine or feminine gender. There are several ways to limited gender. An instance is the old suffix -t for femininity. This suffix is no longer productive in addition to is limited to for certain patterns in addition to some isolated nouns. Nouns in addition to adjectives ending inwards -awi usually pick out the suffix -t to shape the feminine form, e.g. ityop̣p̣ya-(a)wi 'Ethiopian (m.)' vs. ityop̣p̣ya-wi-t 'Ethiopian (f.)'; sämay-awi 'heavenly (m.)' vs. sämay-awi-t 'heavenly (f.)'. This suffix also occurs inwards nouns in addition to describing word based on the pattern qət(t)ul, e.g. nəgus 'king' vs. nəgəs-t 'queen' in addition to qəddus 'holy (m.)' vs. qəddəs-t 'holy (f.)'.
Some nouns in addition to adjectives pick out a feminine marking -it: ləǧ 'child, boy' vs. ləǧ-it 'girl'; bäg 'sheep, ram' vs. bäg-it 'ewe'; šəmagəlle 'senior, elderberry (m.)' vs. šəmagəll-it 'old woman'; t'ot'a 'monkey' vs. t'ot'-it 'monkey (f.)'. Some nouns have got this feminine marking without having a masculine opposite, e.g. šärär-it 'spider', azur-it 'whirlpool, eddy'. There are, however, also nouns having this -it suffix that are treated equally masculine: säraw-it 'army', nägar-it 'big drum'.
The feminine gender is non only used to betoken biological gender, but may also last used to limited smallness, e.g. bet-it-u 'the footling house' (lit. house-FEM-DEF). The feminine marking tin also serve to limited tenderness or sympathy.
Specifiers
Amharic has special words that tin last used to betoken the gender of people in addition to animals. For people, wänd is used for masculinity in addition to set for femininity, e.g. wänd ləǧ 'boy', set ləǧ 'girl'; wänd hakim 'physician, physician (m.)', set hakim 'physician, physician (f.)'. For animals, the words täbat, awra, or wänd (less usual) tin last used to betoken masculine gender, in addition to anəst or set to betoken feminine gender. Examples: täbat t'əǧa 'calf (m.)'; awra doro 'cock (rooster)'; set doro 'hen'.
The plural suffix -očč is used to limited plurality of nouns. Some morphophonological alternations occur depending on the finally consonant or vowel. For nouns ending inwards a consonant, evidently -očč is used: bet 'house' becomes bet-očč 'houses'. For nouns ending inwards a dorsum vowel (-a, -o, -u), the suffix takes the shape -ʷočč, e.g. wəšša 'dog', wəšša-ʷočč 'dogs'; käbäro 'drum', käbäro-ʷočč 'drums'. Nouns that halt inwards a forepart vowel pluralize using -ʷočč or -yočč, e.g. ṣähafi 'scholar', ṣähafi-ʷočč or ṣähafi-yočč 'scholars'. Another possibility for nouns ending inwards a vowel is to delete the vowel in addition to utilisation evidently očč, equally inwards wəšš-očč 'dogs'.
Besides using the normal external plural (-očč), nouns in addition to adjectives tin last pluralized yesteryear way of reduplicating i of the radicals. For example, wäyzäro 'lady' tin pick out the normal plural, yielding wäyzär-očč, but wäyzazər 'ladies' is also found (Leslau 1995:173).
Some kinship-terms have got 2 plural forms with a slightly different meaning. For example, wändəmm 'brother' tin last pluralized equally wändəmm-očč 'brothers' but also equally wändəmmam-ač 'brothers of each other'. Likewise, əhət 'sister' tin last pluralized equally əhət-očč ('sisters'), but also equally ətəmm-am-ač 'sisters of each other'.
In chemical compound words, the plural marking is suffixed to the 2nd noun: betä krəstiyan 'church' (lit. business solid of Christian) becomes betä krəstiyan-očč 'churches'.
Archaic forms
Amsalu Aklilu has pointed out that Amharic has inherited a large issue of old plural forms straight from Classical Ethiopic (Ge'ez) (Leslau 1995:172). There are basically 2 archaic pluralizing strategies, called external in addition to internal plural. The external plural consists of adding the suffix -an (usually masculine) or -at (usually feminine) to the singular form. The internal plural employs vowel character or apophony to pluralize words, similar to English linguistic communication human being vs. men in addition to goose vs. geese. Sometimes combinations of the 2 systems are found. The archaic plural forms are sometimes used to shape novel plurals, but this is only considered grammatical inwards to a greater extent than established cases.
Examples of the external plural: mämhər 'teacher', mämhər-an; t'äbib 'wise person', t'äbib-an; kahən 'priest', kahən-at; qal 'word', qal-at.
Examples of the internal plural: dəngəl 'virgin', dänagəl; hagär 'land', ahəgur.
Examples of combined systems: nəgus 'king', nägäs-t; kokäb 'star', käwakəb-t; mäs'əhaf 'book', mäs'ahəf-t.
Definiteness
If a substantive is definite or specified, this is expressed yesteryear a suffix, the article, which is -u or -w for masculine singular nouns in addition to -wa, -itwa or -ätwa for feminine singular nouns. For example:
In singular forms, this article distinguishes betwixt the manful mortal in addition to woman mortal gender; inwards plural forms this distinction is absent, in addition to all definites are marked with -u, e.g. bet-očč-u 'houses', gäräd-očč-u 'maids'. As inwards the plural, morphophonological alternations occur depending on the finally consonant or vowel.
Accusative
Amharic has an accusative marker, -(ə)n. Its utilisation is related to the definiteness of the object, thus Amharic shows differential object marking. In general, if the object is definite, possessed, or a proper noun, the accusative must last used (Leslau 1995: pp. 181 ff.).
There has non been much published well-nigh Amharic dialect differences. All dialects are mutually intelligible, but for certain little variations are noted.
Mittwoch described a shape of Amharic spoken yesteryear the descendants of Weyto linguistic communication speakers, but it was probable non a dialect of Amharic so much equally the outcome of incomplete linguistic communication learning equally the community shifted languages from Weyto to Amharic.
Literature
There is a growing torso of literature inwards Amharic inwards many genres. This literature includes regime proclamations in addition to records, educational books, religious material, novels, poetry, saying collections, dictionaries (monolingual in addition to bilingual), technical manuals, medical topics, etc. The Holy Bible was foremost translated into Amharic yesteryear Abu Rumi inwards the early 19th century, but other translations of the Bible into Amharic have got been done since. The most famous Amharic novel is Fiqir Iske Meqabir (transliterated diverse ways) yesteryear Haddis Alemayehu (1909–2003), translated into English linguistic communication yesteryear Sisay Ayenew with the championship Love unto Crypt, published inwards 2005 (ISBN 978-1-4184-9182-6).
Rastafari movement
The etymology of the give-and-take Rastafari comes from Amharic. Ras Täfäri was the pre-regnal championship of Haile Selassie I, composed of the Amharic words Ras (literally "Head", an Ethiopian championship equivalent to duke), in addition to Haile Selassie's pre-regnal name, Tafari.
Many Rastafarians larn Amharic equally a 2nd language, equally they consider it to last a sacred language. After Haile Selassie’s 1966 see to Jamaica, written report circles inwards Amharic were organized inwards Jamaica equally portion of the ongoing exploration of Pan-African identity in addition to culture. Various reggae artists inwards the 1970s, including Ras Michael, Lincoln Thompson in addition to Misty-in-Roots, have got sung inwards Amharic, thus bringing the linguistic communication to a wider audience. The Abyssinians have got also used Amharic most notably inwards the vocal Satta Massagana. The championship was believed to hateful "Give thanks" nonetheless this phrase is incorrect. Säţţä way "he gave" in addition to the give-and-take amässägänä for "thanks" or "praise" way "he thanked" or "he praised". The right way to say "give thanks" inwards Amharic is i word, misgana. The give-and-take "satta" has go a mutual aspect inwards Rastafari vocabulary pregnant "to sit down downwards in addition to partake".
History
Amhara descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled with indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah in addition to delineate their lineage all the way to King Solomon in addition to the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I.
There is a tape of hunting expeditions yesteryear the Ptolemean rulers of Arab Republic of Egypt inwards Ethiopia.
Ptolemy III (245-222 b.c.) placed at the port of Adulis (near present-day Mesewa) a Greek inscription recording that he captured elephants, in addition to an inscribed block of stones with magical hieroglyphs. At the same port well-nigh a.d. 60, a Greek merchant named Periplus recorded the importation of atomic issue 26 in addition to the production of spears for hunting elephants, in addition to inwards a.d. 350 Aeizana, manful mortal monarch of Aksum, defeated the Nubians in addition to carried off atomic issue 26 in addition to bronze from Meroë.
The Abyssinian tradition of the Solomonic dynasty, equally told inwards the Ge'ez-language volume Kebra Nagast (Honor of the Kings) refers to the dominion of Menilek I, well-nigh 975-950 b.c. It relates that he was the boy of Makeda, conceived from King Solomon during her see to Jerusalem. Interrupted inwards a.d. 927 yesteryear sovereigns of a Zagwe line, the Solomonic line was restored inwards 1260 in addition to claimed continuity until Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed inwards 1974. Abyssinian churches are soundless built on the regulation of Solomon's temple of Jerusalem, with a Holy of Holies department inwards the interior. Christianity came to Aksum inwards the 4th century a.d., when Greek-speaking Syrians converted the purplish family. This strain of Christianity retained a issue of Old Testament rules, some of which are observed to this day: the consumption of pork is forbidden; circumcision of boys takes identify well-nigh a calendar week after birth; upper-level priests consider Sat a solar daytime of rest, 2nd only to Sunday; weddings preferably pick out identify on Sunday, so that the presumed deflowering, after nightfall, is considered to have got taken identify on the eve of Monday. Ecclesiastic dominion over Abyssinia was administered early yesteryear the archbishop of Alexandria, detached only after World War II. At the Council of Chalcedon inwards a.d. 451, the theological Monophysites of Alexandria, including the Abyssinians, had broken away from the European church; hence the designation "Coptic."
The spread of Islam to regions surrounding it produced relative isolation inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from the 7th to the sixteenth centuries. During this period, the Solomonic dynasty was restored inwards 1260 inwards the province of Shewa yesteryear King Yekuno Amlak, who extended his realm from Abyssinia to some Cuchitic-speaking lands due south in addition to east. Amharic developed out of this linguistic blend. From fourth dimension to time, Europeans heard rumors of a Prester John, a Christian manful mortal monarch on the other side of the Muslim world. Using a vast issue of serfs on feudal church building territories, Abuna (archbishop) Tekle Haymanot built churches in addition to monasteries, often on easily defensible hilltops, such equally Debra Líbanos monastery inwards Shewa, which is soundless the most of import inwards Ethiopia.
With the Muslim conquest of somali terra firma inwards 1430, the band around Abyssinia was complete, in addition to lately Islamicized Oromo (Galla) seminomadic tribes from the due south invaded through the Rift Valley, burning churches in addition to monasteries. Some manuscripts in addition to church building paintings had to last hidden on islands on Lake Tana. When a 2nd moving ridge of invaders came, equipped with Turkish firearms, the Shewan manful mortal monarch Lebna Dengel sent a immature Armenian to Portugal to solicit aid. Before it could arrive, the Oromo leader Mohammed Grañ ("the lefthanded") attacked with the assistance of Arabs from Yemen, Somalis, in addition to Danakils in addition to proceeded equally far due north equally Aksum, which he razed, killing the manful mortal monarch inwards battle inwards 1540. His children in addition to the clergy took refuge on in addition to due north of Lake Tana. One twelvemonth later, Som Christofo Da Gama landed at Mesewa with 450 Portuguese musketeers; the slain king's son, Galaudeos (Claudius), fought on until he died inwards battle. The tide turned, however, in addition to inwards 1543 Mohammed Grañ roughshod inwards battle.
Shewa nevertheless remained settled yesteryear Oromo, who learned the agriculture of the region. The purplish household unit of measurement had only a tent urban nub inwards what became the town of Gonder. There the Portuguese built bridges in addition to castles, in addition to Jesuits began to convert the purplish household unit of measurement to Roman Christianity. King Za Dengel was the foremost purplish convert, but the Monophysite clergy organized a rebellion that led to his removal. His successor, King Susneos, had also been converted but was careful non to urge his people to convert; shortly earlier his expiry inwards 1632, he proclaimed religious freedom for all his subjects.
Amhara people
The novel king, Fasilidas (1632-1667), expelled the Portuguese in addition to restored the privileges of the Monophysite clergy. He—and afterward his boy in addition to grandson—employed workmen trained yesteryear the Portuguese to build the castles that stand upwards to this day. Special walled paths shielded the purplish household unit of measurement from mutual sight, but the king, spell sitting nether a fig tree, judged cases brought earlier him. H5N1 stone-lined H2O puddle was constructed nether his balcony, in addition to a mausoleum entombed his favorite horse. All these structures soundless exist. But the skills of stonemasonry afterward roughshod into disuse; warfare required mobility, which necessitated the formation of armed services tent cities. Portuguese viticulture was also lost (though the call of the middle elevation remains "Woyna Dega"), in addition to the clergy had to import raisins to make sacramental wine.
Gonder had been abandoned yesteryear the Solomonic line when a usurping commoner chieftain, Kassa, chose it equally the location to have got himself crowned King Theodore inwards 1855. He defeated the manful mortal monarch of Shewa in addition to held the dynastic heir, the man child Menilek II, hostage at his court. Theodore realized the urgency of uniting the many ethnic groups of the province into a nation, to forbid Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from losing its independence to European colonial powers. Thinking that all Europeans knew how to manufacture cannons, Theodore invited unusual technicians and, at first, fifty-fifty welcomed unusual missionaries. But when the latter proved unable to cast cannons for him in addition to fifty-fifty criticized his often violent behavior, he jailed in addition to chained British missionaries. This led to the Lord Napier expedition, which was welcomed in addition to assisted yesteryear the population of Tigray Province. When the fort of Magdalla fell, Theodore committed suicide. H5N1 conservative Tigray chief, Yohannes, was crowned at Aksum.
In 1889 the Muslim mahdi took reward of the disarray inwards Ethiopia; he razed Gonder in addition to devastated the subprovince of Dembeya, causing a severe in addition to prolonged famine. Meanwhile, the Shewan dynastic heir, Menilek II, had grown to manhood in addition to realized that Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia could no longer isolate itself if it were to retain independence. He proceeded, with patient persistence, to unify the country. As an Amhara from Shewa, he understood his Oromo neighbors in addition to won their loyalty with terra firma grants in addition to armed services alliances. He negotiated a settlement with the Tigray. He equipped his forces with firearms from whatever source, some fifty-fifty from the Italians (in telephone commutation for granting them territory inwards Eritrea).
His policies were so successful that he managed to defeat the Italian invasion at Adwa, inwards 1896, an trial that placed Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on the international map diplomatically. Empress Taitu liked the hot mineral springs of a district inwards Shewa, fifty-fifty though it was inwards an Oromo region, in addition to the emperor hence agreed to build his working capital alphabetic character there, naming it "Addis Ababa" (new flower). When expanding Addis Ababa threatened to exhaust the local fuel supply, Menilek ordered the importation of eucalyptus trees from Australia, which grew chop-chop during each three-month rainy season.
Menilek II died inwards 1913, in addition to his immature lady Zauditu became nominal head; a 2nd cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, became regent in addition to was crowned King of Kings Haile Selassie I inwards 1930. He made it possible for Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to bring together the League of Nations inwards 1923, yesteryear outlawing the slave trade. One of his foremost acts equally emperor was to grant his subjects a written constitution. He allied himself yesteryear spousal human relationship to the Oromo manful mortal monarch of Welo Province. When Mussolini invaded Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards 1935, Emperor Haile Selassie appeared inwards Geneva to plead his instance earlier the League, alert that his province would non last the finally victim of aggression. The Italian work ended inwards 1941 with give upwards to the British in addition to homecoming of the emperor. During succeeding decades, the emperor promoted an educated elite in addition to sought assistance from the United States, rather than the British, inwards diverse fields. Beginning inwards well-nigh 1960, a young, educated generation of Ethiopians grew increasingly impatient with the slowness of development, especially inwards the political sphere. At the same time, the aging emperor, who was suffering retention loss, was losing his powerfulness to maintain control. In 1974 he was deposed, in addition to he died a twelvemonth later. The revolutionary committees, claiming to follow a Marxist ideology, formed armed services dictatorships that deported villagers nether conditions of swell suffering in addition to executed students in addition to each other without legal trials. Dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam fled Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards May 1991 equally Eritrean in addition to Tigrayan rebel armies approached from the north. The province remains largely rural; traditional civilization patterns in addition to way of survival are the norm.
Settlements
The typical rural settlement is the hamlet, tis, called mender if several are linked on i large hill. The hamlet may consist of 2 to a dozen huts. Thus, the hamlet is often footling to a greater extent than than an isolated or semi-isolated farmstead, in addition to some other hamlet may last unopen yesteryear if their plowed fields are near. Four factors appear to create upwards one's heed where a hamlet is probable to last situated: ecological considerations, such equally H2O within a woman's walking distance, or available pasturage for the flock; kinship considerations—persons within a hamlet are nearly ever related in addition to shape a household unit of measurement economical community; administrative considerations, such equally inherited household unit of measurement ownership of land, tenancy of terra firma belonging to a feudal lord of old times, or continuing understanding with the nearby church building that had held the terra firma equally a fief upwards to 1975 in addition to continues to have portion of the crop inwards telephone commutation for its services; in addition to ethnic considerations. H5N1 hamlet may last solely inhabited yesteryear Falasha blacksmiths in addition to pottery makers or Faqi tanners. Most of the Falasha have got forthwith left Ethiopia.
To avoid existence flooded during the rainy season, settlements are typically built on or close hilltops. There is usually a valley inwards between, where brooks or irrigation canals shape the border for planted fields. The hillsides, if non terrace farmed, serve equally pasturage for all hamlets on the hill. Not only sheep in addition to goats, but also cows, climb over fairly steep, bushy hillsides to feed. Carrying H2O in addition to branches for fuel is soundless considered a woman's job, in addition to she may have got to climb for several hours from the nearest year-round H2O supply. The hamlet is usually patrilocal in addition to patrilineal. When spousal human relationship occurs, usually early inwards life, a boy may have utilisation of portion of his father's rented (or owned) patch in addition to build his hut nearby. If no terra firma is available owing to fragmentation, the boy may reluctantly last compelled to found himself at the bride's hamlet. When warfare has killed off the adult males inwards a hamlet, in-laws may also last able to displace in. Some hamlets are fenced inwards yesteryear thorn bushes against night-roving hyenas in addition to to corral cattle. Calves in addition to the household unit of measurement mule may last taken into the living hut at night. There is usually at to the lowest degree i violent reddish-brown domestic dog inwards each hamlet.
Economy
Much Amhara ingenuity has long been invested inwards the direct exploitation of natural resources. An Amhara would rather pass equally much fourth dimension equally necessary searching for suitably shaped hard or soft saplings for a walking cane than perform carpentry, which is traditionally largely limited to constructing the master copy bed (alga ), wooden saddles, in addition to elementary musical instruments. Soap is obtained yesteryear crushing the fruit of the endod (Pircunia abyssinica ) bush. Tannin for depilation of hides in addition to curing is obtained from the yellowish fruit of the embway bush. Butter is preserved in addition to perfumed yesteryear boiling it with the leaves of the odes (myrtle) bush. In times of crop failure, edible stone oil is obtained yesteryear gathering in addition to crushing wild-growing sunflower seeds (Carthamus tinctorus ). If necessary, leaves of the lola bush tin last split yesteryear women to bake the festive breadstuff dabbo. The dearest of a small, tiny-stingered bee (Apis dorsata ) is gathered to make alcoholic mead, tej, whereas the dearest of the wild bee tazemma (Apis Africans miaia ) is gathered to care for colds in addition to ticker ailments. Fishing is mostly limited to the three-month rainy season, when rivers are total in addition to the H2O is dingy from runoff so that the fish cannot view the fishers. Hunting elephants used to last a sport of immature feudal nobles, but hunting for ivory took identify largely inwards non-Amhara regions. Since rifles became available inwards Amhara farming regions, Ethiopian duikers in addition to guinea fowl have got nearly disappeared.
Subsistence farming provides the main economic scheme for most rural Amhara. The traditional method required much terra firma to prevarication fallow because no fertilization was applied. Cattle manure is formed into apartment cakes, Sun dried, in addition to used equally fuel for cooking. New land, if available, is cleared yesteryear the slash-and-burn method. H5N1 wooden scratch turn with a pointed atomic issue 26 tip, pulled yesteryear oxen, is the main farming tool. Insecurity of terra firma tenure has long been a major factor inwards discouraging Amhara farmers from producing to a greater extent than than the amount required for subsistence. The sharecropping peasant (gabbar ) was footling to a greater extent than than a serf who feared the (often absentee) feudal landlord or armed services quartering that would absorb whatever surplus. The revolutionary regime (1975-1991) added additional fears yesteryear its villagization program, moving peasants at command to facilitate province command in addition to deporting peasants to the due south of Ethiopia, where many perished owing to pathetic regime planning in addition to support.
The preferred crop of the Amhara is tyeff (Eragrostis abyssinica; Poa abyssinica ), the little seeds of which are rich inwards iron. At lower or drier elevations, several sorghums (durras) are grown: mashella (Andropogon sorghum), often mixed with the costlier tyeff bloom to bake the flapjack breadstuff injera; zengada (Eleusina multiforme), grown equally crop insurance; in addition to dagussa (Eleusine coracana, or tocusso ), used equally an ingredient inwards beer together with barley. Wheat (Triticum spp.), sendē, is grown inwards higher elevations in addition to is considered a luxury. Barley (Hordeum spp.), gebs, is a year-round crop, used primarily for brewing talla, a mild beer, or to popular a parched grain, gebs qolo, a ready snack kept available for guests. Maize, bahēr mashella, is recognized equally a foreign-introduced crop.
Amhara farmers
The most of import vegetable stone oil derives from nug (Guizotia abyssinica ), the dark Niger seed, in addition to from talba (Linum usitatissimum ), flax seed. Cabbage (gomen ) is regarded equally a pathetic food. Chick-peas are appreciated equally a staple that is non expected to neglect fifty-fifty inwards state of war in addition to famine; they are consumed during the Lenten season, equally are peas. Onions in addition to garlic are grown equally ingredients for wot, the spicy stew that also contains beans, may include chicken, in addition to ever features spicy crimson peppers—unless sick heath prevents their consumption. Lentils substitute for meat during fasting periods. The raising of livestock is traditionally non straight related to available pasture, but to agriculture in addition to the want for prestige. Oxen are needed to draw the plow, but traditionally at that topographic point was no breeding to obtain skillful milkers. Coffee may grow wild, but the beans are usually bought at a marketplace seat in addition to crushed in addition to boiled inwards forepart of guests; salt—but non sugar—may last added.
Division of Labor
Although much needed, the castelike skilled occupations similar blacksmithing, pottery making, in addition to tanning are held inwards depression esteem and, inwards rural regions, are usually associated with a socially excluded ethnic grouping. Moreover, ethnic workmanship is suspected of having been acquired yesteryear dealings with evil spirits that enable the artisans to turn themselves into hyenas at nighttime to eat corpses, drive diseases yesteryear staring, in addition to turn humans into donkeys to utilize their labor.
Such fake accusations tin last really serious. On the other hand, the magic powerfulness accredited to these workers is believed to brand their products strong, whereas those manufactured yesteryear an outsider who powerfulness have got learned the merchandise would presently break. The merchandise of weaving is non afflicted yesteryear such suspicions, although it is sometimes associated with Muslims or migrants from the south.
Land Tenure
Land tenure with traditional rural Amhara resembled that of medieval Europe to a greater extent than than that found elsewhere inwards Africa. Feudal institutions required the gabbar to perform labor (hudād ) for his lord in addition to allocated terra firma utilisation inwards telephone commutation for armed services service, gult. In a scheme resembling the European entail, inheritable land, rest, was dependent to taxation (which could last passed on to the sharecroppers) in addition to to expropriation inwards instance of rebellion against the king. Over the centuries, endowed terra firma was added to fief-holding church building land, in addition to debber ager. Royal household lands were classified equally mād-bet, in addition to melkenya terra firma was granted to taxation collectors. Emperor Haile Selassie attempted to modify the feudal scheme early inwards his administration. He defeated feudal armies, but was stymied inwards abrogating feudalistic terra firma tenure, especially inwards the Amhara region, yesteryear feudal lords such equally Ras Kassa. The parliament that he had called into existence had no existent powerfulness All remaining feudal terra firma tenure was abrogated during the revolutionary dictatorship (1975-1991), but feudalistic attitudes practiced yesteryear rural officials, such equally shum shir (frequently moving lower officials to other positions to maintain control), appear to have got persisted.
Kinship
The extended patrilocal, patrilineal, patriarchal household unit of measurement is especially strong with holders of residuum terra firma tenure, but is found, inwards principle, fifty-fifty on the hamlet flat of sharecroppers. There are several levels of kin, zemed, which also include those yesteryear affinity, amachenet. In thought of the emphasis on seeking safety inwards kinship relations, at that topographic point are also several formal methods of establishing fictive kinship, zemed hone, provided the mortal to last adopted is attentam ("of skillful bones," i.e., non of Shanqalla slave ancestry). Full adoption provides a thorax begetter (yetut abbat ) or a thorax woman parent (yetut ennat ). The traditional populace ceremony included coating the nipples with dearest in addition to simulating breast-feeding, fifty-fifty if the kid was already inwards adolescence.
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. There are 3 predominant types of spousal human relationship inwards Amhara tradition. The 3 types of spousal human relationship inwards Amhara tradition:
Eucharist church building spousal human relationship (Qurban)
Kin-negotiated civil spousal human relationship (Semanya) and
Temporary spousal human relationship (Damoz)
Only a minority—the priesthood, some older persons, in addition to nobility—engage inwards eucharistic church building spousal human relationship (qurban ). No divorce is possible. Widows in addition to widowers may remarry, except for priests, who are instead expected to go monks.
Kin-negotiated civil spousal human relationship (semanya; lit., "eighty") is most common. (Violation of the oath of spousal human relationship used to last penalized yesteryear a fine of 80 Maria Theresa thalers.) No church building ceremony is involved, but a priest may last nowadays at the marriage ceremony to bless the couple. Divorce, which involves the sectionalization of belongings in addition to conclusion of custody of children, tin last negotiated. Temporary spousal human relationship (damoz ) obliges the hubby to pay housekeeper's reward for a catamenia stated inwards advance. This was felt to last an essential scheme inwards an economic scheme where eating seat in addition to hotel services were non available.
The term is a contraction of demewez, "blood in addition to sweat" (compensation). The contract, although oral, was earlier witnesses in addition to was hence enforceable yesteryear courtroom order. The married adult woman had no right of inheritance, but if children were conceived during the contract period, they could brand a claim for portion of the father's property, should he die. Damoz rights were fifty-fifty recognized inwards modern police push clit during the dominion of Emperor Haile Selassie.
Socialization inwards the domestic unit of measurement begins with the naming of the infant (giving him or her the "world name"), a privilege that usually belongs to the mother. She may base of operations it on her predominant emotion at the fourth dimension (e.g., Desta [joy] or Almaz [diamond]), on a important trial occurring at the time, or on a special wishing she may have got for the personality or futurity of her infant (Seyum, "to last appointed to dignity").
Amhara schoolhouse kids
Socialization
Breast-feeding may finally 2 years, during which the nursling is never out of send on with the torso of the woman parent or some other woman. Until they are weaned, at well-nigh historic catamenia 7, children are treated with permissiveness, inwards contrast to the authoritarian grooming that is to follow. The province of argue in addition to incipient dependent area begins gradually at well-nigh historic catamenia 5 for girls in addition to 7 for boys. The old aid their mothers inwards watching babies in addition to fetching wood; boys pick out sheep in addition to cows to pasture and, with slingshots, guard crops against birds in addition to baboons. Both tin last questioned inwards courtroom to limited preferences concerning guardianship inwards instance of their parents' divorce. Neglect of duty is punished yesteryear immediate scolding in addition to beating.
Formal instruction inwards the traditional rural church building schoolhouse rarely began earlier historic catamenia 11 for boys. Hazing patterns to essay out courage are mutual with boys equally they grow up, both physically in addition to verbally. Girls are enculturated to appear shy, but may play business solid with boys prior to adolescence. Adolescence is the starting fourth dimension of stricter obedience for both sexes, compensated yesteryear pride inwards existence assigned greater responsibilities. Young men are addressed equally ashker in addition to do most of the plowing; yesteryear historic catamenia 18 they may last addressed equally gobez, signifying (strong, handsome) immature warrior. On the Temqet (baptism of Jesus) festival, the immature men encounter each other inwards teams to compete inwards the game of guks, a tournament fought on horseback with blunt, wooden lances, inwards which injuries are avoided yesteryear ducking or protecting oneself with leather shields. At Christmas, a hockeylike game called genna is played in addition to celebrated yesteryear boasting (fukkara ). Female adolescents are addressed equally qonjo (beautiful), no longer equally leja-gered (servant maid), unless criticized. Singing loudly inwards groups spell gathering firewood attracts groups of immature men, away from parental supervision. Young men in addition to women also encounter next the guks in addition to genna games, wearing novel clothes in addition to traditional makeup in addition to hairstyles. Outdoor flirting reaches a peak on Easter (Fassika), at the halt of the dry out season.
Domestic Unit
The traditional historic catamenia of a immature lady at foremost spousal human relationship may last equally immature equally 14, to protect her virginity, in addition to to enable the groom to tame her to a greater extent than easily. H5N1 groom 3 to v years older than the bride is preferred. To protect the bride against excessive violence, she is assigned 2 best men, who hold off behind a drape equally the spousal human relationship is consummated; later, she may telephone telephone on them inwards instance of batter.
The term shemagelyē signifies an elderberry in addition to connotes seriousness, wisdom, in addition to command of human relations within the residential kin grouping or beyond. He may last 40 years of historic catamenia in addition to already a grandfather. There is no automatic equivalency for elderberry women, but they tin pick out the qob of a nun in addition to proceed to alive at abode spell working inwards the churchyard, baking breadstuff in addition to brewing beer for the priests. Only women yesteryear menopause, usually widows, are accepted equally nuns yesteryear the Monophysite Aybssinian church. Younger women are non considered sufficiently serious to last able to deny their sexual activity drives.
Inheritance patterns:
Though the authorisation of the household caput is thus relatively independent of kinship ties, the land-use rights on which the household equally an economical unit of measurement relies are not, for plots of terra firma in addition to potential rights to additional plots are inherited bilaterally—that is, yesteryear sons in addition to daughters (or their husbands or children) through both parents.
Amhara elders
In Amhara theory these actual in addition to potential rights, both of which are termed rist, are rights to a portion of the terra firma foremost held yesteryear an illustrious ancestor (a principal ancestor or wanna abbat ) whose call the terra firma soundless bears. The arable lands inwards older Amhara regions are these ancestral blocks, which vary from i one-half to 2 or 3 foursquare kilometers inwards area. In Amhara legal theory rist rights inwards these lands are the inalienable in addition to inextinguishable birthright of all the foremost ancestor’s descendant’s inwards all lines, regardless of whether or non the rights were utilized yesteryear intermediate lineal ancestors inwards the claimant’s pedigree. In fact, most claims are forgotten.
Though rist terra firma rights are “hereditary,” the amount of terra firma a human being tin command yesteryear virtue of these rights is dependent, higher upwards all, on his political influence; in addition to terra firma utilisation rights over plots are considered to last held yesteryear individuals.
Sociopolitical Organization
Social organisation is linked to terra firma tenure of kinfolk, feudalistic traditions in addition to the church, ethnic sectionalization of labor, gender, in addition to historic catamenia status. The peasant class is divided betwixt landowning farmers, who, fifty-fifty though they have got no formal political power, tin thwart distant regime powerfulness yesteryear their rural remoteness, pathetic roads, in addition to weight of numbers, in addition to the sharecroppers, who have got no such powerfulness against local landlords. Fear of a mortal who engages inwards a skilled occupation, tebib (lit., "the knowing one," to whom supernatural secrets are revealed), enters into class stratification, especially for blacksmiths, pottery makers, in addition to tanners. They are despised equally members of a lower caste, but their products are needed, in addition to hence they are tolerated. Below them on the social scale are the descendants of slaves who used to last imported from the negroid Shanqalla of the Sudanese border, or the Nilotic Barya, so that both damage became synonymous with "slave."
Social command is traditionally maintained, in addition to conflict situations are resolved, inwards accordance with the powerfulness hierarchy. Judges interpret laws subjectively in addition to brand no sudden distinction betwixt civil in addition to criminal procedures. In add-on to written Abyssinian in addition to church building laws, at that topographic point are unwritten codes, such equally the payment of blood coin to the kin of a murder victim. An aggrieved mortal could appeal to a higher authorisation yesteryear lying prostrate inwards his path in addition to shouting "abyet" (hear me). Contracts did non have got to last written, provided at that topographic point were reliable witnesses. To obtain a loan or a job, a personal guarantor (was ) is necessary, in addition to the was tin also human activity equally bondsman to maintain an defendant out of jail. The drama of litigation, to verbalise good inwards court, is much appreciated. Even children enact it with the proper torso linguistic communication of pointing a toga at the jurist to emphasize the speech.
Religious Belief
The religious belief of most Amhara is Monophysite--that is, Tewahedo (Orthodox)--Christianity, to such an extent that the term "Amhara" is used synonymously with "Abyssinian Christian." Christian Amhara have on a blueish cervix cord (METEB), to distinguish themselves from Muslims.
There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs.
Ethiopian Church priest in addition to his censer. (Timkat ceremony) at northern Ethiopia
First, at that topographic point is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, in addition to the saints in addition to angels inwards Heaven. Second, at that topographic point are the zar in addition to the adbar spirits, “protectors” who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical in addition to emotional safety in addition to who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the do of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a class of people who possess the evil eye, in addition to who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendents of God’s “chosen children.” The 4th category of beliefs includes the [unknown]ciraq in addition to satan, ghouls in addition to devils that prowl the countryside, creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
H5N1 2nd of import influence inwards the evolution of Amhara civilization was heralded yesteryear the introduction of Christianity during the 4th century. These foremost missionaries were men from the eastern Mediterranean and, after the swell schism announced at Chalcedon, the Ethiopian Church continued its ties with the Orthodox faction, equally a dependency of the Coptic See of Alexandria. The success of Islam, sweeping across Arab Republic of Egypt in addition to Nubia, severely limited contact betwixt the Abyssinian highland in addition to the residuum of Christendom. In consequence, the evolution of the Ethiopian Coptic Church and, ultimately, of its human relationship to Amhara civilization has been to a greater extent than substantially influenced yesteryear autochthonous forces than would otherwise have got been the case.
The influence of the Church is nowhere to a greater extent than apparent than inwards a review of Amhara art. The Amhara have got no concept which approximates “art” equally it is used inwards English, in addition to each of the varieties of Amhara graphic art—Church painting, occult drawing, in addition to tattooing—is considered discrete, a distinctive musical instrument to attain particular ends. Painting, for example, is largely didactic, depicting biblical scenes in addition to personages, episodes from the lives of the saints in addition to the history of the Church. In a vogue of obvious Byzantine affinity, the painter sets these motifs inwards contiguous panels upon the muslin-faced walls in addition to ceilings of highland churches.
The mystical drawing is known inwards Amharic equally telsem (cognate of the English linguistic communication “talisman”) in addition to differs radically from the church building icon inwards form, intent, in addition to production. Ethiopian talismans, sewn into a leather amulet together with the appropriate herbal ingredients, are worn to ward off the numerous satans, persecutors of human being in addition to foes of the Church, who alive inwards the forests, lakes, in addition to rivers of the countryside in addition to inwards the hearth ashes in addition to beer dregs of the home. Both the church building painter in addition to talisman drawer are ecclesiastics, since a religious instruction is the sole way of acquiring the literacy in addition to special cognition required yesteryear these endeavors. Indeed, the paintings in addition to drawings accompanying this article are the piece of work of a unmarried private who lives inwards Gondar town (about xxx miles due north of Lake Tana), national working capital alphabetic character during the seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries.
Amhara people
Ceremonies
Ceremonies often grade the annual wheel for the public, despite the sacredotal emphasis of the religion. The calendar of Abyssinia is Julian, but the twelvemonth begins on 11 September, next ancient Egyptian usage, in addition to is called amete mehrāt (year of grace). Thus, the Abyssinian twelvemonth 1948 a.m. corresponds roughly with the Gregorian (Western) a.d. 1956.
The novel twelvemonth begins with the calendar month of Meskerem, which follows the rainy flavor in addition to is named after the foremost religious holy solar daytime of the year, Mesqel-abeba, celebrating the Feast of the Cross. On the seventeenth day, huge poles are stacked upwards for the bonfire inwards the evening, with much populace parading, dancing, in addition to feasting. By contrast, Christmas (Ledet) has footling social significance except for the genna game of the immature men. Far to a greater extent than of import is Epiphany (Temqet), on the eleventh solar daytime of Ter. Ceremonial parades escort the priests who send the tabot, symbolic of the holy ark, on their heads, to a H2O pool. There are all-night services, populace feasting, in addition to prayers for plentiful rains.
This is the halt of the genna flavor in addition to the starting fourth dimension of the guks tournaments fought on horseback yesteryear the immature men. The long Lenten flavor is approaching, in addition to clergy equally good equally the populace appear forwards to the feasting at Easter (Fassika), on the seventeenth solar daytime of Miyazya. Children have novel clothes in addition to collect gifts, chanting business solid to house. Even the voluntary fraternal association mehabber is said to have got originated from the do of private communion. Members pick out turns equally hosts at monthly meetings, drinking barley beer together with the confessor-priest, who intones prayers. Members are expected to human activity equally a mutual assistance society, raising regular contributions, extending loans, fifty-fifty paying for the tazkar (formal memorial service) 40 days after a member's death, if his household unit of measurement cannot afford it.
Passage rituals (birth, death, puberty, seasonal):
When expiry is approaching, elderberry kin of the dying mortal convey the confessor, in addition to the finally volition concerning inheritance is pronounced. Fields are given to patrilineal descendants, cattle to all offspring. Personal belongings, such equally ox cover mats in addition to a SHAMMA (toga), may last given to the confessor, who administers finally rites in addition to assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard.
The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a SHAMMA, carried to church building for the mass, in addition to buried, traditionally without a marking except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief with loud keening in addition to wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk go far to console the relatives of the deceased. H5N1 memorial feast (TAZKAR) is held 40 days after death, when the soul has the earliest chance to last freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the FETET, the prayer for absolution, in addition to materials, food, in addition to imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (DASS) is erected, in addition to fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate in addition to eat equally much TALLA in addition to WOT equally available.
Clothing/Costume
Whether it is at a church building service or at court, on the trail or inwards the privacy of the homestead, decorous in addition to elaborate forms of speech, dress, in addition to gesture are employed yesteryear the Amhara to limited toward i some other appropriate degrees of subordination in addition to superordination. In virtually all of these situations it is possible (with adequate knowledge) to discern a pattern of ranking, an ordered deviation inwards the amount of deference that people give in addition to receive. An accidental or transitional lapse inwards this orientation causes the Amhara discomfort or embarrassment. There is a 2nd of confusion or deliberate “not noticing” spell people rearrange their positioning in addition to their habiliment so equally to satisfactorily reorder the scene with regard to the main sources of secular or sacred authority.
Food
The Amhara similar other Ethiopian staple foods are mainly their grains, which are Tef, Barley, in addition to Emmer Wheat. Grains are grinded inwards the abode or inwards a local mill, with the latter alternative existence to a greater extent than in addition to to a greater extent than common. These grains are made into a breadstuff called injera. Injera is a thin, pancake-like, sour, leavened bread. Which grain is used depends on which is the main crop inwards a specific area. Injera has been made yesteryear the people of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia since at to the lowest degree 100 B.C. This breadstuff is usually accompanied yesteryear a sauce called wot. Some mutual types of wat are geyy wat, dorro wat in addition to allicha wat. Pictured below is Doro Wat. This is the national dish of Ethiopia.
Food items of flora rootage are cereals, legumes, vegetables, tubers, spices, oilseeds, in addition to fruit. Cereals consist of teff, corn, sorghum, barley wheat in addition to millet. The most mutual legumes are chickpeas, patch peas, lentils, in addition to broad beans. The most mutual vegetables are onions, kale, pumpkins, in addition to greenish chickpeas. The most mutual tubers are potatoes, sugariness potatoes, galla potatoes. Spices are extremely of import in addition to the most of import are chili in addition to bird’s-eye chili. These spices are used inwards the spice mixtures berberre in addition to mitmitta. Additionally the oilseeds of niger flax, sunflowers, in addition to safflowers are in addition to of import cash crop in addition to fruit is non grown inwards large quantities. The most mutual fruits are lemons in addition to bananas.
Gondar, Amhara Region, Ethiopia: injera with meat - Ethiopian food
Food items of creature rootage consist of milk, cow, sheep, or goat, chicken, fish. Ethiopian people do non eat pork. Milk is mainly given to little children in addition to it is used to brand sour milk, butter in addition to low-fat sour-milk cheese. The wealthy class tin afford meats but the bulk of the population only tin serve meat at ceremonial occasions.
In addition, Coffee is some other nutrient staple inwards Ethiopia. Drinking java is the most of import social portion with the women inwards a hamlet in addition to inwards some institutions. Women should non last disturbed during their java drinking hours. Coffee is usually served with a little snack, such equally toasted cereals, legumes, or a slice injera. The potable for weekdays is the local beer called tella in addition to for feasts it is dearest vino called tejj. It is considered polite to serve a potable drinking glass so total that it overflows, in addition to also to serve a 2nd drinking glass equally presently equally the foremost is finished.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Christians participate in fasts. The fasting rules dictate that nutrient should non include whatever creature origin, with the exception of fish. Therefore, the main ingredient inwards the wot has to last of vegetable origin. Fish is to a greater extent than often than non likewise expensive for the bulk of people inwards Ethiopia; hence they eat nutrient mainly based of vegetable origins.
Adornment (beads, feathers, lip plates, etc.):
Many designs are specific for torso expanse in addition to ailment; the zigzag, for example, customarily appears equally multiple necklaces in addition to is directed against goiter. Other patterns may last inscribed on several areas; circles in addition to crucifixes appear on forehead in addition to temples to forbid recurrent headaches, on the forearm for musculus paralysis, in addition to at joints for rheumatism.
The effectiveness of the designs is yesteryear way of an unknown modus vivendi, in addition to excogitation is discouraged on this account. Cosmetic in addition to medical motives are often hard to distinguish from i another: Prophylactic in addition to therapeutic tattoos on human face upwards in addition to pharynx are often regarded equally fortuitously enhancing the bearer’s beauty.
Similarly, essentially decorative tattooing is sometimes given a secondary, prophylactic, rationale; the “beaded ankle” motif, for example, is believed to attract the witch’s evil oculus away from the vulnerable oral fissure area.
Arts
Verbal arts—such equally bedanya check (speaking good earlier a judge)—are highly esteemed inwards full general Amhara culture, but at that topographic point is a pronounced class distinction betwixt the speech communication of the rustic peasant, balager (hence belegē, unpolished, sometimes fifty-fifty vulgar), in addition to chowa lij, upper-class speech. H5N1 farther differentiation within the latter is the speech communication of those whose traditional instruction has included sewassow (Ge'ez: grammar; lit., "ladder," "uplifting"), which is fully mastered mainly yesteryear church building scholars; the speeches of old emperor Haile Selassie, who had also mastered sewas-sow, impressed the average layperson equally esoteric in addition to hard to understand, in addition to hence all the to a greater extent than to last respected. In the arts of politeness, veiled mockery, puns with double meanings, such equally semmena-worq (wax in addition to gold), fifty-fifty partial cognition of grammer is an advantage. The draping of the toga (shamma) is used at courtroom in addition to other occasions to emphasize spoken words, or to communicate fifty-fifty without speech. It is draped differently to limited social status inwards deference to a mortal of high status, on different occasions, in addition to fifty-fifty to limited moods ranging from outgoing in addition to expansive to calm sobriety, to sadness, reserve, pride, social distance, desperate pleading, religious devotion, in addition to so on. Artistic aspect inwards the fine arts had long been linked to the church, equally inwards paintings, in addition to sponsorship yesteryear feudal lords who could afford it, especially when giving feasts celebrated with a multifariousness of musical instruments.
Medicine.
The basic concepts in addition to practices of Amhara medicine tin last traced to ancient Arab Republic of Egypt in addition to the ancient Near East in addition to tin also last attributed to regional ecological links within Ethiopia. Often no sudden distinctions are made betwixt bodily in addition to spiritual ailments, but at that topographic point are special occupations: the woggesha (surgeon-herbologist) is a pragmatist inwards practice; the debtera (scribe) invokes the spirit world. The latter is officially or unofficially linked to the church, but the zar cult is apart in addition to may fifty-fifty last woman mortal dominated. Its spirit healing has a complex cosmology; it involves the social status of the patient in addition to includes grouping therapy. The principal zar physician is often a matriarch who entered the profession when she herself was possessed yesteryear a spirit; she has managed to command some powerful spirits that she tin so employ inwards her battles to overcome the spirits that possess her patients. No cure is expected, only command through negotiation in addition to appeasement of the offended spirit, inwards the promise of turning it into a weqabi (protective spirit).
Many men consider the zar cult effeminate in addition to consult its doctors yesteryear stealth only, at night. Husbands may resent the fiscal outlays if their wives are patients, but fearfulness the wives' relapse into hysterical or catatonic states. Women, whose participation inwards the Abyssinian church building is severely limited, uncovering aspect inwards the zar cult. The zar doctors at Gonder handgrip their annual convention on the twenty-third nighttime of the calendar month of Yekatit, only earlier the starting fourth dimension of the Monophysite Christian Lent (Kudade; lit., "suffering"). There is much chanting, dancing, drumming, in addition to consumption of diverse drinks at the love feasts of the zars. Poor patients who are unable to pay with coin or commodities tin piece of work off their debts inwards labor service to the cult—waitressing, weaving baskets, fetching H2O in addition to fuel, brewing barley beer, in addition to so forth. They are to a greater extent than often than non analyzed yesteryear the zar physician equally existence possessed yesteryear a low-status zar spirit.
By contrast, possession yesteryear an evil spirit (buda ) is considered to a greater extent than serious in addition to less manageable than possession yesteryear a zar, in addition to at that topographic point is no cult. An travail is made to forbid it yesteryear wearing amulets in addition to avoiding tebib persons, who are skilled inwards trades similar blacksmithing in addition to pottery making. Since these spirits are believed to strike beautiful or successful persons, such individuals—especially if they are children—must non last praised out loud. If a mortal sickens in addition to wastes away, an exorcism yesteryear the church building may last attempted, or a tanqway (divinersorcerer) may last consulted; however, the latter recourse is considered risky in addition to shameful.
Death in addition to Afterlife
When an elderberry is close death, other elders from his kin grouping convey the confessor in addition to say to him, "Confess yourself." Then they enquire him for his finally will—what to acquire out to his children in addition to what for his soul (the church). The confessor gives finally rites and, after death, assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard. The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a shamma, carried to church building for the mass, in addition to buried, traditionally without a marking except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief with loud keening in addition to wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk go far to console. H5N1 memorial feast (tazkar) is held 40 days after the expiry of a human being or a woman, when the soul has the earliest chance to last freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the fetet, the prayer for absolution, in addition to materials, food, in addition to imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (dass ) is erected, in addition to fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate in addition to eat equally much talla in addition to wot equally available.
Source:http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Amhara.aspx
A BRIEF NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF THE AMARA AND OROMO
By Fikre Tolossa
I gave my give-and-take finally nighttime to Ato Zewge Fanta in addition to Wondimu Mekonnen that I would provide briefly the genealogy of the Amara. This information is based on on my reading of Ethiopian history in addition to Metsehafe Djan Shewa, (an ancient Ethiopian manuscript inwards Geez discovered yesteryear Meri Ras Aman Belay, inwards the ruins of an Ethiopian church building inwards Nubia, a portion of the Ethiopian Empire) which has been, translated into Amharic, abridged in addition to published equally Metsehafe Subae yesteryear the discoverer himself. According to this ancient manuscript, both the Amara in addition to the Oromo are the descendants of i human being or father- Melchizedek, King of Salem the highest priest of God on Earth, founder of Jerusalem to whom Abraham in addition to other kings bowed in addition to paid tithes to have his blessings.
About 2000 years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ, God ordered Melchizedek to send his boy Ethel who was named equally Ethiop afterward on yesteryear God, to go in addition to settle inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia at the islands of Lake Tana, the source of the River Nile. God sent Ethel (meaning the gift of God) to Ethiopia, so that when God (Jesus Christ) is born equally a human existence 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethel would convey him to Bethlehem Ethiopian gifts such equally yellowish gold, myrrh in addition to incense, led yesteryear a star which would appear inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to atomic number 82 them to Bethlehem. Accordingly Ethel went to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to settled inwards what is today known equally Gojjam. God changed his call from Ethel to "Ethiop" pregnant "the gift of yellowish aureate to God". Thus, non only Ethel became Ethiop, but the terra firma inwards which he settled also started to last called "Ethiopia". Lo in addition to behold, 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethiop became 12 kings inwards the so Ethiopian Empire. They headed for Bethlehem with gifts led yesteryear the star which God had said would atomic number 82 them. Now Ethiop begat thirteen children- 10 boys in addition to 3 girls. The boys were: Atiba, Bior, Biora, Temna, Ater, Ashan, Azib, Berissa, Tesbi, Tola (by the way, the call of my uncle, the blood brother of my begetter Tolossa, was Tola.), in addition to Azeb. The girls were, Loza, Milka in addition to Suba. All of them became the fathers in addition to mothers of many, many Ethiopian tribes. Out of the 10 boys of Ethiop, I volition pick out only the line of i of them- the line of Bior in addition to demo that the Amara in addition to Oromo descend from him. Ethiop begat Bior, Bior begat Aram, Aram begat Nage who begat Hage, who begat Biora, who begat Belam (a prophet inwards the Sinai who prophesied the Birth of Jesus equally a Star.
He is inwards the Bible known equally Baalam), Belam begat Keramid, who begat Shemshel (a female, swell prophetess who was able to heighten the dead). Shemshel begat Deshet. Her boy Deshet too, became a major prophet who designed the Zodiac which was taken out of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to did spread elsewhere inwards the world. Deshet, spell meditating at the Bank of the River Nile well-nigh 15 hundred years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ saw inwards the foam of the River a vision of Mary, Jesus in addition to the Star, that would atomic number 82 his descendants to Bethlehem, in addition to drew them on a tablet in addition to passed the tablet to them. Now Deshet begat 4 sons who became the fathers of many Ethiopian tribes including the Amara in addition to the Oromo. They are: Maji, Jimma, Mendi in addition to Medebai. Maji begat Mara (Amara) in addition to Jema or Jama (the people who settled at the River Jema inwards today's Shoa, a river they named after their tribe. The Jamacans of Jamaica were captured yesteryear Ahmed Gragn when they fought him fiercely, taken from there, sold equally slaves to Arabs who sold them to European slave traders, who sold them inwards Jamaica). Jimma begat Geneti, Arerti in addition to Moren. Out of Medebay descended the Oromo. In fact, earlier the Oromo were called Oromo during the reign of Menelik I well-nigh 2950 years ago, they used to last called Medebay. There are some inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia who are soundless called Medebay retaining their original name. There is a argue why they started existence called "Gala" in addition to "Oromo" then, but I won't dwell on it now. Later on, the children of Mara began to last called "A-mara" or "Ha-mara". The words, "A" in addition to "Ha" were used equally indicators. Thus the Oromo in addition to Amara portion the same begetter in addition to grand father. It is tragic in addition to unfortunate that the Oromo in addition to the Amara have got been misled to struggle each other inwards the yesteryear in addition to inwards our time. Both the Oromo in addition to Amara originated inwards Gojjam. The Oromo didn't come upwards from Asia or Madagascar, equally Aleka Taye in addition to other ill-informed historians suggest. Later, each tribe split in addition to spread all over the breath in addition to length of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to fifty-fifty the residuum of Africa to seek out their fortune. In the hateful time, they developed different languages in addition to cultures. The Oromo became pastoralists. The Amara specialized inwards warfare in addition to administration. For example, when Axumite was a footling man child he was crowned equally the Pharaoh of Arab Republic of Egypt yesteryear the call of Ramzes. It was the Amara who accompanied him all the way from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to Arab Republic of Egypt well-nigh 2850 years agone to protect his throne. About 350,000 Amaras went with him to Egypt. Some of them returned to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia only after 1850 years of rest inwards Egypt, accompanying King Lalibela to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia after his homecoming from exile inwards Jerusalem. They built together with the local Agew people, the Rock Hewen Churches of Lalibela. Later, when Axumite found the urban nub of Axum in addition to became Emperor of Ethiopia, he gave his immature lady Ribla inwards spousal human relationship to King Nabukedenesor of Babylon (today's Iraq). It was the Amara soldiers i time again who accompanied Ribla to Iraq. She found a urban nub after her name. The Amara found a urban nub called "Amara" inwards Republic of Iraq after their ain name. The urban nub of "Amara" exists to this solar daytime inwards Iraq. It was captured yesteryear Shiite Moslems well-nigh a twelvemonth ago. I have got an American paper inwards my possession which printed the capture of the urban nub of "Amara" yesteryear the Shiites. Pertaining to the Amara language, it had already begun to evolve equally far dorsum equally 3000 years ago.In fact, it had existed long earlier Geez. Menelik the I declared Geez equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia well-nigh 2950 years agone to honour in addition to empower the Agazi, a tribe he brought from Gaaza which fought for him when Ethiopian tribes warred against him treating him equally a Jewish "keles" who had ambition over the Ethiopian throne. Indeed, it had developed in addition to evolved to a greater extent than than 3000 years; i.e, a spell earlier Geez was decreed yesteryear Menelik I equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia yesteryear imposition. For instance, at that topographic point are kings in addition to throne names that have got Amara names such equally Zerffe in addition to Sendek-alma inwards the listing of Ethiopian kings who reigned earlier Queen Sheba, woman parent of Menelik I; equally good ancient towns inwards Arab Republic of Egypt known equally Amarna (konjo honin) in addition to Delta (we are comfortable, nosotros are doing fine), inwards the part inwards which Jesus, Joseph in addition to Mary found refuge 2000 years ago. When Menelik I was born, the Amara wondered what King Solomon would say well-nigh his son, Menelik, in addition to called him "Menelik" (min yilik, abateh?). If the Amara language didn't be over 3000 years ago, how come upwards they called Menelik, "Minyilik" well-nigh 3000 years ago? I remember this give-and-take lone suffices to evidence that Amaregna in addition to the Amara had existed inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to a greater extent than than 3000 years ago. This is what I wanted to say for now. If I uncovering time, I volition item all this inwards an article. I have got gathered all the literature that I demand to evidence my point. I am Fikre Tolossa, descendant of Melchitsedek, King of Salem, of Ethiop in addition to Deshet, the prophet, as, of course, all of you, my swain Ethiopians,
source:http://fikretolossa.com/FILES_ARCHIVE/MISCELANEOUS/A_BRIEF_NOTE_ON_THE_ORIGIN_OF_THE_AMARA_AND_OROMO[1]_2.pdf
The Evil Eye Belief Among the Amhara of Ethiopia
Ronald H5N1 Reminick
Cleveland State University
Variations of the belief inwards the evil oculus are known throughout much of the world, yet surprisingly footling attending has been given to explaining the dynamics of this aspect of civilization ( cf. SpoonerI9 70; FosterI 972; Douglas I970). The Amhara of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia handgrip to this belief. Data for this study
were gathered with the Manze Amhara of the cardinal highlands of Shoa Province, Ethiopia. Their habitat is a rolling plateau ranging inwards height from 9,500 to I3,000 feet. The seasons vary from temperate in addition to dry out to moisture in addition to cold. The Amhara are settled agriculturists raising primarily barley,
wheat, in addition to a multifariousness of beans in addition to importing teff grain cotton, in addition to spices from the lower in addition to warmer regions inwards the gorges in addition to valleys nearby. Amhara technology scientific discipline is simple, involving the bull draw plow, crop rotation, soil furrowing for drainage in addition to some irrigation where streams are accessible. The soil is rich plenty to maintain 3 harvests annually. Other of import technological items include the sickle loom, in addition to the walking in addition to fighting stick for the men; the spindle large clay H2O jug grindstone, in addition to cooking u tensilsf or the women. The most highly prized item of technology scientific discipline is the ride which symbolizes the proud warrior traditions of the Amhara in addition to a man's duty to defend his inherited land.
The homestead is the primary domain of authorisation within the larger political structure. The homestead varies inwards size from that of a nuclear household unit of measurement to a large hamlet consisting of several related families in addition to their servants tenants in addition to old slaves. The scheme of authorisation tin last characterized inwards damage of Webers patriarchalism where a grouping is organized on the reason of kinship in addition to economic science with authorisation exercised yesteryear a particular mortal controlling the resources upon which the grouping depends (Weber I948: 346H ).
Amhara family
Obedience in addition to loyalty are owed to the mortal rather than to the piece of work or the rule, in addition to this mortal rules only yesteryear the consent of the grouping members who stand upwards to gain a portion of their patriarch`s wealth equally good equally legacy upon his death. This establishment of patriarchal authorisation is reinforced yesteryear a cultural emphasis on manful mortal qualities of aggressiveness oriented around the acquisition in addition to defence of land. Land is the fundamental requirement of the patriarchal system, for without it a human being cannot fulfill his basic piece of work of supporting his dependents in addition to providing a legacy for his children equally a reward for their loyalty in addition to service. But terra firma is a scarce resource, in addition to at that topographic point are often to a greater extent than claims to terra firma than tin last supported. Thus, closest siblings may unite against a to a greater extent than distant relative to maintain terra firma with themselves or siblings may compete for scarce terra firma with themselves becoming bitter enemies in addition to dividing the kinship or domestic group.
Amhara shepherd boy
The Amhara peasant`s supernatural world includes both Christian in addition to infidel (traditional) elements. Although Monophysite Christianity is the legitimate faith of the Amhara people who inwards fact define their tribal identity largely inwards damage of their Christian God, the infidel or "non legitimate" systems of belief also play an of import piece of work inwards the everyday routine of the peasant's social in addition to cultural life. There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs. First,there is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, in addition to the saints in addition to angels inwards Heaven. Second, at that topographic point are the zar in addition to the adbar spirits," protectors who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical in addition to emotional safety in addition to who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the do of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a class of people who possess the evil eye, in addition to who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendants of God's" chosen children." The 4th category of beliefs includes the ciraq in addition to satan, ghouls in addition to devils that prowl the countryside creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
source: http://www.refugeelegalaidinformation.org/sites/srlan/files/fileuploads/Reminick-TheEvilEyeBeliefAmongAmharaEthiopia_again.pdf
Beautiful Amhara adult woman from Addis Ababa inwards her traditional costume dancing
The Amhara people are closely related with the Gurage, in addition to the Tigray-Tigrinya people. The Amhara combined with the Gurage, in addition to the Tigray-Tigrinya people are called the Habesha ( (Ge'ez: ሐበሻ Ḥabaśā, Amharic (H)ābešā, Tigrinya: ? Ḥābešā; Arabic: الحبشة al-Ḥabašah) people or Abyssinians.
Amhara girls
The State of Amhara covers an estimated expanse of 170,752 foursquare kilometres in addition to consists of 10 administrative zones, i special zone, 105 woredas, in addition to 78 urban centres. The working capital alphabetic character urban nub of the State of Amhara is Bahir-Dar. According to recent National Population Census, the Amhara constitute well-nigh 23 i grand one thousand people, making upwards to comprising 30.1% of the country's population. Majority of the Amhara population tin last found specifically inwards the provinces of Begender, Gojjam, Wallo, some parts of Shoa in addition to the mountainous areas of Amhara state.
Amhara women
The Amhara who are the 2nd largest ethnolinguistic grouping after the Oromo people are descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled with indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah in addition to delineate their lineage all the way to King Solomon in addition to the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I. They carried that same ancestral line all the way to 1974 with Emperor Haile Selassie. Also, well-nigh 50 % of the Amhara are portion of what is known equally the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which is an ancient Christian church building founded around the 4th century. The Amhara do have got their rituals in addition to ceremonies, including the annual Coptic in addition to national holidays in addition to the monthly saints' days. In addition, daily in addition to monthly rites celebrate spirits whose identity lies exterior the teachings of the Ethiopian Church.
The Amhara are ardent creature husbandry people, well-nigh 40% of the livestock population inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are found inwards their territory. The huge livestock potential of this part gives ample chance for meat in addition to milk production, nutrient processing equally good equally leather in addition to wool production. The Sate of Amhara also has mineral resources such equally coal, shell, limestone, lignite, gypsum, gemstone, silica, sulfur in addition to bentonite. Hot springs in addition to mineral H2O are also found inwards the region.
Most importantly the Amhara province has swell tourism in addition to heritage industry. The twelfth century Rock-Hewn churches of Lalibela, in addition to the palaces inwards Gondar are some of the world known heritages. The traditional mural paintings in addition to manus craft, the preserved corpse of the royalty found inwards the ancient monasteries inwards Lake Tana, equally good equally the Semien mountains national park, which shelters the endemic Walia ibex are spectacular tourist attractions, Three tourist attractions found inwards the part are registered inwards the UNESCO listing of world heritages. Besides these known heritages, the Blue Nile Falls, the caves in addition to unique stones inwards northern Showa, in addition to the Merto Le Mariam church building are special tourist attractions.
Origin of the Name Amhara
The etymology of the call Amhara has different sources. It is said that the ethnolinguistic call (the linguistic communication in addition to its speakers) Amhara comes from the medieval province of Amhara, located around Lake Tana at the headwaters of the Blue Nile in addition to including a slightly larger expanse than Ethiopia's nowadays Amhara Region.
Other people delineate it to amari ("pleasing; beautiful; gracious") or mehare ("gracious"). The Ethiopian historian Getachew Mekonnen Hasen traces it to an ethnic call related to the Himyarites of ancient Yemen. Still others say that it derives from Ge'ez ዓም (ʿam, "people") in addition to ሓራ (h.ara, "free" or "soldier"), although this has been dismissed yesteryear scholars such equally Donald Levine equally a folk etymology.
Beautiful Amhara children from Ethiopia
Geography in addition to Climate
The State of Amhara is topographically divided into 2 main parts, namely the highlands in addition to lowlands. The highlands are higher upwards 1500 meters higher upwards bounding main flat in addition to comprise the largest portion of the northern in addition to eastern parts of the region. The highlands are also characterized yesteryear chains of mountains in addition to plateaus. Ras Dejen (4620 m), the highest peak inwards the country, Guna (4236 m), Choke (4184m) in addition to Abune – Yousef (4190m) are with the mount peaks that are located inwards the highland parts of the region.
The lowland portion covers mainly the western in addition to eastern parts with an height betwixt 500-1500 meters higher upwards bounding main level. Areas beyond 2,300 meters higher upwards bounding main flat autumn within the "Dega" climatic Zone, in addition to areas betwixt the 1,500-2,300 meter higher upwards bounding main flat contour autumn within the "Woina Dega" climatic zone; in addition to areas below 1,500 contour autumn within the "Kolla" or hot climatic zones. The Dega, Woina Dega in addition to Kolla parts of the part constitute 25%, 44% in addition to 31% of the total expanse of the region, respectively.
The annual hateful temperature for most parts of the part lies betwixt 15°C-21°C. The State receives the highest pct (80%) of the total rainfall inwards the country. The highest rainfall occurs during the summertime season, which starts inwards mid June in addition to ends inwards early September.
The State of Amhara is divided mainly yesteryear 3 river basins, namely the Abbay, Tekezze in addition to Awash drainage basins. The Blue Nile (Abbay) river is the largest of all roofing about 172,254 Km2. Its total length to its junction with the white Nile inwards Khartoum is 1,450 Km, of which 800 km is within Ethiopia. The drainage-basin of the Tekeze river is well-nigh 88,800 km2. In addition, Anghereb, Millie, Kessem in addition to Jema are with the major national rivers, which are found inwards this region.
Tana, the largest lake inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is located at centre of the region. It covers an expanse of 3,6000 km2. Besides, other crater lakes similar Zengeni, Gudena Yetilba, Ardibo (75km2) in addition to Logia (35 km2) are little lakes that are found inwards the region.
The rivers in addition to lakes of the part have got immense potential for hydroelectric powerfulness generation, irrigation in addition to fishery development.
Blue Nile
Walia ibex, Semien fox, Gelada-baboon, Grey Duiker, Klipspringer, Hyenas in addition to Corocodile are with the twenty-one species (three endemic) that are found inwards the region, especially at the Semien mount national park. Wild fowls, Francolins, Pelicans, Cranes, Ibises, in addition to Stocks are with the birds that are found inwards the region.
Amhara plateau
Myths (Creation):
It is said that Eve had xxx children, in addition to i solar daytime God asked Eve to demo Him her children. Eve became suspicious in addition to apprehensive in addition to hid xv of them from the sight of God. God knew her human activity of disobedience in addition to declared the xv children she showed God equally His chosen children in addition to cursed the xv she hid, declaring that they go henceforth into the world equally devils in addition to wretched creatures of the earth. Now some of the children complained in addition to begged God’s mercy. God heard them and, existence merciful, made some of them foxes, jackals, rabbits, etc., so that they powerfulness be equally Earth’s creatures inwards a dignified manner. Some of the hidden children he left human, but sent them away with the curse of existence agents of the devil. These human counterparts of the devil are the ancestors of the buda people. There occurs a pleat inwards fourth dimension in addition to the story takes upwards its theme i time again when Christ was baptized at historic catamenia thirty.
Language
Amhara people speak Aramaic language (/æmˈhærɪk/ or /ɑːmˈhɑrɪk/; Amharic: አማርኛ Amarəñña, IPA: [ämärɨɲɲä]) which is a Semitic language that belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic linguistic communication phylum. It is the second-most spoken Semitic linguistic communication inwards the world, after Arabic, in addition to the official working linguistic communication of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Thus, it has official status in addition to is used nationwide. Amharic is also the official or working linguistic communication of several of the states within the federal system. It has been the working linguistic communication of government, the military, in addition to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church throughout medieval in addition to modern times. Outside Ethiopia, Amharic is the linguistic communication of some 2.7 i grand one thousand emigrants. It is written (left-to-right) using Amharic Fidel, ፊደል, which grew out of the Ge'ez abugida—called, inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages, ፊደል fidel ("alphabet", "letter", or "character") in addition to አቡጊዳ abugida (from the foremost 4 Ethiopic letters, which gave ascent to the modern linguistic term abugida).
There is no agreed way of transliterating Amharic into Roman characters. The Amharic examples inwards the sections below utilisation i scheme that is common, though non universal, with linguists specializing inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages.
Writing system
The Amharic script is an abugida, in addition to the graphs of the Amharic writing scheme are called fidel. Each graphic symbol represents a consonant+vowel sequence, but the basic shape of each graphic symbol is determined yesteryear the consonant, which is modified for the vowel. Some consonant phonemes are written yesteryear to a greater extent than than i serial of characters: /ʔ/, /s/, /sʼ/, in addition to /h/ (the finally i has 4 distinct alphabetic character forms). This is because these fidel originally represented distinct sounds, but phonological changes merged them. The citation shape for each serial is the consonant+ä form, i.e. the foremost column of the fidel. H5N1 font that supports Ethiopic, such equally GF Zemen Unicode, is needed to view fidel on typical modern estimator systems.
Alphabet
Chart of Amharic fidels
| ä [ə] | u | i | a | e | ə [ɨ], ∅ | o | ʷä [ʷə] | ʷi | ʷa | ʷe | ʷə [ʷɨ] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| h | ሀ | ሁ | ሂ | ሃ | ሄ | ህ | ሆ | ||||||
| l | ለ | ሉ | ሊ | ላ | ሌ | ል | ሎ | ሏ | |||||
| h | ሐ | ሑ | ሒ | ሓ | ሔ | ሕ | ሖ | ሗ | |||||
| m | መ | ሙ | ሚ | ማ | ሜ | ም | ሞ | ሟ | |||||
| s | ሠ | ሡ | ሢ | ሣ | ሤ | ሥ | ሦ | ሧ | |||||
| r | ረ | ሩ | ሪ | ራ | ሬ | ር | ሮ | ሯ | |||||
| s | ሰ | ሱ | ሲ | ሳ | ሴ | ስ | ሶ | ሷ | |||||
| ʃ | ሸ | ሹ | ሺ | ሻ | ሼ | ሽ | ሾ | ሿ | |||||
| q | ቀ | ቁ | ቂ | ቃ | ቄ | ቅ | ቆ | ቈ | ቊ | ቋ | ቌ | ቍ | |
| b | በ | ቡ | ቢ | ባ | ቤ | ብ | ቦ | ቧ | |||||
| v | ቨ | ቩ | ቪ | ቫ | ቬ | ቭ | ቮ | ቯ | |||||
| t | ተ | ቱ | ቲ | ታ | ቴ | ት | ቶ | ቷ | |||||
| tʃ | ቸ | ቹ | ቺ | ቻ | ቼ | ች | ቾ | ቿ | |||||
| ħ | ኀ | ኁ | ኂ | ኃ | ኄ | ኅ | ኆ | ኈ | ኊ | ኋ | ኌ | ኍ | |
| n | ነ | ኑ | ኒ | ና | ኔ | ን | ኖ | ኗ | |||||
| ɲ | ኘ | ኙ | ኚ | ኛ | ኜ | ኝ | ኞ | ኟ | |||||
| ʔ | አ | ኡ | ኢ | ኣ | ኤ | እ | ኦ | ኧ | |||||
| k | ከ | ኩ | ኪ | ካ | ኬ | ክ | ኮ | ኰ | ኲ | ኳ | ኴ | ኵ | |
| x | ኸ | ኹ | ኺ | ኻ | ኼ | ኽ | ኾ | ||||||
| w | ወ | ዉ | ዊ | ዋ | ዌ | ው | ዎ | ||||||
| ʔ | ዐ | ዑ | ዒ | ዓ | ዔ | ዕ | ዖ | ||||||
| z | ዘ | ዙ | ዚ | ዛ | ዜ | ዝ | ዞ | ዟ | |||||
| ʒ | ዠ | ዡ | ዢ | ዣ | ዤ | ዥ | ዦ | ዧ | |||||
| j | የ | ዩ | ዪ | ያ | ዬ | ይ | ዮ | ||||||
| d | ደ | ዱ | ዲ | ዳ | ዴ | ድ | ዶ | ዷ | |||||
| dʒ | ጀ | ጁ | ጂ | ጃ | ጄ | ጅ | ጆ | ጇ | |||||
| g | ገ | ጉ | ጊ | ጋ | ጌ | ግ | ጎ | ጐ | ጒ | ጓ | ጔ | ጕ | |
| t' | ጠ | ጡ | ጢ | ጣ | ጤ | ጥ | ጦ | ጧ | |||||
| tʃ' | ጨ | ጩ | ጪ | ጫ | ጬ | ጭ | ጮ | ጯ | |||||
| p' | ጰ | ጱ | ጲ | ጳ | ጴ | ጵ | ጶ | ጷ | |||||
| ts' | ጸ | ጹ | ጺ | ጻ | ጼ | ጽ | ጾ | ጿ | |||||
| ts' | ፀ | ፁ | ፂ | ፃ | ፄ | ፅ | ፆ | ||||||
| f | ፈ | ፉ | ፊ | ፋ | ፌ | ፍ | ፎ | ፏ | |||||
| p | ፐ | ፑ | ፒ | ፓ | ፔ | ፕ | ፖ | ፗ | |||||
| ä [ə] | u | i | a | e | ə [ɨ], ∅ | o | ʷä [ʷə] | ʷi | ʷa | ʷe | ʷə [ʷɨ] | ||
As inwards most other Ethiopian Semitic languages, gemination is contrastive inwards Amharic. That is, consonant length tin distinguish words from i another; for example, alä 'he said', allä 'there is'; yǝmätall 'he hits', yǝmmättall 'he is hit'. Gemination is non indicated inwards Amharic orthography, but Amharic readers typically do non uncovering this to last a problem. This belongings of the writing scheme is analogous to the vowels of Standard Arabic in addition to Hebrew or the tones of many Bantu languages, which are non ordinarily indicated inwards writing. The noted Ethiopian novelist Haddis Alemayehu, who was an advocate of Amharic orthography reform, indicated gemination inwards his novel Fǝqǝr Əskä Mäqabǝr yesteryear placing a dot higher upwards the characters whose consonants were geminated, but this do is rare.
Punctuation
Punctuation includes:
፠ department mark
፡ give-and-take separator
። total halt (period)
፣ comma
፤ semicolon
፥ colon
፦ Preface colon (introduces speech communication from a descriptive prefix)
፧ enquiry mark
፨ paragraph separator
Grammar
Simple Amharic sentences
One may build elementary Amharic sentences yesteryear using a dependent in addition to a predicate. Here are a few elementary sentences:
ʾItyop̣p̣ya ʾAfriqa wəsṭ nat
(lit., Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Africa within is)
'Ethiopia is inwards Africa.'
Ləǧu täññətʷall.
(lit., man child is.asleep)
'The man child is asleep.'
Ayyäru däss yəlall
(lit., conditions skillful is)
'The conditions is good.'
Əssu wädä kätäma mäṭṭa.
(lit., he to urban nub came)
'He came to the city.'
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
In most languages, at that topographic point is a little issue of basic distinctions of person, number, in addition to often gender that play a piece of work within the grammer of the language. We view these distinctions within the basic set of independent personal pronouns, for example, English linguistic communication I, Amharic እኔ ǝne; English linguistic communication she, Amharic እሷ ǝsswa. In Amharic, equally inwards other Semitic languages, the same distinctions appear inwards 3 other places within the grammer of the languages.
Subject–verb agreement
All Amharic verbs concord with their subjects; that is, the person, number, in addition to (second- in addition to third-person singular) gender of the dependent of the verb are marked yesteryear suffixes or prefixes on the verb. Because the affixes that signal dependent understanding vary greatly with the particular verb tense/aspect/mood, they are ordinarily non considered to last pronouns in addition to are discussed elsewhere inwards this article nether verb conjugation.
Object pronoun suffixes
Amharic verbs often have got additional morphology that indicates the person, number, in addition to (second- in addition to third-person singular) gender of the object of the verb.
አልማዝን አየኋት
almazǝn ayyähʷ-at
Almaz-ACC I-saw-her
'I saw Almaz'
While morphemes such equally -at inwards this instance are sometimes described equally signaling object agreement, analogous to dependent agreement, they are to a greater extent than often thought of equally object pronoun suffixes because, dissimilar the markers of dependent agreement, they do non vary significantly with the tense/aspect/mood of the verb. For arguments of the verb other than the dependent or the object, at that topographic point are 2 separate sets of related suffixes, i with a benefactive pregnant (to, for), the other with an adversative or locative pregnant (against', to the detriment of, on', at).
ለአልማዝ በሩን ከፈትኩላት
läʾalmaz bärrun käffätku-llat
for-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-opened-for-her
'I opened the door for Almaz'
በአልማዝ በሩን ዘጋሁባት
bäʾalmaz bärrun zäggahu-bbat
on-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-closed-on-her
'I closed the door on Almaz (to her detriment)'
Morphemes such equally -llat in addition to -bbat inwards these examples volition last referred to inwards this article equally prepositional object pronoun suffixes because they correspond to prepositional phrases such equally for her in addition to on her, to distinguish them from the direct object pronoun suffixes such equally -at 'her'.
Possessive suffixes
Amharic has a farther set of morphemes that are suffixed to nouns, signalling possession: ቤት bet 'house', ቤቴ bete, my house, ቤቷ; betwa, her house.
In each of these 4 aspects of the grammar, independent pronouns, subject–verb agreement, object pronoun suffixes, in addition to possessive suffixes, Amharic distinguishes 8 combinations of person, number, in addition to gender. For foremost person, at that topographic point is a two-way distinction betwixt singular (I) in addition to plural (we), whereas for 2nd in addition to 3rd persons, at that topographic point is a distinction betwixt singular in addition to plural in addition to within the singular a farther distinction betwixt masculine in addition to feminine (you m. sg., you lot f. sg., you lot pl., he, she, they).
Amharic is a pro-drop language. That is, neutral sentences inwards which no chemical ingredient is emphasized ordinarily do non have got independent pronouns: ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', ጋበዝኳት gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'. The Amharic words that interpret he, I, in addition to her do non appear inwards these sentences equally independent words. However, inwards such cases, the person, number, in addition to (second- or third-person singular) gender of the dependent in addition to object are marked on the verb. When the dependent or object inwards such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: እሱ ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ǝssu ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', እኔ ጋበዝኳት ǝne gabbäzkwat 'I invited her', እሷን ጋበዝኳት ǝsswan gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'.
The tabular array below shows alternatives for many of the forms. The alternative depends on what precedes the shape inwards question, usually whether this is a vowel or a consonant, for example, for the 1st mortal singular possessive suffix, አገሬ agär-e 'my country', ገላዬ gäla-ye 'my body'.
Amharic Personal Pronouns
| English | Independent | Object pronoun suffixes | Possessive suffixes | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Direct | Prepositional | ||||
| Benefactive | Locative/Adversative | ||||
| I | እኔ ǝne | -(ä/ǝ)ñ | -(ǝ)llǝñ | -(ǝ)bbǝñ | -(y)e |
| you (m. sg.) | አንተ antä | -(ǝ)h | -(ǝ)llǝh | -(ǝ)bbǝh | -(ǝ)h |
| you (f. sg.) | አንቺ anči | -(ǝ)š | -(ǝ)llǝš | -(ǝ)bbǝš | -(ǝ)š |
| you (polite) | እርስዎ əswo | -(ə)wo(t) | -(ǝ)llǝwo(t) | -(ǝ)bbǝwo(t) | -wo |
| he | እሱ ǝssu | -(ä)w, -t | -(ǝ)llät | -(ǝ)bbät | -(w)u |
| she | እሷ ǝsswa | -at | -(ǝ)llat | -(ǝ)bbat | -wa |
| s/he (polite) | እሳቸው əssaččäw | -aččäw | -(ǝ)llaččäw | -(ǝ)bbaččäw | -aččäw |
| we | እኛ ǝñña | -(ä/ǝ)n | -(ǝ)llǝn | -(ǝ)bbǝn | -aččǝn |
| you (pl.) | እናንተ ǝnnantä | -aččǝhu | -(ǝ)llaččǝhu | -(ǝ)bbaččǝhu | -aččǝhu |
| they | እነሱ ǝnnässu | -aččäw | -(ǝ)llaččäw | -(ǝ)bbaččäw | -aččäw |
Within second- in addition to third-person singular, at that topographic point are 2 additional "polite" independent pronouns, for reference to people that the speaker wishes to demo honour towards. This usage is an instance of the so-called T-V distinction that is made inwards many languages. The polite pronouns inwards Amharic are እርስዎ ǝrswo 'you (sg. polite)'. in addition to እሳቸው ǝssaččäw 's/he (polite)'. Although these forms are singular semantically—they refer to i person—they correspond to third-person plural elsewhere inwards the grammar, equally is mutual inwards other T-V systems. For the possessive pronouns, however, the polite 2nd mortal has the special suffix -wo 'your sg. pol.'
For possessive pronouns (mine, yours, etc.), Amharic adds the independent pronouns to the preposition yä- 'of': የኔ yäne 'mine', ያንተ yantä 'yours m. sg.', ያንቺ yanči 'yours f. sg.', የሷ yässwa 'hers', etc.
Reflexive pronouns
For reflexive pronouns ('myself', 'yourself', etc.), Amharic adds the possessive suffixes to the substantive ራስ ras 'head': ራሴ rase 'myself', ራሷ raswa 'herself', etc.
Demonstrative pronouns
Like English, Amharic makes a two-way distinction betwixt close ('this, these') in addition to far ('that, those') demonstrative expressions (pronouns, adjectives, adverbs). Besides number, equally inwards English, Amharic also distinguishes masculine in addition to feminine gender inwards the singular.
Amharic Demonstrative Pronouns
| Number, Gender | Near | Far | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Masculine | ይህ yǝh(ǝ) | ያ ya |
| Feminine | ይቺ yǝčči, ይህች yǝhǝčč | ያቺ yačči | |
| Plural | እነዚህ ǝnnäzzih | እነዚያ ǝnnäzziya | |
There are also separate demonstratives for formal reference, comparable to the formal personal pronouns: እኚህ ǝññih 'this, these (formal)' in addition to እኒያ ǝnniya 'that, those (formal)'.
The singular pronouns have got combining forms starting fourth dimension with zz instead of y when they follow a preposition: ስለዚህ sǝläzzih 'because of this; therefore', እንደዚያ ǝndäzziya 'like that'. Note that the plural demonstratives, similar the 2nd in addition to 3rd mortal plural personal pronouns, are formed yesteryear adding the plural prefix እነ ǝnnä- to the singular masculine forms.
Nouns
Amharic nouns tin last primary or derived. H5N1 substantive similar əgər 'foot, leg' is primary, in addition to a substantive similar əgr-äñña 'pedestrian' is a derived noun.
Gender
Amharic nouns tin have got a masculine or feminine gender. There are several ways to limited gender. An instance is the old suffix -t for femininity. This suffix is no longer productive in addition to is limited to for certain patterns in addition to some isolated nouns. Nouns in addition to adjectives ending inwards -awi usually pick out the suffix -t to shape the feminine form, e.g. ityop̣p̣ya-(a)wi 'Ethiopian (m.)' vs. ityop̣p̣ya-wi-t 'Ethiopian (f.)'; sämay-awi 'heavenly (m.)' vs. sämay-awi-t 'heavenly (f.)'. This suffix also occurs inwards nouns in addition to describing word based on the pattern qət(t)ul, e.g. nəgus 'king' vs. nəgəs-t 'queen' in addition to qəddus 'holy (m.)' vs. qəddəs-t 'holy (f.)'.
Some nouns in addition to adjectives pick out a feminine marking -it: ləǧ 'child, boy' vs. ləǧ-it 'girl'; bäg 'sheep, ram' vs. bäg-it 'ewe'; šəmagəlle 'senior, elderberry (m.)' vs. šəmagəll-it 'old woman'; t'ot'a 'monkey' vs. t'ot'-it 'monkey (f.)'. Some nouns have got this feminine marking without having a masculine opposite, e.g. šärär-it 'spider', azur-it 'whirlpool, eddy'. There are, however, also nouns having this -it suffix that are treated equally masculine: säraw-it 'army', nägar-it 'big drum'.
The feminine gender is non only used to betoken biological gender, but may also last used to limited smallness, e.g. bet-it-u 'the footling house' (lit. house-FEM-DEF). The feminine marking tin also serve to limited tenderness or sympathy.
Amhara man child with his tribal hairstyle
Specifiers
Amharic has special words that tin last used to betoken the gender of people in addition to animals. For people, wänd is used for masculinity in addition to set for femininity, e.g. wänd ləǧ 'boy', set ləǧ 'girl'; wänd hakim 'physician, physician (m.)', set hakim 'physician, physician (f.)'. For animals, the words täbat, awra, or wänd (less usual) tin last used to betoken masculine gender, in addition to anəst or set to betoken feminine gender. Examples: täbat t'əǧa 'calf (m.)'; awra doro 'cock (rooster)'; set doro 'hen'.
Amhara people
PluralThe plural suffix -očč is used to limited plurality of nouns. Some morphophonological alternations occur depending on the finally consonant or vowel. For nouns ending inwards a consonant, evidently -očč is used: bet 'house' becomes bet-očč 'houses'. For nouns ending inwards a dorsum vowel (-a, -o, -u), the suffix takes the shape -ʷočč, e.g. wəšša 'dog', wəšša-ʷočč 'dogs'; käbäro 'drum', käbäro-ʷočč 'drums'. Nouns that halt inwards a forepart vowel pluralize using -ʷočč or -yočč, e.g. ṣähafi 'scholar', ṣähafi-ʷočč or ṣähafi-yočč 'scholars'. Another possibility for nouns ending inwards a vowel is to delete the vowel in addition to utilisation evidently očč, equally inwards wəšš-očč 'dogs'.
Besides using the normal external plural (-očč), nouns in addition to adjectives tin last pluralized yesteryear way of reduplicating i of the radicals. For example, wäyzäro 'lady' tin pick out the normal plural, yielding wäyzär-očč, but wäyzazər 'ladies' is also found (Leslau 1995:173).
Some kinship-terms have got 2 plural forms with a slightly different meaning. For example, wändəmm 'brother' tin last pluralized equally wändəmm-očč 'brothers' but also equally wändəmmam-ač 'brothers of each other'. Likewise, əhət 'sister' tin last pluralized equally əhət-očč ('sisters'), but also equally ətəmm-am-ač 'sisters of each other'.
In chemical compound words, the plural marking is suffixed to the 2nd noun: betä krəstiyan 'church' (lit. business solid of Christian) becomes betä krəstiyan-očč 'churches'.
Amhara man
Archaic forms
Amsalu Aklilu has pointed out that Amharic has inherited a large issue of old plural forms straight from Classical Ethiopic (Ge'ez) (Leslau 1995:172). There are basically 2 archaic pluralizing strategies, called external in addition to internal plural. The external plural consists of adding the suffix -an (usually masculine) or -at (usually feminine) to the singular form. The internal plural employs vowel character or apophony to pluralize words, similar to English linguistic communication human being vs. men in addition to goose vs. geese. Sometimes combinations of the 2 systems are found. The archaic plural forms are sometimes used to shape novel plurals, but this is only considered grammatical inwards to a greater extent than established cases.
Examples of the external plural: mämhər 'teacher', mämhər-an; t'äbib 'wise person', t'äbib-an; kahən 'priest', kahən-at; qal 'word', qal-at.
Examples of the internal plural: dəngəl 'virgin', dänagəl; hagär 'land', ahəgur.
Examples of combined systems: nəgus 'king', nägäs-t; kokäb 'star', käwakəb-t; mäs'əhaf 'book', mäs'ahəf-t.
Smiling Amhara immature lady from Ethiopia
Definiteness
If a substantive is definite or specified, this is expressed yesteryear a suffix, the article, which is -u or -w for masculine singular nouns in addition to -wa, -itwa or -ätwa for feminine singular nouns. For example:
| masculine sg | masculine sg definite | feminine sg | feminine sg definite |
|---|---|---|---|
| bet | bet-u | gäräd | gärad-wa |
| house | the house | maid | the maid |
Accusative
Amharic has an accusative marker, -(ə)n. Its utilisation is related to the definiteness of the object, thus Amharic shows differential object marking. In general, if the object is definite, possessed, or a proper noun, the accusative must last used (Leslau 1995: pp. 181 ff.).
| ləǧ-u | wəšša-w-ən | abbarär-ä. | |
| child-def | dog-def-acc | chase-3msSUBJ | |
| 'The kid chased the dog.' | |||
| *ləǧ-u | wəšša-w | abbarär-ä. | |
| child-def | dog-def | chase-3msSUBJ | |
| 'The kid chased the dog.' | |||
The accusative suffix is usually placed after the foremost give-and-take of the substantive phrase:
| Yəh-ən | sä’at | gäzz-ä. |
| this-acc | watch | buy-3msSUBJ |
'He bought this watch.'
DialectsThere has non been much published well-nigh Amharic dialect differences. All dialects are mutually intelligible, but for certain little variations are noted.
Mittwoch described a shape of Amharic spoken yesteryear the descendants of Weyto linguistic communication speakers, but it was probable non a dialect of Amharic so much equally the outcome of incomplete linguistic communication learning equally the community shifted languages from Weyto to Amharic.
Ethiopian Amhara woman
Literature
There is a growing torso of literature inwards Amharic inwards many genres. This literature includes regime proclamations in addition to records, educational books, religious material, novels, poetry, saying collections, dictionaries (monolingual in addition to bilingual), technical manuals, medical topics, etc. The Holy Bible was foremost translated into Amharic yesteryear Abu Rumi inwards the early 19th century, but other translations of the Bible into Amharic have got been done since. The most famous Amharic novel is Fiqir Iske Meqabir (transliterated diverse ways) yesteryear Haddis Alemayehu (1909–2003), translated into English linguistic communication yesteryear Sisay Ayenew with the championship Love unto Crypt, published inwards 2005 (ISBN 978-1-4184-9182-6).
Amhara girl
Rastafari movement
The etymology of the give-and-take Rastafari comes from Amharic. Ras Täfäri was the pre-regnal championship of Haile Selassie I, composed of the Amharic words Ras (literally "Head", an Ethiopian championship equivalent to duke), in addition to Haile Selassie's pre-regnal name, Tafari.
Many Rastafarians larn Amharic equally a 2nd language, equally they consider it to last a sacred language. After Haile Selassie’s 1966 see to Jamaica, written report circles inwards Amharic were organized inwards Jamaica equally portion of the ongoing exploration of Pan-African identity in addition to culture. Various reggae artists inwards the 1970s, including Ras Michael, Lincoln Thompson in addition to Misty-in-Roots, have got sung inwards Amharic, thus bringing the linguistic communication to a wider audience. The Abyssinians have got also used Amharic most notably inwards the vocal Satta Massagana. The championship was believed to hateful "Give thanks" nonetheless this phrase is incorrect. Säţţä way "he gave" in addition to the give-and-take amässägänä for "thanks" or "praise" way "he thanked" or "he praised". The right way to say "give thanks" inwards Amharic is i word, misgana. The give-and-take "satta" has go a mutual aspect inwards Rastafari vocabulary pregnant "to sit down downwards in addition to partake".
Amhara adult woman from Rthiopia
History
Amhara descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled with indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah in addition to delineate their lineage all the way to King Solomon in addition to the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I.
There is a tape of hunting expeditions yesteryear the Ptolemean rulers of Arab Republic of Egypt inwards Ethiopia.
Lebna Dengel, nəgusä nägäst (Emperor) of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to a fellow member of the Solomonic dynasty.
Ptolemy III (245-222 b.c.) placed at the port of Adulis (near present-day Mesewa) a Greek inscription recording that he captured elephants, in addition to an inscribed block of stones with magical hieroglyphs. At the same port well-nigh a.d. 60, a Greek merchant named Periplus recorded the importation of atomic issue 26 in addition to the production of spears for hunting elephants, in addition to inwards a.d. 350 Aeizana, manful mortal monarch of Aksum, defeated the Nubians in addition to carried off atomic issue 26 in addition to bronze from Meroë.
Amhara human being in addition to Emperor Tewodros II, nəgusä nägäst Founder of Modern Ethiopia.
The Abyssinian tradition of the Solomonic dynasty, equally told inwards the Ge'ez-language volume Kebra Nagast (Honor of the Kings) refers to the dominion of Menilek I, well-nigh 975-950 b.c. It relates that he was the boy of Makeda, conceived from King Solomon during her see to Jerusalem. Interrupted inwards a.d. 927 yesteryear sovereigns of a Zagwe line, the Solomonic line was restored inwards 1260 in addition to claimed continuity until Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed inwards 1974. Abyssinian churches are soundless built on the regulation of Solomon's temple of Jerusalem, with a Holy of Holies department inwards the interior. Christianity came to Aksum inwards the 4th century a.d., when Greek-speaking Syrians converted the purplish family. This strain of Christianity retained a issue of Old Testament rules, some of which are observed to this day: the consumption of pork is forbidden; circumcision of boys takes identify well-nigh a calendar week after birth; upper-level priests consider Sat a solar daytime of rest, 2nd only to Sunday; weddings preferably pick out identify on Sunday, so that the presumed deflowering, after nightfall, is considered to have got taken identify on the eve of Monday. Ecclesiastic dominion over Abyssinia was administered early yesteryear the archbishop of Alexandria, detached only after World War II. At the Council of Chalcedon inwards a.d. 451, the theological Monophysites of Alexandria, including the Abyssinians, had broken away from the European church; hence the designation "Coptic."
The spread of Islam to regions surrounding it produced relative isolation inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from the 7th to the sixteenth centuries. During this period, the Solomonic dynasty was restored inwards 1260 inwards the province of Shewa yesteryear King Yekuno Amlak, who extended his realm from Abyssinia to some Cuchitic-speaking lands due south in addition to east. Amharic developed out of this linguistic blend. From fourth dimension to time, Europeans heard rumors of a Prester John, a Christian manful mortal monarch on the other side of the Muslim world. Using a vast issue of serfs on feudal church building territories, Abuna (archbishop) Tekle Haymanot built churches in addition to monasteries, often on easily defensible hilltops, such equally Debra Líbanos monastery inwards Shewa, which is soundless the most of import inwards Ethiopia.
With the Muslim conquest of somali terra firma inwards 1430, the band around Abyssinia was complete, in addition to lately Islamicized Oromo (Galla) seminomadic tribes from the due south invaded through the Rift Valley, burning churches in addition to monasteries. Some manuscripts in addition to church building paintings had to last hidden on islands on Lake Tana. When a 2nd moving ridge of invaders came, equipped with Turkish firearms, the Shewan manful mortal monarch Lebna Dengel sent a immature Armenian to Portugal to solicit aid. Before it could arrive, the Oromo leader Mohammed Grañ ("the lefthanded") attacked with the assistance of Arabs from Yemen, Somalis, in addition to Danakils in addition to proceeded equally far due north equally Aksum, which he razed, killing the manful mortal monarch inwards battle inwards 1540. His children in addition to the clergy took refuge on in addition to due north of Lake Tana. One twelvemonth later, Som Christofo Da Gama landed at Mesewa with 450 Portuguese musketeers; the slain king's son, Galaudeos (Claudius), fought on until he died inwards battle. The tide turned, however, in addition to inwards 1543 Mohammed Grañ roughshod inwards battle.
Shewa nevertheless remained settled yesteryear Oromo, who learned the agriculture of the region. The purplish household unit of measurement had only a tent urban nub inwards what became the town of Gonder. There the Portuguese built bridges in addition to castles, in addition to Jesuits began to convert the purplish household unit of measurement to Roman Christianity. King Za Dengel was the foremost purplish convert, but the Monophysite clergy organized a rebellion that led to his removal. His successor, King Susneos, had also been converted but was careful non to urge his people to convert; shortly earlier his expiry inwards 1632, he proclaimed religious freedom for all his subjects.
Amhara people
The novel king, Fasilidas (1632-1667), expelled the Portuguese in addition to restored the privileges of the Monophysite clergy. He—and afterward his boy in addition to grandson—employed workmen trained yesteryear the Portuguese to build the castles that stand upwards to this day. Special walled paths shielded the purplish household unit of measurement from mutual sight, but the king, spell sitting nether a fig tree, judged cases brought earlier him. H5N1 stone-lined H2O puddle was constructed nether his balcony, in addition to a mausoleum entombed his favorite horse. All these structures soundless exist. But the skills of stonemasonry afterward roughshod into disuse; warfare required mobility, which necessitated the formation of armed services tent cities. Portuguese viticulture was also lost (though the call of the middle elevation remains "Woyna Dega"), in addition to the clergy had to import raisins to make sacramental wine.
Gonder had been abandoned yesteryear the Solomonic line when a usurping commoner chieftain, Kassa, chose it equally the location to have got himself crowned King Theodore inwards 1855. He defeated the manful mortal monarch of Shewa in addition to held the dynastic heir, the man child Menilek II, hostage at his court. Theodore realized the urgency of uniting the many ethnic groups of the province into a nation, to forbid Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from losing its independence to European colonial powers. Thinking that all Europeans knew how to manufacture cannons, Theodore invited unusual technicians and, at first, fifty-fifty welcomed unusual missionaries. But when the latter proved unable to cast cannons for him in addition to fifty-fifty criticized his often violent behavior, he jailed in addition to chained British missionaries. This led to the Lord Napier expedition, which was welcomed in addition to assisted yesteryear the population of Tigray Province. When the fort of Magdalla fell, Theodore committed suicide. H5N1 conservative Tigray chief, Yohannes, was crowned at Aksum.
In 1889 the Muslim mahdi took reward of the disarray inwards Ethiopia; he razed Gonder in addition to devastated the subprovince of Dembeya, causing a severe in addition to prolonged famine. Meanwhile, the Shewan dynastic heir, Menilek II, had grown to manhood in addition to realized that Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia could no longer isolate itself if it were to retain independence. He proceeded, with patient persistence, to unify the country. As an Amhara from Shewa, he understood his Oromo neighbors in addition to won their loyalty with terra firma grants in addition to armed services alliances. He negotiated a settlement with the Tigray. He equipped his forces with firearms from whatever source, some fifty-fifty from the Italians (in telephone commutation for granting them territory inwards Eritrea).
His policies were so successful that he managed to defeat the Italian invasion at Adwa, inwards 1896, an trial that placed Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on the international map diplomatically. Empress Taitu liked the hot mineral springs of a district inwards Shewa, fifty-fifty though it was inwards an Oromo region, in addition to the emperor hence agreed to build his working capital alphabetic character there, naming it "Addis Ababa" (new flower). When expanding Addis Ababa threatened to exhaust the local fuel supply, Menilek ordered the importation of eucalyptus trees from Australia, which grew chop-chop during each three-month rainy season.
Menilek II died inwards 1913, in addition to his immature lady Zauditu became nominal head; a 2nd cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, became regent in addition to was crowned King of Kings Haile Selassie I inwards 1930. He made it possible for Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to bring together the League of Nations inwards 1923, yesteryear outlawing the slave trade. One of his foremost acts equally emperor was to grant his subjects a written constitution. He allied himself yesteryear spousal human relationship to the Oromo manful mortal monarch of Welo Province. When Mussolini invaded Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards 1935, Emperor Haile Selassie appeared inwards Geneva to plead his instance earlier the League, alert that his province would non last the finally victim of aggression. The Italian work ended inwards 1941 with give upwards to the British in addition to homecoming of the emperor. During succeeding decades, the emperor promoted an educated elite in addition to sought assistance from the United States, rather than the British, inwards diverse fields. Beginning inwards well-nigh 1960, a young, educated generation of Ethiopians grew increasingly impatient with the slowness of development, especially inwards the political sphere. At the same time, the aging emperor, who was suffering retention loss, was losing his powerfulness to maintain control. In 1974 he was deposed, in addition to he died a twelvemonth later. The revolutionary committees, claiming to follow a Marxist ideology, formed armed services dictatorships that deported villagers nether conditions of swell suffering in addition to executed students in addition to each other without legal trials. Dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam fled Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards May 1991 equally Eritrean in addition to Tigrayan rebel armies approached from the north. The province remains largely rural; traditional civilization patterns in addition to way of survival are the norm.
Settlements
The typical rural settlement is the hamlet, tis, called mender if several are linked on i large hill. The hamlet may consist of 2 to a dozen huts. Thus, the hamlet is often footling to a greater extent than than an isolated or semi-isolated farmstead, in addition to some other hamlet may last unopen yesteryear if their plowed fields are near. Four factors appear to create upwards one's heed where a hamlet is probable to last situated: ecological considerations, such equally H2O within a woman's walking distance, or available pasturage for the flock; kinship considerations—persons within a hamlet are nearly ever related in addition to shape a household unit of measurement economical community; administrative considerations, such equally inherited household unit of measurement ownership of land, tenancy of terra firma belonging to a feudal lord of old times, or continuing understanding with the nearby church building that had held the terra firma equally a fief upwards to 1975 in addition to continues to have portion of the crop inwards telephone commutation for its services; in addition to ethnic considerations. H5N1 hamlet may last solely inhabited yesteryear Falasha blacksmiths in addition to pottery makers or Faqi tanners. Most of the Falasha have got forthwith left Ethiopia.
To avoid existence flooded during the rainy season, settlements are typically built on or close hilltops. There is usually a valley inwards between, where brooks or irrigation canals shape the border for planted fields. The hillsides, if non terrace farmed, serve equally pasturage for all hamlets on the hill. Not only sheep in addition to goats, but also cows, climb over fairly steep, bushy hillsides to feed. Carrying H2O in addition to branches for fuel is soundless considered a woman's job, in addition to she may have got to climb for several hours from the nearest year-round H2O supply. The hamlet is usually patrilocal in addition to patrilineal. When spousal human relationship occurs, usually early inwards life, a boy may have utilisation of portion of his father's rented (or owned) patch in addition to build his hut nearby. If no terra firma is available owing to fragmentation, the boy may reluctantly last compelled to found himself at the bride's hamlet. When warfare has killed off the adult males inwards a hamlet, in-laws may also last able to displace in. Some hamlets are fenced inwards yesteryear thorn bushes against night-roving hyenas in addition to to corral cattle. Calves in addition to the household unit of measurement mule may last taken into the living hut at night. There is usually at to the lowest degree i violent reddish-brown domestic dog inwards each hamlet.
Economy
Much Amhara ingenuity has long been invested inwards the direct exploitation of natural resources. An Amhara would rather pass equally much fourth dimension equally necessary searching for suitably shaped hard or soft saplings for a walking cane than perform carpentry, which is traditionally largely limited to constructing the master copy bed (alga ), wooden saddles, in addition to elementary musical instruments. Soap is obtained yesteryear crushing the fruit of the endod (Pircunia abyssinica ) bush. Tannin for depilation of hides in addition to curing is obtained from the yellowish fruit of the embway bush. Butter is preserved in addition to perfumed yesteryear boiling it with the leaves of the odes (myrtle) bush. In times of crop failure, edible stone oil is obtained yesteryear gathering in addition to crushing wild-growing sunflower seeds (Carthamus tinctorus ). If necessary, leaves of the lola bush tin last split yesteryear women to bake the festive breadstuff dabbo. The dearest of a small, tiny-stingered bee (Apis dorsata ) is gathered to make alcoholic mead, tej, whereas the dearest of the wild bee tazemma (Apis Africans miaia ) is gathered to care for colds in addition to ticker ailments. Fishing is mostly limited to the three-month rainy season, when rivers are total in addition to the H2O is dingy from runoff so that the fish cannot view the fishers. Hunting elephants used to last a sport of immature feudal nobles, but hunting for ivory took identify largely inwards non-Amhara regions. Since rifles became available inwards Amhara farming regions, Ethiopian duikers in addition to guinea fowl have got nearly disappeared.
„A immature shepherd man child rugs upwards inwards the Simien Mountains, Amhara“. yesteryear Lonely Planet Images
Subsistence farming provides the main economic scheme for most rural Amhara. The traditional method required much terra firma to prevarication fallow because no fertilization was applied. Cattle manure is formed into apartment cakes, Sun dried, in addition to used equally fuel for cooking. New land, if available, is cleared yesteryear the slash-and-burn method. H5N1 wooden scratch turn with a pointed atomic issue 26 tip, pulled yesteryear oxen, is the main farming tool. Insecurity of terra firma tenure has long been a major factor inwards discouraging Amhara farmers from producing to a greater extent than than the amount required for subsistence. The sharecropping peasant (gabbar ) was footling to a greater extent than than a serf who feared the (often absentee) feudal landlord or armed services quartering that would absorb whatever surplus. The revolutionary regime (1975-1991) added additional fears yesteryear its villagization program, moving peasants at command to facilitate province command in addition to deporting peasants to the due south of Ethiopia, where many perished owing to pathetic regime planning in addition to support.
The preferred crop of the Amhara is tyeff (Eragrostis abyssinica; Poa abyssinica ), the little seeds of which are rich inwards iron. At lower or drier elevations, several sorghums (durras) are grown: mashella (Andropogon sorghum), often mixed with the costlier tyeff bloom to bake the flapjack breadstuff injera; zengada (Eleusina multiforme), grown equally crop insurance; in addition to dagussa (Eleusine coracana, or tocusso ), used equally an ingredient inwards beer together with barley. Wheat (Triticum spp.), sendē, is grown inwards higher elevations in addition to is considered a luxury. Barley (Hordeum spp.), gebs, is a year-round crop, used primarily for brewing talla, a mild beer, or to popular a parched grain, gebs qolo, a ready snack kept available for guests. Maize, bahēr mashella, is recognized equally a foreign-introduced crop.
Amhara farmers
The most of import vegetable stone oil derives from nug (Guizotia abyssinica ), the dark Niger seed, in addition to from talba (Linum usitatissimum ), flax seed. Cabbage (gomen ) is regarded equally a pathetic food. Chick-peas are appreciated equally a staple that is non expected to neglect fifty-fifty inwards state of war in addition to famine; they are consumed during the Lenten season, equally are peas. Onions in addition to garlic are grown equally ingredients for wot, the spicy stew that also contains beans, may include chicken, in addition to ever features spicy crimson peppers—unless sick heath prevents their consumption. Lentils substitute for meat during fasting periods. The raising of livestock is traditionally non straight related to available pasture, but to agriculture in addition to the want for prestige. Oxen are needed to draw the plow, but traditionally at that topographic point was no breeding to obtain skillful milkers. Coffee may grow wild, but the beans are usually bought at a marketplace seat in addition to crushed in addition to boiled inwards forepart of guests; salt—but non sugar—may last added.
Division of Labor
Although much needed, the castelike skilled occupations similar blacksmithing, pottery making, in addition to tanning are held inwards depression esteem and, inwards rural regions, are usually associated with a socially excluded ethnic grouping. Moreover, ethnic workmanship is suspected of having been acquired yesteryear dealings with evil spirits that enable the artisans to turn themselves into hyenas at nighttime to eat corpses, drive diseases yesteryear staring, in addition to turn humans into donkeys to utilize their labor.
Such fake accusations tin last really serious. On the other hand, the magic powerfulness accredited to these workers is believed to brand their products strong, whereas those manufactured yesteryear an outsider who powerfulness have got learned the merchandise would presently break. The merchandise of weaving is non afflicted yesteryear such suspicions, although it is sometimes associated with Muslims or migrants from the south.
Land Tenure
Land tenure with traditional rural Amhara resembled that of medieval Europe to a greater extent than than that found elsewhere inwards Africa. Feudal institutions required the gabbar to perform labor (hudād ) for his lord in addition to allocated terra firma utilisation inwards telephone commutation for armed services service, gult. In a scheme resembling the European entail, inheritable land, rest, was dependent to taxation (which could last passed on to the sharecroppers) in addition to to expropriation inwards instance of rebellion against the king. Over the centuries, endowed terra firma was added to fief-holding church building land, in addition to debber ager. Royal household lands were classified equally mād-bet, in addition to melkenya terra firma was granted to taxation collectors. Emperor Haile Selassie attempted to modify the feudal scheme early inwards his administration. He defeated feudal armies, but was stymied inwards abrogating feudalistic terra firma tenure, especially inwards the Amhara region, yesteryear feudal lords such equally Ras Kassa. The parliament that he had called into existence had no existent powerfulness All remaining feudal terra firma tenure was abrogated during the revolutionary dictatorship (1975-1991), but feudalistic attitudes practiced yesteryear rural officials, such equally shum shir (frequently moving lower officials to other positions to maintain control), appear to have got persisted.
Kinship
The extended patrilocal, patrilineal, patriarchal household unit of measurement is especially strong with holders of residuum terra firma tenure, but is found, inwards principle, fifty-fifty on the hamlet flat of sharecroppers. There are several levels of kin, zemed, which also include those yesteryear affinity, amachenet. In thought of the emphasis on seeking safety inwards kinship relations, at that topographic point are also several formal methods of establishing fictive kinship, zemed hone, provided the mortal to last adopted is attentam ("of skillful bones," i.e., non of Shanqalla slave ancestry). Full adoption provides a thorax begetter (yetut abbat ) or a thorax woman parent (yetut ennat ). The traditional populace ceremony included coating the nipples with dearest in addition to simulating breast-feeding, fifty-fifty if the kid was already inwards adolescence.
Beautiful Amhara woman
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. There are 3 predominant types of spousal human relationship inwards Amhara tradition. The 3 types of spousal human relationship inwards Amhara tradition:
Eucharist church building spousal human relationship (Qurban)
Kin-negotiated civil spousal human relationship (Semanya) and
Temporary spousal human relationship (Damoz)
Only a minority—the priesthood, some older persons, in addition to nobility—engage inwards eucharistic church building spousal human relationship (qurban ). No divorce is possible. Widows in addition to widowers may remarry, except for priests, who are instead expected to go monks.
Kin-negotiated civil spousal human relationship (semanya; lit., "eighty") is most common. (Violation of the oath of spousal human relationship used to last penalized yesteryear a fine of 80 Maria Theresa thalers.) No church building ceremony is involved, but a priest may last nowadays at the marriage ceremony to bless the couple. Divorce, which involves the sectionalization of belongings in addition to conclusion of custody of children, tin last negotiated. Temporary spousal human relationship (damoz ) obliges the hubby to pay housekeeper's reward for a catamenia stated inwards advance. This was felt to last an essential scheme inwards an economic scheme where eating seat in addition to hotel services were non available.
The term is a contraction of demewez, "blood in addition to sweat" (compensation). The contract, although oral, was earlier witnesses in addition to was hence enforceable yesteryear courtroom order. The married adult woman had no right of inheritance, but if children were conceived during the contract period, they could brand a claim for portion of the father's property, should he die. Damoz rights were fifty-fifty recognized inwards modern police push clit during the dominion of Emperor Haile Selassie.
Socialization inwards the domestic unit of measurement begins with the naming of the infant (giving him or her the "world name"), a privilege that usually belongs to the mother. She may base of operations it on her predominant emotion at the fourth dimension (e.g., Desta [joy] or Almaz [diamond]), on a important trial occurring at the time, or on a special wishing she may have got for the personality or futurity of her infant (Seyum, "to last appointed to dignity").
Amhara schoolhouse kids
Socialization
Breast-feeding may finally 2 years, during which the nursling is never out of send on with the torso of the woman parent or some other woman. Until they are weaned, at well-nigh historic catamenia 7, children are treated with permissiveness, inwards contrast to the authoritarian grooming that is to follow. The province of argue in addition to incipient dependent area begins gradually at well-nigh historic catamenia 5 for girls in addition to 7 for boys. The old aid their mothers inwards watching babies in addition to fetching wood; boys pick out sheep in addition to cows to pasture and, with slingshots, guard crops against birds in addition to baboons. Both tin last questioned inwards courtroom to limited preferences concerning guardianship inwards instance of their parents' divorce. Neglect of duty is punished yesteryear immediate scolding in addition to beating.
Formal instruction inwards the traditional rural church building schoolhouse rarely began earlier historic catamenia 11 for boys. Hazing patterns to essay out courage are mutual with boys equally they grow up, both physically in addition to verbally. Girls are enculturated to appear shy, but may play business solid with boys prior to adolescence. Adolescence is the starting fourth dimension of stricter obedience for both sexes, compensated yesteryear pride inwards existence assigned greater responsibilities. Young men are addressed equally ashker in addition to do most of the plowing; yesteryear historic catamenia 18 they may last addressed equally gobez, signifying (strong, handsome) immature warrior. On the Temqet (baptism of Jesus) festival, the immature men encounter each other inwards teams to compete inwards the game of guks, a tournament fought on horseback with blunt, wooden lances, inwards which injuries are avoided yesteryear ducking or protecting oneself with leather shields. At Christmas, a hockeylike game called genna is played in addition to celebrated yesteryear boasting (fukkara ). Female adolescents are addressed equally qonjo (beautiful), no longer equally leja-gered (servant maid), unless criticized. Singing loudly inwards groups spell gathering firewood attracts groups of immature men, away from parental supervision. Young men in addition to women also encounter next the guks in addition to genna games, wearing novel clothes in addition to traditional makeup in addition to hairstyles. Outdoor flirting reaches a peak on Easter (Fassika), at the halt of the dry out season.
Domestic Unit
The traditional historic catamenia of a immature lady at foremost spousal human relationship may last equally immature equally 14, to protect her virginity, in addition to to enable the groom to tame her to a greater extent than easily. H5N1 groom 3 to v years older than the bride is preferred. To protect the bride against excessive violence, she is assigned 2 best men, who hold off behind a drape equally the spousal human relationship is consummated; later, she may telephone telephone on them inwards instance of batter.
The term shemagelyē signifies an elderberry in addition to connotes seriousness, wisdom, in addition to command of human relations within the residential kin grouping or beyond. He may last 40 years of historic catamenia in addition to already a grandfather. There is no automatic equivalency for elderberry women, but they tin pick out the qob of a nun in addition to proceed to alive at abode spell working inwards the churchyard, baking breadstuff in addition to brewing beer for the priests. Only women yesteryear menopause, usually widows, are accepted equally nuns yesteryear the Monophysite Aybssinian church. Younger women are non considered sufficiently serious to last able to deny their sexual activity drives.
Inheritance patterns:
Though the authorisation of the household caput is thus relatively independent of kinship ties, the land-use rights on which the household equally an economical unit of measurement relies are not, for plots of terra firma in addition to potential rights to additional plots are inherited bilaterally—that is, yesteryear sons in addition to daughters (or their husbands or children) through both parents.
Amhara elders
In Amhara theory these actual in addition to potential rights, both of which are termed rist, are rights to a portion of the terra firma foremost held yesteryear an illustrious ancestor (a principal ancestor or wanna abbat ) whose call the terra firma soundless bears. The arable lands inwards older Amhara regions are these ancestral blocks, which vary from i one-half to 2 or 3 foursquare kilometers inwards area. In Amhara legal theory rist rights inwards these lands are the inalienable in addition to inextinguishable birthright of all the foremost ancestor’s descendant’s inwards all lines, regardless of whether or non the rights were utilized yesteryear intermediate lineal ancestors inwards the claimant’s pedigree. In fact, most claims are forgotten.
Amhara girl
Though rist terra firma rights are “hereditary,” the amount of terra firma a human being tin command yesteryear virtue of these rights is dependent, higher upwards all, on his political influence; in addition to terra firma utilisation rights over plots are considered to last held yesteryear individuals.
Amhara family
Social organisation is linked to terra firma tenure of kinfolk, feudalistic traditions in addition to the church, ethnic sectionalization of labor, gender, in addition to historic catamenia status. The peasant class is divided betwixt landowning farmers, who, fifty-fifty though they have got no formal political power, tin thwart distant regime powerfulness yesteryear their rural remoteness, pathetic roads, in addition to weight of numbers, in addition to the sharecroppers, who have got no such powerfulness against local landlords. Fear of a mortal who engages inwards a skilled occupation, tebib (lit., "the knowing one," to whom supernatural secrets are revealed), enters into class stratification, especially for blacksmiths, pottery makers, in addition to tanners. They are despised equally members of a lower caste, but their products are needed, in addition to hence they are tolerated. Below them on the social scale are the descendants of slaves who used to last imported from the negroid Shanqalla of the Sudanese border, or the Nilotic Barya, so that both damage became synonymous with "slave."
Social command is traditionally maintained, in addition to conflict situations are resolved, inwards accordance with the powerfulness hierarchy. Judges interpret laws subjectively in addition to brand no sudden distinction betwixt civil in addition to criminal procedures. In add-on to written Abyssinian in addition to church building laws, at that topographic point are unwritten codes, such equally the payment of blood coin to the kin of a murder victim. An aggrieved mortal could appeal to a higher authorisation yesteryear lying prostrate inwards his path in addition to shouting "abyet" (hear me). Contracts did non have got to last written, provided at that topographic point were reliable witnesses. To obtain a loan or a job, a personal guarantor (was ) is necessary, in addition to the was tin also human activity equally bondsman to maintain an defendant out of jail. The drama of litigation, to verbalise good inwards court, is much appreciated. Even children enact it with the proper torso linguistic communication of pointing a toga at the jurist to emphasize the speech.
Amhara girl
The religious belief of most Amhara is Monophysite--that is, Tewahedo (Orthodox)--Christianity, to such an extent that the term "Amhara" is used synonymously with "Abyssinian Christian." Christian Amhara have on a blueish cervix cord (METEB), to distinguish themselves from Muslims.
There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs.
Ethiopian Church priest in addition to his censer. (Timkat ceremony) at northern Ethiopia
First, at that topographic point is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, in addition to the saints in addition to angels inwards Heaven. Second, at that topographic point are the zar in addition to the adbar spirits, “protectors” who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical in addition to emotional safety in addition to who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the do of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a class of people who possess the evil eye, in addition to who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendents of God’s “chosen children.” The 4th category of beliefs includes the [unknown]ciraq in addition to satan, ghouls in addition to devils that prowl the countryside, creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
H5N1 2nd of import influence inwards the evolution of Amhara civilization was heralded yesteryear the introduction of Christianity during the 4th century. These foremost missionaries were men from the eastern Mediterranean and, after the swell schism announced at Chalcedon, the Ethiopian Church continued its ties with the Orthodox faction, equally a dependency of the Coptic See of Alexandria. The success of Islam, sweeping across Arab Republic of Egypt in addition to Nubia, severely limited contact betwixt the Abyssinian highland in addition to the residuum of Christendom. In consequence, the evolution of the Ethiopian Coptic Church and, ultimately, of its human relationship to Amhara civilization has been to a greater extent than substantially influenced yesteryear autochthonous forces than would otherwise have got been the case.
The influence of the Church is nowhere to a greater extent than apparent than inwards a review of Amhara art. The Amhara have got no concept which approximates “art” equally it is used inwards English, in addition to each of the varieties of Amhara graphic art—Church painting, occult drawing, in addition to tattooing—is considered discrete, a distinctive musical instrument to attain particular ends. Painting, for example, is largely didactic, depicting biblical scenes in addition to personages, episodes from the lives of the saints in addition to the history of the Church. In a vogue of obvious Byzantine affinity, the painter sets these motifs inwards contiguous panels upon the muslin-faced walls in addition to ceilings of highland churches.
The mystical drawing is known inwards Amharic equally telsem (cognate of the English linguistic communication “talisman”) in addition to differs radically from the church building icon inwards form, intent, in addition to production. Ethiopian talismans, sewn into a leather amulet together with the appropriate herbal ingredients, are worn to ward off the numerous satans, persecutors of human being in addition to foes of the Church, who alive inwards the forests, lakes, in addition to rivers of the countryside in addition to inwards the hearth ashes in addition to beer dregs of the home. Both the church building painter in addition to talisman drawer are ecclesiastics, since a religious instruction is the sole way of acquiring the literacy in addition to special cognition required yesteryear these endeavors. Indeed, the paintings in addition to drawings accompanying this article are the piece of work of a unmarried private who lives inwards Gondar town (about xxx miles due north of Lake Tana), national working capital alphabetic character during the seventeenth in addition to eighteenth centuries.
Amhara people
Ceremonies
Ceremonies often grade the annual wheel for the public, despite the sacredotal emphasis of the religion. The calendar of Abyssinia is Julian, but the twelvemonth begins on 11 September, next ancient Egyptian usage, in addition to is called amete mehrāt (year of grace). Thus, the Abyssinian twelvemonth 1948 a.m. corresponds roughly with the Gregorian (Western) a.d. 1956.
The novel twelvemonth begins with the calendar month of Meskerem, which follows the rainy flavor in addition to is named after the foremost religious holy solar daytime of the year, Mesqel-abeba, celebrating the Feast of the Cross. On the seventeenth day, huge poles are stacked upwards for the bonfire inwards the evening, with much populace parading, dancing, in addition to feasting. By contrast, Christmas (Ledet) has footling social significance except for the genna game of the immature men. Far to a greater extent than of import is Epiphany (Temqet), on the eleventh solar daytime of Ter. Ceremonial parades escort the priests who send the tabot, symbolic of the holy ark, on their heads, to a H2O pool. There are all-night services, populace feasting, in addition to prayers for plentiful rains.
Amhara Boy From Bahir Dar, West Gojam, Amhara Region inwards Ethiopia
This is the halt of the genna flavor in addition to the starting fourth dimension of the guks tournaments fought on horseback yesteryear the immature men. The long Lenten flavor is approaching, in addition to clergy equally good equally the populace appear forwards to the feasting at Easter (Fassika), on the seventeenth solar daytime of Miyazya. Children have novel clothes in addition to collect gifts, chanting business solid to house. Even the voluntary fraternal association mehabber is said to have got originated from the do of private communion. Members pick out turns equally hosts at monthly meetings, drinking barley beer together with the confessor-priest, who intones prayers. Members are expected to human activity equally a mutual assistance society, raising regular contributions, extending loans, fifty-fifty paying for the tazkar (formal memorial service) 40 days after a member's death, if his household unit of measurement cannot afford it.
Amhara people
When expiry is approaching, elderberry kin of the dying mortal convey the confessor, in addition to the finally volition concerning inheritance is pronounced. Fields are given to patrilineal descendants, cattle to all offspring. Personal belongings, such equally ox cover mats in addition to a SHAMMA (toga), may last given to the confessor, who administers finally rites in addition to assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard.
The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a SHAMMA, carried to church building for the mass, in addition to buried, traditionally without a marking except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief with loud keening in addition to wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk go far to console the relatives of the deceased. H5N1 memorial feast (TAZKAR) is held 40 days after death, when the soul has the earliest chance to last freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the FETET, the prayer for absolution, in addition to materials, food, in addition to imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (DASS) is erected, in addition to fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate in addition to eat equally much TALLA in addition to WOT equally available.
Clothing/Costume
Whether it is at a church building service or at court, on the trail or inwards the privacy of the homestead, decorous in addition to elaborate forms of speech, dress, in addition to gesture are employed yesteryear the Amhara to limited toward i some other appropriate degrees of subordination in addition to superordination. In virtually all of these situations it is possible (with adequate knowledge) to discern a pattern of ranking, an ordered deviation inwards the amount of deference that people give in addition to receive. An accidental or transitional lapse inwards this orientation causes the Amhara discomfort or embarrassment. There is a 2nd of confusion or deliberate “not noticing” spell people rearrange their positioning in addition to their habiliment so equally to satisfactorily reorder the scene with regard to the main sources of secular or sacred authority.
Amhara adult woman wearing traditional Amhara dress
Food
The Amhara similar other Ethiopian staple foods are mainly their grains, which are Tef, Barley, in addition to Emmer Wheat. Grains are grinded inwards the abode or inwards a local mill, with the latter alternative existence to a greater extent than in addition to to a greater extent than common. These grains are made into a breadstuff called injera. Injera is a thin, pancake-like, sour, leavened bread. Which grain is used depends on which is the main crop inwards a specific area. Injera has been made yesteryear the people of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia since at to the lowest degree 100 B.C. This breadstuff is usually accompanied yesteryear a sauce called wot. Some mutual types of wat are geyy wat, dorro wat in addition to allicha wat. Pictured below is Doro Wat. This is the national dish of Ethiopia.
Food items of flora rootage are cereals, legumes, vegetables, tubers, spices, oilseeds, in addition to fruit. Cereals consist of teff, corn, sorghum, barley wheat in addition to millet. The most mutual legumes are chickpeas, patch peas, lentils, in addition to broad beans. The most mutual vegetables are onions, kale, pumpkins, in addition to greenish chickpeas. The most mutual tubers are potatoes, sugariness potatoes, galla potatoes. Spices are extremely of import in addition to the most of import are chili in addition to bird’s-eye chili. These spices are used inwards the spice mixtures berberre in addition to mitmitta. Additionally the oilseeds of niger flax, sunflowers, in addition to safflowers are in addition to of import cash crop in addition to fruit is non grown inwards large quantities. The most mutual fruits are lemons in addition to bananas.
Gondar, Amhara Region, Ethiopia: injera with meat - Ethiopian food
Food items of creature rootage consist of milk, cow, sheep, or goat, chicken, fish. Ethiopian people do non eat pork. Milk is mainly given to little children in addition to it is used to brand sour milk, butter in addition to low-fat sour-milk cheese. The wealthy class tin afford meats but the bulk of the population only tin serve meat at ceremonial occasions.
In addition, Coffee is some other nutrient staple inwards Ethiopia. Drinking java is the most of import social portion with the women inwards a hamlet in addition to inwards some institutions. Women should non last disturbed during their java drinking hours. Coffee is usually served with a little snack, such equally toasted cereals, legumes, or a slice injera. The potable for weekdays is the local beer called tella in addition to for feasts it is dearest vino called tejj. It is considered polite to serve a potable drinking glass so total that it overflows, in addition to also to serve a 2nd drinking glass equally presently equally the foremost is finished.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Christians participate in fasts. The fasting rules dictate that nutrient should non include whatever creature origin, with the exception of fish. Therefore, the main ingredient inwards the wot has to last of vegetable origin. Fish is to a greater extent than often than non likewise expensive for the bulk of people inwards Ethiopia; hence they eat nutrient mainly based of vegetable origins.
Adornment (beads, feathers, lip plates, etc.):
Many designs are specific for torso expanse in addition to ailment; the zigzag, for example, customarily appears equally multiple necklaces in addition to is directed against goiter. Other patterns may last inscribed on several areas; circles in addition to crucifixes appear on forehead in addition to temples to forbid recurrent headaches, on the forearm for musculus paralysis, in addition to at joints for rheumatism.
Amhara girl
The effectiveness of the designs is yesteryear way of an unknown modus vivendi, in addition to excogitation is discouraged on this account. Cosmetic in addition to medical motives are often hard to distinguish from i another: Prophylactic in addition to therapeutic tattoos on human face upwards in addition to pharynx are often regarded equally fortuitously enhancing the bearer’s beauty.
Amhara girl
Similarly, essentially decorative tattooing is sometimes given a secondary, prophylactic, rationale; the “beaded ankle” motif, for example, is believed to attract the witch’s evil oculus away from the vulnerable oral fissure area.
Amhara adult woman from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia with her forehead tattooed inwards Cross design
Arts
Verbal arts—such equally bedanya check (speaking good earlier a judge)—are highly esteemed inwards full general Amhara culture, but at that topographic point is a pronounced class distinction betwixt the speech communication of the rustic peasant, balager (hence belegē, unpolished, sometimes fifty-fifty vulgar), in addition to chowa lij, upper-class speech. H5N1 farther differentiation within the latter is the speech communication of those whose traditional instruction has included sewassow (Ge'ez: grammar; lit., "ladder," "uplifting"), which is fully mastered mainly yesteryear church building scholars; the speeches of old emperor Haile Selassie, who had also mastered sewas-sow, impressed the average layperson equally esoteric in addition to hard to understand, in addition to hence all the to a greater extent than to last respected. In the arts of politeness, veiled mockery, puns with double meanings, such equally semmena-worq (wax in addition to gold), fifty-fifty partial cognition of grammer is an advantage. The draping of the toga (shamma) is used at courtroom in addition to other occasions to emphasize spoken words, or to communicate fifty-fifty without speech. It is draped differently to limited social status inwards deference to a mortal of high status, on different occasions, in addition to fifty-fifty to limited moods ranging from outgoing in addition to expansive to calm sobriety, to sadness, reserve, pride, social distance, desperate pleading, religious devotion, in addition to so on. Artistic aspect inwards the fine arts had long been linked to the church, equally inwards paintings, in addition to sponsorship yesteryear feudal lords who could afford it, especially when giving feasts celebrated with a multifariousness of musical instruments.
Medicine.
The basic concepts in addition to practices of Amhara medicine tin last traced to ancient Arab Republic of Egypt in addition to the ancient Near East in addition to tin also last attributed to regional ecological links within Ethiopia. Often no sudden distinctions are made betwixt bodily in addition to spiritual ailments, but at that topographic point are special occupations: the woggesha (surgeon-herbologist) is a pragmatist inwards practice; the debtera (scribe) invokes the spirit world. The latter is officially or unofficially linked to the church, but the zar cult is apart in addition to may fifty-fifty last woman mortal dominated. Its spirit healing has a complex cosmology; it involves the social status of the patient in addition to includes grouping therapy. The principal zar physician is often a matriarch who entered the profession when she herself was possessed yesteryear a spirit; she has managed to command some powerful spirits that she tin so employ inwards her battles to overcome the spirits that possess her patients. No cure is expected, only command through negotiation in addition to appeasement of the offended spirit, inwards the promise of turning it into a weqabi (protective spirit).
Many men consider the zar cult effeminate in addition to consult its doctors yesteryear stealth only, at night. Husbands may resent the fiscal outlays if their wives are patients, but fearfulness the wives' relapse into hysterical or catatonic states. Women, whose participation inwards the Abyssinian church building is severely limited, uncovering aspect inwards the zar cult. The zar doctors at Gonder handgrip their annual convention on the twenty-third nighttime of the calendar month of Yekatit, only earlier the starting fourth dimension of the Monophysite Christian Lent (Kudade; lit., "suffering"). There is much chanting, dancing, drumming, in addition to consumption of diverse drinks at the love feasts of the zars. Poor patients who are unable to pay with coin or commodities tin piece of work off their debts inwards labor service to the cult—waitressing, weaving baskets, fetching H2O in addition to fuel, brewing barley beer, in addition to so forth. They are to a greater extent than often than non analyzed yesteryear the zar physician equally existence possessed yesteryear a low-status zar spirit.
By contrast, possession yesteryear an evil spirit (buda ) is considered to a greater extent than serious in addition to less manageable than possession yesteryear a zar, in addition to at that topographic point is no cult. An travail is made to forbid it yesteryear wearing amulets in addition to avoiding tebib persons, who are skilled inwards trades similar blacksmithing in addition to pottery making. Since these spirits are believed to strike beautiful or successful persons, such individuals—especially if they are children—must non last praised out loud. If a mortal sickens in addition to wastes away, an exorcism yesteryear the church building may last attempted, or a tanqway (divinersorcerer) may last consulted; however, the latter recourse is considered risky in addition to shameful.
Death in addition to Afterlife
When an elderberry is close death, other elders from his kin grouping convey the confessor in addition to say to him, "Confess yourself." Then they enquire him for his finally will—what to acquire out to his children in addition to what for his soul (the church). The confessor gives finally rites and, after death, assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard. The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a shamma, carried to church building for the mass, in addition to buried, traditionally without a marking except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief with loud keening in addition to wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk go far to console. H5N1 memorial feast (tazkar) is held 40 days after the expiry of a human being or a woman, when the soul has the earliest chance to last freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the fetet, the prayer for absolution, in addition to materials, food, in addition to imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (dass ) is erected, in addition to fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate in addition to eat equally much talla in addition to wot equally available.
Source:http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Amhara.aspx
A BRIEF NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF THE AMARA AND OROMO
By Fikre Tolossa
I gave my give-and-take finally nighttime to Ato Zewge Fanta in addition to Wondimu Mekonnen that I would provide briefly the genealogy of the Amara. This information is based on on my reading of Ethiopian history in addition to Metsehafe Djan Shewa, (an ancient Ethiopian manuscript inwards Geez discovered yesteryear Meri Ras Aman Belay, inwards the ruins of an Ethiopian church building inwards Nubia, a portion of the Ethiopian Empire) which has been, translated into Amharic, abridged in addition to published equally Metsehafe Subae yesteryear the discoverer himself. According to this ancient manuscript, both the Amara in addition to the Oromo are the descendants of i human being or father- Melchizedek, King of Salem the highest priest of God on Earth, founder of Jerusalem to whom Abraham in addition to other kings bowed in addition to paid tithes to have his blessings.
About 2000 years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ, God ordered Melchizedek to send his boy Ethel who was named equally Ethiop afterward on yesteryear God, to go in addition to settle inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia at the islands of Lake Tana, the source of the River Nile. God sent Ethel (meaning the gift of God) to Ethiopia, so that when God (Jesus Christ) is born equally a human existence 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethel would convey him to Bethlehem Ethiopian gifts such equally yellowish gold, myrrh in addition to incense, led yesteryear a star which would appear inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to atomic number 82 them to Bethlehem. Accordingly Ethel went to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to settled inwards what is today known equally Gojjam. God changed his call from Ethel to "Ethiop" pregnant "the gift of yellowish aureate to God". Thus, non only Ethel became Ethiop, but the terra firma inwards which he settled also started to last called "Ethiopia". Lo in addition to behold, 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethiop became 12 kings inwards the so Ethiopian Empire. They headed for Bethlehem with gifts led yesteryear the star which God had said would atomic number 82 them. Now Ethiop begat thirteen children- 10 boys in addition to 3 girls. The boys were: Atiba, Bior, Biora, Temna, Ater, Ashan, Azib, Berissa, Tesbi, Tola (by the way, the call of my uncle, the blood brother of my begetter Tolossa, was Tola.), in addition to Azeb. The girls were, Loza, Milka in addition to Suba. All of them became the fathers in addition to mothers of many, many Ethiopian tribes. Out of the 10 boys of Ethiop, I volition pick out only the line of i of them- the line of Bior in addition to demo that the Amara in addition to Oromo descend from him. Ethiop begat Bior, Bior begat Aram, Aram begat Nage who begat Hage, who begat Biora, who begat Belam (a prophet inwards the Sinai who prophesied the Birth of Jesus equally a Star.
He is inwards the Bible known equally Baalam), Belam begat Keramid, who begat Shemshel (a female, swell prophetess who was able to heighten the dead). Shemshel begat Deshet. Her boy Deshet too, became a major prophet who designed the Zodiac which was taken out of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to did spread elsewhere inwards the world. Deshet, spell meditating at the Bank of the River Nile well-nigh 15 hundred years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ saw inwards the foam of the River a vision of Mary, Jesus in addition to the Star, that would atomic number 82 his descendants to Bethlehem, in addition to drew them on a tablet in addition to passed the tablet to them. Now Deshet begat 4 sons who became the fathers of many Ethiopian tribes including the Amara in addition to the Oromo. They are: Maji, Jimma, Mendi in addition to Medebai. Maji begat Mara (Amara) in addition to Jema or Jama (the people who settled at the River Jema inwards today's Shoa, a river they named after their tribe. The Jamacans of Jamaica were captured yesteryear Ahmed Gragn when they fought him fiercely, taken from there, sold equally slaves to Arabs who sold them to European slave traders, who sold them inwards Jamaica). Jimma begat Geneti, Arerti in addition to Moren. Out of Medebay descended the Oromo. In fact, earlier the Oromo were called Oromo during the reign of Menelik I well-nigh 2950 years ago, they used to last called Medebay. There are some inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia who are soundless called Medebay retaining their original name. There is a argue why they started existence called "Gala" in addition to "Oromo" then, but I won't dwell on it now. Later on, the children of Mara began to last called "A-mara" or "Ha-mara". The words, "A" in addition to "Ha" were used equally indicators. Thus the Oromo in addition to Amara portion the same begetter in addition to grand father. It is tragic in addition to unfortunate that the Oromo in addition to the Amara have got been misled to struggle each other inwards the yesteryear in addition to inwards our time. Both the Oromo in addition to Amara originated inwards Gojjam. The Oromo didn't come upwards from Asia or Madagascar, equally Aleka Taye in addition to other ill-informed historians suggest. Later, each tribe split in addition to spread all over the breath in addition to length of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to fifty-fifty the residuum of Africa to seek out their fortune. In the hateful time, they developed different languages in addition to cultures. The Oromo became pastoralists. The Amara specialized inwards warfare in addition to administration. For example, when Axumite was a footling man child he was crowned equally the Pharaoh of Arab Republic of Egypt yesteryear the call of Ramzes. It was the Amara who accompanied him all the way from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to Arab Republic of Egypt well-nigh 2850 years agone to protect his throne. About 350,000 Amaras went with him to Egypt. Some of them returned to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia only after 1850 years of rest inwards Egypt, accompanying King Lalibela to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia after his homecoming from exile inwards Jerusalem. They built together with the local Agew people, the Rock Hewen Churches of Lalibela. Later, when Axumite found the urban nub of Axum in addition to became Emperor of Ethiopia, he gave his immature lady Ribla inwards spousal human relationship to King Nabukedenesor of Babylon (today's Iraq). It was the Amara soldiers i time again who accompanied Ribla to Iraq. She found a urban nub after her name. The Amara found a urban nub called "Amara" inwards Republic of Iraq after their ain name. The urban nub of "Amara" exists to this solar daytime inwards Iraq. It was captured yesteryear Shiite Moslems well-nigh a twelvemonth ago. I have got an American paper inwards my possession which printed the capture of the urban nub of "Amara" yesteryear the Shiites. Pertaining to the Amara language, it had already begun to evolve equally far dorsum equally 3000 years ago.In fact, it had existed long earlier Geez. Menelik the I declared Geez equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia well-nigh 2950 years agone to honour in addition to empower the Agazi, a tribe he brought from Gaaza which fought for him when Ethiopian tribes warred against him treating him equally a Jewish "keles" who had ambition over the Ethiopian throne. Indeed, it had developed in addition to evolved to a greater extent than than 3000 years; i.e, a spell earlier Geez was decreed yesteryear Menelik I equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia yesteryear imposition. For instance, at that topographic point are kings in addition to throne names that have got Amara names such equally Zerffe in addition to Sendek-alma inwards the listing of Ethiopian kings who reigned earlier Queen Sheba, woman parent of Menelik I; equally good ancient towns inwards Arab Republic of Egypt known equally Amarna (konjo honin) in addition to Delta (we are comfortable, nosotros are doing fine), inwards the part inwards which Jesus, Joseph in addition to Mary found refuge 2000 years ago. When Menelik I was born, the Amara wondered what King Solomon would say well-nigh his son, Menelik, in addition to called him "Menelik" (min yilik, abateh?). If the Amara language didn't be over 3000 years ago, how come upwards they called Menelik, "Minyilik" well-nigh 3000 years ago? I remember this give-and-take lone suffices to evidence that Amaregna in addition to the Amara had existed inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to a greater extent than than 3000 years ago. This is what I wanted to say for now. If I uncovering time, I volition item all this inwards an article. I have got gathered all the literature that I demand to evidence my point. I am Fikre Tolossa, descendant of Melchitsedek, King of Salem, of Ethiop in addition to Deshet, the prophet, as, of course, all of you, my swain Ethiopians,
source:http://fikretolossa.com/FILES_ARCHIVE/MISCELANEOUS/A_BRIEF_NOTE_ON_THE_ORIGIN_OF_THE_AMARA_AND_OROMO[1]_2.pdf
The Evil Eye Belief Among the Amhara of Ethiopia
Ronald H5N1 Reminick
Cleveland State University
Variations of the belief inwards the evil oculus are known throughout much of the world, yet surprisingly footling attending has been given to explaining the dynamics of this aspect of civilization ( cf. SpoonerI9 70; FosterI 972; Douglas I970). The Amhara of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia handgrip to this belief. Data for this study
were gathered with the Manze Amhara of the cardinal highlands of Shoa Province, Ethiopia. Their habitat is a rolling plateau ranging inwards height from 9,500 to I3,000 feet. The seasons vary from temperate in addition to dry out to moisture in addition to cold. The Amhara are settled agriculturists raising primarily barley,
wheat, in addition to a multifariousness of beans in addition to importing teff grain cotton, in addition to spices from the lower in addition to warmer regions inwards the gorges in addition to valleys nearby. Amhara technology scientific discipline is simple, involving the bull draw plow, crop rotation, soil furrowing for drainage in addition to some irrigation where streams are accessible. The soil is rich plenty to maintain 3 harvests annually. Other of import technological items include the sickle loom, in addition to the walking in addition to fighting stick for the men; the spindle large clay H2O jug grindstone, in addition to cooking u tensilsf or the women. The most highly prized item of technology scientific discipline is the ride which symbolizes the proud warrior traditions of the Amhara in addition to a man's duty to defend his inherited land.
The homestead is the primary domain of authorisation within the larger political structure. The homestead varies inwards size from that of a nuclear household unit of measurement to a large hamlet consisting of several related families in addition to their servants tenants in addition to old slaves. The scheme of authorisation tin last characterized inwards damage of Webers patriarchalism where a grouping is organized on the reason of kinship in addition to economic science with authorisation exercised yesteryear a particular mortal controlling the resources upon which the grouping depends (Weber I948: 346H ).
Amhara family
Obedience in addition to loyalty are owed to the mortal rather than to the piece of work or the rule, in addition to this mortal rules only yesteryear the consent of the grouping members who stand upwards to gain a portion of their patriarch`s wealth equally good equally legacy upon his death. This establishment of patriarchal authorisation is reinforced yesteryear a cultural emphasis on manful mortal qualities of aggressiveness oriented around the acquisition in addition to defence of land. Land is the fundamental requirement of the patriarchal system, for without it a human being cannot fulfill his basic piece of work of supporting his dependents in addition to providing a legacy for his children equally a reward for their loyalty in addition to service. But terra firma is a scarce resource, in addition to at that topographic point are often to a greater extent than claims to terra firma than tin last supported. Thus, closest siblings may unite against a to a greater extent than distant relative to maintain terra firma with themselves or siblings may compete for scarce terra firma with themselves becoming bitter enemies in addition to dividing the kinship or domestic group.
Amhara shepherd boy
The Amhara peasant`s supernatural world includes both Christian in addition to infidel (traditional) elements. Although Monophysite Christianity is the legitimate faith of the Amhara people who inwards fact define their tribal identity largely inwards damage of their Christian God, the infidel or "non legitimate" systems of belief also play an of import piece of work inwards the everyday routine of the peasant's social in addition to cultural life. There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs. First,there is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, in addition to the saints in addition to angels inwards Heaven. Second, at that topographic point are the zar in addition to the adbar spirits," protectors who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical in addition to emotional safety in addition to who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the do of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a class of people who possess the evil eye, in addition to who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendants of God's" chosen children." The 4th category of beliefs includes the ciraq in addition to satan, ghouls in addition to devils that prowl the countryside creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
source: http://www.refugeelegalaidinformation.org/sites/srlan/files/fileuploads/Reminick-TheEvilEyeBeliefAmongAmharaEthiopia_again.pdf
Amhara Samien Mountain girl
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