Info For Yous Fon People: Benin`S Empire Builders Of The By Kingdom Of Dahomey As Well As An Unrepentant Practitioners Of Voodoo Religion
The Fon people also known every bit Fon nu, are a major West African ethnic in addition to Fon linguistic grouping inwards the province of Benin, in addition to southwest Nigeria.They are made upward of to a greater extent than than 3,500,000 people. Fon is the largest ethnic grouping inwards Republic of Benin constituting nigh xl percentage of the population.
Vodoun women inwards trance trying to grasp the the ungraspable
Royal Ancestor Worship
Early kings established clear worship of purplish ancestors in addition to centralized their ceremonies inwards the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted spot inwards the solid ground of the dead in addition to it was necessary to larn their permission for many activities on earth.
Dance of the chiefs (circa 1908). Celebration at Abomey, By Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
Ancestor worship pre-existed the kingdom of Dahomey; however, nether King Agaja, a wheel of ritual was created centered some initiative of all celebrating the ancestors of the Rex in addition to and so celebrating a solid unit of measurement lineage.
The celebration at Abomey.Young missy with wooden statue of mystic chair.by Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved multiple elaborate components in addition to some aspects may receive got been added inwards the 19th century. In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, armed services parades, in addition to political councils. Its main religious aspect was to offering thank you lot in addition to gain the approving for ancestors of the purplish lineage. However, the custom also included armed services parades, populace discussions, gift giving (the distribution of coin to in addition to from the king), in addition to human sacrifice in addition to the spilling of blood.
Vodoun adult woman inwards trance
Most of the victims were captives from slave raids in addition to were sacrificed through decapitation, a tradition widely used past times Dahomean kings, in addition to the literal translation for the Fon call for the ceremony Xwetanu is "yearly caput business".
Dahomey Cosmology
Dahomey had a unique shape of West African vodun or voodoo which linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a married adult woman of Agaja brought the vodun to the kingdom in addition to ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having woman mortal characteristics in addition to Lisa having virile mortal characteristics) in addition to it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created past times their woman parent Nana-Buluku. Mawu-Lisa governs the heaven in addition to is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods be inwards the ground in addition to inwards thunder.
Fon vodoun practitioners
Religious practise organized dissimilar priesthoods in addition to shrines for each dissimilar god in addition to each different
pantheon (sky, ground or thunder). Women made upward a important amount of the priest shape in addition to the primary priest was ever a descendant of Dakodonou.
Kings of Dahomey
Gangnihessou, unknown – 1620
According to tradition, Gangnihessou came from a dynasty that originated inwards the sixteenth century. Based inwards Tado, a metropolis on the banks of the Moro River (in modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo), the dynasty rose to eminence on the footing of ane of his 4 brothers, who became the Rex of Great Ardra. After the expiry of the king, his territories were divided alongside the iii remaining brothers, ane of which was Gangnihessou.
Gangnihessou came to dominion some 1620 but was shortly dethroned past times his brother, Dakodonou, piece traveling through the kingdom. His symbols were the virile mortal Gangnihessou-bird (a rebus for his name), a drum, a hunting stick in addition to a throwing stick.
Dakodonou, 1620-1645
Dakodonou was the minute King of Dahomey, who ruled from 1620 to 1645. Dakodonou is portrayed every bit a fell in addition to trigger-happy man. His symbols were an indigo scandalize (a reference to his murder of a sure as shooting indigo planter named Donou, whose trunk he made sport of past times rolling it some inwards his indigo jar, in addition to whose call he appended to his ain original name, ‘Dako’), a tinder box, in addition to a state of war club. Before dying, Dakodonou named his nephew, Aho Houegbadja, every bit his successor.
Houegbadja (or Webaja) 1645-1685
The tertiary King of Dahomey was Aho Houegbadja, who succeeded his uncle, Dakodonou. He ruled from the fourth dimension of his uncle’s expiry inwards 1645 until 1685.
Houegbadja established the political potency in addition to boundaries of Abomey proper past times naming the metropolis every bit his capital. By edifice his palace (named “Agbome,” important “in the midst of the ramparts”) nigh Guedevi, an surface area located a few kilometers to the northwest of Bohicon, he established the surface area every bit the spot of political authority. He was responsible for forming the political civilization that would proceed to characterize Dahomey, with a reign that was marked past times autocratic rule. Houegbadja’s symbols were a fish (houe), fish trap (adja), in addition to state of war monastic tell hoe (kpota).
Akaba, 1685-1708
Houegbadja’s successor was his son, Houessou Akabawas, who became the 4th King of Dahomey. He ruled from 1685 to 1708.
Houessou Akaba’s reign was characterized past times state of war in addition to armed services expansion. His enemies, the Nago (Western Yoruba) kings, attacked Abomey in addition to burned the town. But the warriors of Abomey ultimately defeated the Nago armies in addition to the kingdom extended to include the banks of the Oueme River. Akaba failed, however, to capture Porto-Novo. Akaba’s symbols were the warthog in addition to a saber.
Akaba died of smallpox inwards 1708. Because his only son, Agbo Sassa, was only x years old, Akaba was succeeded instead past times his brother, Dossou Agadja.
Agadja, 1708-1732
Ruling from 1708 to 1740, Dossou Agadja was the 5th King of Dahomey. Despite the fact that Agadja had gained the throne due to the youth of Agbo Sassa, the rightful heir, he refused to give upward ability when the man child came of historic menstruum in addition to forced Agbo Sassa into exile.
Agadja’s reign was characterized past times continual warfare. The Yoruba soldiers of the kingdom of Oyo defeated the regular army of Abomey. The peace price required Agadja to pay tribute to the Oyo Empire, a scheme that continued for the side past times side hundred years. The Tribute of the Kingdom of Abomey to the King of Oyo took the shape of an annual tribute inwards immature men in addition to women destined for slavery or expiry inwards ceremonies, every bit good every bit cloth, guns, animals in addition to pearls.
The kingdom of Abomey grew during Agadja’s reign, in addition to conquered Allada inwards 1724. In 1727 it conquered the kingdom of Savi, in addition to gained command of its major city, Ouidah. When Abomey conquered Savi in addition to Ouidah, it gained direct access to the trading ports along the southern coast in addition to took over the lucrative slave merchandise with the Europeans. As a result, Agadja’s symbol is a European caravel boat. Agadja’s victory over Ouidah came, inwards part, every bit a resultant of his job of a corps of women shock-troopers, called Dahomey Amazons past times the Europeans after the women warriors of Greek myth, inwards his army. The Amazons became a dynastic tradition.
Agadja was succeeded past times Tegbessou.
Tegbessou, 1732-1774
Tegbessou was the 6th King of Dahomey, ruling from 1740 to 1774. His reign was characterized past times internal corruption in addition to failed unusual policy. He killed many coup-plotters in addition to political enemies, refused to pay tribute to the Yoruba, in addition to lost many battles inwards the punitive raids that followed.
His main symbol is a buffalo wearing a tunic. His other symbols are the blunderbuss, a weapon he gave his warriors (his reign marked the initiative of all fourth dimension the Dahomey Royal Army had ready access to firearms) in addition to a door decorated with iii noseless heads, a reference to his victory over a rebellious tributary people, the Republic of Benin Zou, whose corpses he mutilated.
During Tegbessou’s reign, the Dahomey enlarged the slave trade, waging a bitter state of war on their neighbors. It is said 10,000 people were captured in addition to sold into slavery, including some other of import slave trader, the King of Whydah. King Tegbessou made £250,000 a yr selling people into slavery inwards 1750.
Tegbessou was succeeded past times Kpengla.
Kpengla, 1774-1789
The 7th Rex of Dahomey, Kpengla, ruled from 1774 to 1789. His reign focused on expansion, in addition to dramatically increased the size of the kingdom. In monastic tell to expand westward, he killed the primary of the Popo people, Agbamou, in addition to spread his empire into modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo. He destroyed the villages of Ekpe in addition to Badagry (in what is at nowadays Nigeria), that were interfering with Dahomey’s regional monopoly on the slave trade.
King Kpengla (right, nether parasol in addition to carrying sword), leads a troop of Dahomey Amazons. Subjects tin live seen kowtowing (left, foreground)
His main symbol is the akpan bird, a merchandise gun (flintlock), in addition to an Amazon warrior striking her caput against a tree. Kpengla was succeeded past times Agonglo.
Agonglo, 1789-1797
Kpengla was succeeded past times his son, Agonglo. The 8th King of Dahomey, he ruled from 1789 to 1797.
Agonglo instituted several reforms which pleased his subjects: taxes were lowered, in addition to a greater distribution of gifts was made during the annual customs. He reformed the shape of the asen, or sacrificial altar, in addition to supported the surface past times ribs rather than a metallic cone, typical of the before Allada trend altars.
After the menstruum of aggressive armed services expansion of his father, Agonglo consolidated the dominion of the dynasty, his few armed services battles, however, were successful. His symbol is the pineapple.
Agonglo is notable inwards existence the initiative of all of the Dahomean kings to espouse a European woman. One of his wives was Sophie, a Dutch adult woman of mixed ancestry. Agonglo was succeeded past times his eldest son, Adandozan.
Adandozan, 1797-1818
Technically the 9th King of Dahomey, Adandozan is non counted every bit ane of the 12 kings. His call has largely been erased from the history of Abomey in addition to to this twenty-four hr menstruum is to a greater extent than frequently than non not spoken out loud inwards the city. He became Rex when, inwards 1797, the previous Rex died, leaving the throne to his eldest son.
Adandozan’s symbols were a baboon with a swollen stomach, total mouth, in addition to ear of corn inwards manus (an unflattering reference to his enemy, the King of Oyo), in addition to a large parasol (‘the Rex overshadows his enemies’). These symbols are non included inwards Abomey appliques, for the same reasons that Adandozan is non included inwards Abomey’s history.
The traditional stories of Adandozan’s dominion portray him every bit extremely cruel: he is said to receive got raised hyenas to which he would throw alive subjects for amusement. He has been portrayed every bit hopelessly mad, struggling foolishly with the European powers.
The commonly told even is that he refused to pay Francisco Felix da Souza, a Brazilian merchant in addition to trader who had go a major middle-man inwards the Ouidah slave market. Instead, he imprisoned in addition to tortured de Souza, in addition to and so attempted to receive got his ain ministers sell the slaves directly. According to legend, de Souza escaped with the aid of Gakpe, Adandozan’s brother, who returned from exile for that purpose. In return, de Souza helped Gakpe marshall a armed services strength in addition to convey the throne with the assistance of the terrified council of ministers. Gakpe in addition to so position Adandozan inwards prison.
This traditional portrayal may live wrong: similar Richard II of England inwards the Wars of the Roses, Adandozan may receive got been the object of a propagandistic rewriting of history after he lost the throne, turned into a monster past times his successor every bit a way of excusing the coup d’état in addition to legitimizing the novel regime. All stories handgrip that Adandozan tried to strength to a greater extent than favorable price of merchandise with the Europeans involved inwards the export of slaves, in addition to seriously undermined the ability of the extended purplish solid unit of measurement in addition to Vodun cult practitioners at courtroom through administrative reforms.
It may live that these policies themselves provoked Adandozan’s powerful opponents to back upward a coup against him. In monastic tell to justify the coup, Gakpe may in addition to so receive got been obliged to receive got oral historians tell of the monstrous in addition to mad Adandozan.
Ghezo (Gakpe) 1818-1856
Ghezo was the 9th King of Dahomey in addition to is considered ane of the greatest of the 12 historical kings. He ruled from 1818 to 1858. His call before ascending to the throne was Gakpe.
Ghezo’s symbols are 2 birds on a tree, a buffalo, in addition to a clay scandalize sieve with holes inwards it held past times 2 hands, a symbol of unity. Ghezo is said to receive got used the sieve every bit a metaphor for the sort of unity needed for the province to defeat its enemies in addition to overcome its problems; it takes everyone’s manus to block the sieve’s holes in addition to handgrip water. The pierced clay scandalize upheld past times multiple hands has go a national symbol inwards Benin, a large portrayal of it is the backdrop of the speaker’s podium inwards Benin’s National Assembly.
Ghezo ascended to the throne after he overthrew his brother, Adandozan, inwards a coup d’état. The traditional stories province that Adandozan was a cruel ruler, but it is possible these stories may receive got been invented past times Ghezo’s historians to justify the coup.
Throughout his reign, Ghezo waged a armed services displace every yr during the dry out season. His prisoners-of-war were sold into slavery, hence fattening the purplish treasury, increasing the annual budget, in addition to making state of war a really efficient way of raising revenue. Due to the increased strength of his regular army in addition to capital, Ghezo position an terminate to the Oyo tribute paying. He formalized his army, gave his 4,000 Dahomey Amazon woman mortal warriors uniforms, required soldiers to drill with guns in addition to sabres regularly, in addition to was able to repulse Oyo’s onslaught when it came.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo onward, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic, with Ghezo placing bang-up importance on the army, its budget in addition to its structures. An intrinsic component division of the regular army of Dahomey, which increased inwards importance every bit the province became to a greater extent than militaristic, was the elite fighting strength known every bit the Amazons.
Ghezo was also seen every bit an extremely sharp administrator. Because of his slave revenues, he could afford to lower taxes, hence stimulating the agricultural in addition to mercantile economy: agriculture expanded, every bit did merchandise inwards a multifariousness of goods with France. He instituted novel judicial procedures, in addition to was considered to live a exactly gauge of his subjects. He was much loved, in addition to his abrupt expiry inwards a battle against the Yoruba was considered a tragedy.
However loved past times his ain people, Ghezo’s legacy includes his making a major contribution to the slave trade. He said inwards the 1840s that he would do anything the British wanted him to do apart from giving upward slave trade: “The slave merchandise is the ruling regulation of my people. It is the source in addition to the glory of their wealth…the woman parent lulls the kid to slumber with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…”
Ghezo was succeeded past times Glele.
Glele, 1856-1889
Badohou, who took the throne call Glele, is considered (if Adandozan is non counted) to live the 10th King of Dahomey. He succeeded his father, Ghezo, in addition to ruled from 1858 to 1889.
Glele continued his father’s successful state of war campaigns, inwards component division to avenge his father’s death, inwards component division to capture slaves. Glele also signed treaties with the French, who had previously acquired a concession inwards Porto-Novo from its king. The French were successful inwards negotiating with Glele in addition to receiving a grant for a customs in addition to commerce concession inwards Cotonou during his reign. Glele resisted English linguistic communication diplomatic overtures, however, distrusting their manners in addition to noting that they were much to a greater extent than activist inwards their opposition to the slave trade: though French Republic itself had outlawed slavery at the terminate of the 1700s, it allowed the merchandise to proceed elsewhere; Great Britain outlawed slavery inwards the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland in addition to inwards its overseas possessions inwards 1833, in addition to had its navy brand raids against slavers along the West African coast get-go inwards 1840.
Glele, despite the formal terminate of the slave merchandise in addition to its interdiction past times the Europeans in addition to New World powers, continued slavery every bit a domestic institution: his fields were primarily cared for past times slaves, in addition to slaves became a major source of ‘messengers to the ancestors’, inwards other words, sacrificial victims inwards ceremonies.
Near the terminate of Glele’s reign, relations with French Republic deteriorated due to Cotonou’s growing commercial influence in addition to differences of interpretation betwixt Dahomey in addition to French Republic regarding the extent in addition to price of the Cotonou concession grant. Glele, already on his expiry bed, had his boy Prince Kondo convey accuse of negotiations with the French.
Glele’s symbols are the king of beasts in addition to the ritual knife of the adepts of Gu; of fire, iron, war, in addition to cutting edges.
Glele died on Dec 29, 1889, to live succeeded past times Kondo, who took the call Behanzin.
Behanzin, 1889-1894
Behanzin, though the twelfth, is considered the eleventh (if Adandozan is non counted) King of Dahomey. Upon taking the throne, he changed his call from Kondo to Behanzin, every bit it was traditional for Dahomey kings to assume a throne name. He succeeded his father, Glele, in addition to ruled from 1889 to 1894. Behanzin was Abomey’s lastly independent ruler established through traditional ability structures, in addition to was considered to live a bang-up ruler.
Behanzin, King of Dahomey, 1892. Artist: Henri Meyer
Behanzin was seen past times his people every bit intelligent in addition to courageous. He saw that the Europeans were gradually encroaching on his kingdom, in addition to every bit a resultant attempted a unusual policy of isolating the Europeans in addition to rebuffing them. Just before Glele’s death, Behanzin declined to run into French envoy Jean Bayol, claiming conflicts inwards his schedule due to ritual in addition to ceremonial obligations. As a result, Bayol returned to Cotonou to gear upward to go to state of war against Behanzin, named Rex upon Glele’s death. Seeing the preparations, the Dahomeans attacked Bayol’s forces exterior Cotonou inwards 1890; the French regular army stood fast due to superior weaponry in addition to a strategically advantageous position. Eventually Behanzin’s forces were forced to withdraw. Behanzin returned to Abomey, in addition to Bayol to French Republic for a time.
Peace lasted 2 years, during which fourth dimension the French continued to occupy Cotonou. Both sides continued to purchase arms inwards training for some other battle. In 1892, the soldiers of Abomey attacked villages nigh Grand Popo in addition to Porto-Novo inwards an sweat to reassert the older boundaries of Dahomey. This was seen every bit an deed of state of war past times the French, who claimed interests inwards both areas. Bayol, past times at nowadays named Colonial Governor past times the French, declared state of war on Behanzin. The French justified the activity past times characterizing the Dahomeans every bit savages inwards demand of civilizing. Evidence of this savagery, they stated, was the practise of human sacrifice during the annual customs celebrations in addition to at the fourth dimension of a king’s death, in addition to the continued practise of slavery.
The French were victorious inwards attaining the give upward of Behanzin inwards 1894, though they did non procur his signature of national give upward or treaty. He lived out the residue of his life inwards exile inwards Martinique in addition to Algeria. After his death, his remains were returned to Abomey.
His symbols are the shark, the egg, in addition to a captive hanging from a flagpole (a reference to a boastful in addition to rebellious Nago practitioner of harmful magic from Ketou whom the Rex hanged from a flagpole every bit penalisation for his pride). But, his most famous symbol is the smoking pipe.
Behanzin was succeeded past times Agoli-agbo, his distant relative in addition to one-time Army Chief of Staff, the only potential ruler which the French were willing to instate.
Agoli-agbo
Agoli-agbo is considered to receive got been the twelfth, in addition to last, King of Dahomey. He took the throne after the previous king, Behanzin, went into exile after a failed state of war with France. He was inwards ability from 1894 to 1900.
Proclamation of the novel King Agoli-agbo of Dahomey,-.From Le Petit Journal,19 th Feb 1894
The exile of Behanzin did non legalize the French colonization. The French full general Alfred Dodds offered the throne to every ane of the immediate purplish family, inwards homecoming for a signature on a treaty establishing a French protectorate over the Kingdom; all refused. Finally, Behanzin’s Army Chief of Staff (and distant relative), Prince Agoli-agbo was appointed to the throne, every bit a ‘traditional chief’ rather than caput of province of a sovereign nation, past times the French when he agreed to sign the musical instrument of surrender. He ‘reigned’ for only vi years, assisted past times a French Viceroy. The French prepared for direct administration, which they achieved on Feb 12, 1900. Agoli-agbo went into exile inwards Gabon, in addition to the Save River. He returned to alive inwards Abomey every bit a private citizen inwards 1918.
Agoli-agbo’s symbols are a leg kicking a rock, an archer’s bow (a symbol of the homecoming to traditional weapons nether the novel rules established past times the colonial administrators), in addition to a broom.
Agbo. AGBOLI-AGBO DEDJLANI
King of Abomey
Benin
Dedjlani, a old policeman, waited vi years to retire, in addition to and so proceeded with his clandestine coronation ceremonies.“Officially”, at that spot is no longer a Rex inwards Benin. But on september 30, 1989, Dedjlani position on his purplish shoes, in addition to at the historic menstruum of 50 4 became King of Abomey.
Being monogamous, he was obliged to espouse 2 to a greater extent than wives to convey tending of his purplish household. When he goes out, tradition requires that he live sheltered nether an umbrella with his emblem. One of wives must ever live side past times side to him, carrying the purplish spitting bowl. The King also has to wearable his scepter inwards permanence. Holding it inwards his manus or hanging on his shoulder, to a greater extent than than a symbol, the scepter is the King. The silvery dust protector worn on the nose, dates from the nineteenth century, in addition to was inherited from the King Gbehanzin. It protected the King’s olfactory organ from the dust, during the purplish processions inwards Abomey.
Dahomey Amazons
The Dahomey Amazons were a Fon all-female armed services regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey. They were so named past times Western observers in addition to historians due to their similarity to the legendary Amazons described past times the Ancient Greeks.
King Houegbadja, the tertiary king, is said to receive got originally began the grouping which would go the Amazons every bit a corps of purplish bodyguards after edifice a novel palace at Abomey. Houegbadja’s boy King Agadja developed these bodyguards into a militia in addition to successfully used them inwards Dahomey’s defeat of the neighboring kingdom of Savi inwards 1727. European merchants recorded their presence, every bit good every bit similar woman mortal warriors alongside the Ashanti. For the side past times side hundred years or so, they gained a reputation every bit fearless warriors. Though they fought rarely, they ordinarily acquitted themselves good inwards battle.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic. Ghezo placed bang-up importance on the regular army in addition to increased its budget in addition to formalized its structures. The Amazons were rigorously trained, given uniforms, in addition to equipped with Danish guns obtained via the slave trade. By this fourth dimension the Amazons consisted of betwixt 4,000 in addition to 6,000 women, nigh a tertiary of the entire Dahomey army.
European encroachment into West Africa gained measurement during the latter one-half of the nineteenth century, in addition to inwards 1890 the Dahomey King Behanzin began fighting French forces (mainly made upward of Yoruba, who the Dahomeans had been fighting for centuries). It is said that many of the French soldiers fighting inwards Dahomey hesitated before shooting or bayoneting the Amazons. The resulting delay led to many of the French casualties. Ultimately, bolstered past times the French Foreign Legion, in addition to armed with superior weaponry including machine guns, the French inflicted casualties that were x times worse on the Dahomey side. After several battles, the French prevailed. The Legionnaires afterwards wrote nigh the “incredible courage in addition to audacity” of the Amazons. The lastly surviving Amazon died inwards 1979.
Economy
Subsistence in addition to Commercial Activities. Fon are farmers, fishermen, in addition to marketplace women. Nowadays they occupy all the positions in addition to jobs to live found inwards government, civil service, business, in addition to production. Staple crops are yams, maize, in addition to manioc. (Millet was ane time important.) Beans, peas, peanuts, sorghum, sweetness potatoes, onions, okra, peppers, gourds, papayas, bananas, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, crude oil palms, in addition to some rice in addition to cocoa are also grown. Animals raised include pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, guinea fowl, ducks, in addition to pigeons. Fishing is of primary importance along the coast in addition to inwards the Volta region. Cash crops include palm kernels, peanuts, copra, castor beans, kapok, and, past times far the most important, java in addition to cocoa.
Fon in addition to Ewe marketplace women—both wholesalers in addition to retailers—have a nigh monopoly on the internal economy. Even inwards small-scale villages, many women are traders in addition to retailers, selling anything from homemade fermented corn porridge to Coca Cola, frequently specializing inwards a single item such every bit fresh or home-smoked fish, imported Dutch wax cloth, fresh fruits in addition to vegetables, or merchandise beads.
Industrial Arts. Fon engage inwards pottery making, forest sculpting (mostly for religious use), in addition to basketwork; inwards the past, every hamlet had a blacksmith.
Fon people carrying pots at Abomey,Benin
Trade
Fon receive got traded with Yoruba in addition to Hausa for every bit long every bit they receive got had their acquaint identity. The slave merchandise in addition to the common salt merchandise brought other traders from the northward of acquaint Ewe in addition to Fon regions, including every bit far northward every bit Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in addition to perhaps Republic of Mali in addition to Niger. Portuguese traders reached the coast inwards the fifteenth century, fifty-fifty before the Ewe in addition to Fon had migrated that far. By the seventeenth century, when the Volta share had go dwelling to an Ewe polity in addition to the Kingdom of Dahomey had regular relations with Ouidah, European commercial envoys were no longer a novelty on what was in addition to so called the Slave Coast. The Atlantic commerce inwards slaves was a important aspect of Fon life for 2 centuries.
Market activities are cardinal inwards all Fon regions. Women almost ever receive got something to sell on marketplace days, including foodstuffs they brand themselves. They frequently purchase their husband's or brothers' grab of fish fresh from the ocean or river in addition to convey it straight to diverse markets. Or they fume the fish in addition to convey them to markets further inland. Today European, U.S., in addition to Chinese goods are available fifty-fifty inwards small-scale Fon hamlet markets to a greater extent than than 150 kilometers from the coast, frequently taken at that spot past times local women who purchase the goods inwards coastal cities.
Abomey-Calavi
Division of Labor
. Apart from the special condition of kings inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey who did non perform manual labor, the main partition of labor is along gender lines. Men do heavy agricultural labor such every bit clearing the solid ground in addition to staking yam vines; they fish, hunt, in addition to create houses. Women participate inwards the inwards a higher identify activities also, such every bit preparing the palm-frond walling or fencing necessary to hut building, taking accuse of butchered animals in addition to fish, in addition to carrying out almost all agricultural tasks except the really heaviest.
Dance of warrior women,Abomey.
Women also ship headloads every bit heavy every bit whatever charge men tin carry. Although it is frequently said that only women headload, this is obviously untrue. Women are inwards accuse of most marketplace activities, although they may hire men to aid them. One of the few items ordinarily sold past times men inwards the marketplace is beef, frequently brought past times Hausa or other Muslim traders. Most other kinds of work, including cooking, may live done past times women in addition to men, in addition to fifty-fifty the above-mentioned divisions of labor are non absolute. Women in addition to children may bring together with men inwards pulling inwards the enormous in addition to heavy line-fishing nets from the surf after a catch. Gender-specific cash savings in addition to function collectives abound, enabling members to receive got their ain banking every bit good every bit back upward inwards solid building, clearing land, harvesting, fishing, marketing, in addition to all other labors. Especially notable are the Fon dokpwe , or cooperative, or tontine (French). Both women in addition to men engage inwards kid care, although women are considered to receive got greater responsibleness inwards this regard. Groups of men in addition to groups of women may convey tending of whatever in addition to all hamlet children inwards their vicinity at whatever given time.
Fon woman,Sessimé’s, a Beninese Afropoprock musician
Land Tenure
Anyone from a particular share tin farm on solid ground that is non occupied past times anyone else. Inside a settlement, a mortal wishing to employ solid ground must inquire permission of the hamlet primary or the elders of the lineage owning the land. Formerly, rights receive got extended only to job of land; at that spot was no absolute correct to the solid ground itself. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, solid ground was past times Definition the belongings of the king. In most Ewe regions, solid ground is inherited in addition to administrated past times elders of each patriline; whatever lineage fellow member may create or farm on lineage solid ground every bit long every bit she or he respects the rights of others nearby who are already established on the land. Widows of patriline members or other persons non members of the lineage may rest on the solid ground in addition to farm it, but it cannot go past times definitively into some other lineage.
Only inwards the lastly few generations has solid ground come upward to live alienable from lineage tenure past times existence mortgaged or sold. Land non already belonging to a lineage (of which at that spot is scarcely whatever now) may live acquired personally through simply clearing the land, or buying it non-Fon owners; the possessor may dispose of such solid ground without consulting lineage elders. Both women in addition to men receive got rights to lineage land, frequently at nowadays called "inheritance of land," but, inwards areas where solid ground is scarce, women receive got difficulty claiming such rights.
Kinship
Kin Groups in addition to Descent. Descent is primarily patrilineal. Fon receive got exogamous patrisibs composed of lineages, but inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey the purplish sib had exceptional rules. Princesses married commoners in addition to their children belonged to the purplish sib, every bit did the offspring of purplish princes. Cross-cousin matrimony is preferred alongside most Fon groups, peculiarly with mother's brother's daughter.
Holywood Actor djimon Hounsou is a Fon from Benin
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. Most Fon marriages are patrilocal, although neolocal residence has go pop inwards the belatedly twentieth century. Polygyny is the dominion if a human has way to espouse to a greater extent than than ane wife. It is frequently said that an abuse of polygyny leads wives to go out their husbands for other men, frequently younger in addition to every bit yet unmarried, so that women also tend to receive got to a greater extent than than ane married adult man inwards their lifetimes. Fon marriages are of 2 full general types, ane to a greater extent than prestigious than the other. Prestigious matrimony includes payments past times the groom to the bride's begetter or premarital farm labor performed past times a human for his futurity father-in-law. Such bride-wealth or function gives a human command over his children. When this is non performed, the woman parent in addition to her solid unit of measurement receive got all rights over the children; thus, this sort of matrimony is less desirable or prestigious for a husband. Herskovits (1938) outlines xiii dissimilar variations of these 2 major matrimony categories. H5N1 human must never decline a married adult woman offered him, in addition to divorce may live initiated only past times the wife's family. In many Ewe groups, matrimony is less marked past times bride-wealth or bride-service, in addition to fifty-fifty if a human offers only the required drinks in addition to cloths to his bride in addition to her family, he may claim the children every bit members of his ain patriline. In representative of separation, a begetter may maintain his children with him, although inwards many cases wives are allowed to heighten the children. Pregnancy makes a matrimony complete. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, virginity was demanded of brides inwards prestigious marriages. Christian Fon proceed according to the arrangements prescribed inwards their churches.
Domestic Unit. Patrilineal three- or four-generational extended solid unit of measurement compounds, every bit good every bit agnatic extended solid unit of measurement compounds, are common. Another model is a nuclear-family household (often with children from previous marriages) that eventually is joined past times other relatives, such every bit the couple's younger siblings, cousins, nieces, nephews, in addition to foster children.
Fon Kid from Benin
If the married adult man has non vowed monogamy, inwards time, other wives in addition to their children may come upward to expand the chemical compound (each married adult woman with her ain hut or fiddling house). In many cases, other wives in addition to their children shape separate households. Adolescent boys may receive got collective sleeping quarters separate from their mothers in addition to sisters.
Fon kids at Ouidah,benin
Inheritance. Most Fon property, including land, is inherited patrilineally, although some lineage solid ground remains. Cloth wealth in addition to jewelry sometimes go lineage belongings too, along with ancestral stools. Individual property, which may include rights to solid ground in addition to fields, may live inherited patrilineally. In some areas the eldest boy inherits solid ground rights, but livestock in addition to other private belongings go to a man's sister's son. In Lome inheritance is mixed.
Socialization. Virtually everyone, but especially older siblings, takes tending of the children. Grandparents, both woman mortal in addition to male, also pass considerable fourth dimension with children. Fishermen inwards from the ocean frequently sit down some inwards groups during the afternoon, playing boardgames in addition to watching over immature children at the same time.
Angelique Kidjo is a fon
Toddlers are passed from mortal to person, including adolescent boys, who appear to relish taking their turns. Mothers in addition to all woman mortal relatives ship babies on their backs for much of the day; sometimes doting fathers or other virile mortal relatives also wrap babies in addition to toddlers on their backs. Fon adolescents experiment with sexuality early on inwards their teen years, in addition to nowadays pregnancy at a immature age, fifty-fifty if the woman parent is unmarried, is non especially discouraged inwards many communities. Thus virginity is non every bit highly valued every bit it ane time was.
Young Fon worshippers of a mermaid deity gear upward for the Voodoo Festival, inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Young girls aid their mothers, frequently caring for smaller children or carrying loads to market, boys every bit immature every bit 10 may go to ocean with the men in addition to go over the side of the pirogue to drive a schoolhouse of fish into the nets. Inland, immature boys in addition to girls aid perform agricultural tasks in addition to tending for animals. Children are acquaint at all of import social in addition to religious events in addition to may, at a really early on age, go "spouses" of of import spirits or gods, hence inheriting sizable responsibilities in addition to the special, frequently prestigious, identity, that goes with them. Children every bit immature every bit 10 may go into trance during Vodu (Fon) possession ceremonies. They also relish such events every bit recreation in addition to convey payoff of opportunities for drumming, singing, in addition to dancing performances; teenagers in addition to immature adults may courtroom during in addition to after such religious rituals.
Fon missy braiding her sisters pilus at Ouidah,Benin
Political Organization.
Although the Fon kingdom had a centralized province with a powerful ahosu (King), since its collapse that construction is no longer available. Fon villages had hamlet autonomy before they were consolidated into a kingdom inwards the seventeenth century, in addition to hence each hamlet primary was a "king" (toxosu ) to whom the heads of each chemical compound answered. The Kingdom of Dahomey forced these chiefs to swear loyalty to the ruler or live sacrificed (some were sold into slavery). Sibs inwards Fon villages receive got considerable political influence, but the primary is hardly all-powerful.
His Majesty Agboli Agbo Dedjani, Last King of the Dan-Home Dynasty, Abomey, Republic of Benin (Dahomey), Africa
Social Control. Although during the colonial menstruum chiefs had considerable command (and soundless do every bit far every bit administrative decisions are concerned), potency is widely distributed inwards villages in addition to regions. Whereas Fon are nominally nether the jurisdiction of French-inspired legal systems, the laws of the ancestors in addition to the moral frameworks of Vodu worship tend to receive got exactly every bit much, if non more, potency than official law inwards many communities. Even inwards colonial in addition to precolonial periods, the component division of primary in addition to the ranks of the elders were ordinarily filled with men (and some women) who were linked to religious orders.
Fon women at Ouidah
Individual conduct for many is constantly interpreted in addition to adjusted through the lenses of Afa (or Fa) divination, which includes the "laws of destiny," or the "law-deity who brought me here" (esesidomeda ). Thus, supernatural sanctions are to a greater extent than powerful than province legal systems for numerous Fon. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, kings were tyrannical according to numerous sources; hamlet chiefs, inwards keeping with before practices, were not. Decisions of hamlet chiefs had to live reported to the king, however, so that concluding command was inwards his hands. The king's tribunal of chiefs was expected to gauge harshly so that the Rex himself could demonstrate clemency past times lightening the sentence. During the colonial period, at that spot was bang-up tension betwixt sure as shooting Ewe Vodu orders in addition to colonial administrators who claimed the Vodu "courts" were presuming to convey the identify of official courts. Numerous shrines were hence destroyed past times High German in addition to French authorities. Vodu worshipers frequently did non consider the powers of the colonial governments to live legitimate,
Fon people.
Conflict
Conflict inwards villages is typically brought to a grouping of "judges," including the chief, Vodu priests, in addition to both virile mortal in addition to woman mortal elders. The entire hamlet has the correct to attend, in addition to whoever wishes to speak may do so. Often divorce cases, theft, assault, in addition to instances of injury through witchcraft do non go before official courts of law. Even cases that do go before official courts of law, including murder, may live rejudged past times Vodu priests in addition to communities because the conflict at the source of the law-breaking is non idea to live only personal. All conflict is a reflection of the social trunk inwards its human relationship to the relaxation of the cosmos.
Fon
Religion in addition to Expressive Culture
Religious Beliefs. Various Vodu (Fon) orders are at the foundation of Fon religion. H5N1 High God exists, according to numerous informants. Among Fon, Mawu in addition to Lisa are a couple, twins, or a woman mortal (Mawu) in addition to virile mortal (Lisa) hermaphrodite divinity. Fon may say the world was created past times Nana-Buluku, who gave nascence to Mawu in addition to Lisa. For others, Nana-Buluku, Mawu, in addition to Lisa are all Vodus, in addition to at that spot is no all-powerful separate creator.
Gu or Egu, the warrior in addition to hunter god of iron, is cardinal alongside all Fon groups. There are a issue of other Vodu orders, including Gorovodu, which is pop across Fon populations inwards Benin. Mama Tchamba, a related order, involves the worship of the spirits of slaves from the northward that Ewe ane time owned in addition to married. The selfhood of each private is involved with these major deities in addition to spirit personalities. They are also protectors, healers, judges, in addition to consummate performers.
Vodoun practitioners at Ouidah voodoo festival inwards Benin
All Vodu orders function manus inwards manus with Afa (or Fa) divination, a complex interpretive framework within which each mortal has a life sign (kpoli ), of which at that spot are a total of 256. Each sign is connected to a laid of plants in addition to animals, stories in addition to songs, dietary taboos, Vodus, in addition to dangers in addition to strengths, all associated with each other, every bit though clan-related. Events, projects, activities, in addition to relationships also receive got their ain Afa signs. Everything inwards the universe is related to Afa texts in addition to themes, every bit though nature itself were divided into exogamous clans.
Some Fon receive got go Christians; given their proximity to the coast, these ethnic groups were alongside the initiative of all to convey Christianity inwards the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries. Certain Christian groups originating inwards West Africa, such every bit Aladura in addition to Celeste, receive got a considerable next on the coast.
Fon christian Celestial believers
Religious Practitioners. Vodu priests are ordinarily men, but postmenopausal women may go priestesses. The bang-up bulk of spirit hosts or "wives" of the Vodus are women. Priests, priestesses, in addition to "wives" of the Yehve deities (Sosi, Avlesi, Dasi, etc.) do non ordinarily practise trance. Afa diviners are almost ever men, although it is said that a adult woman tin go a diviner if she wishes.
vodoun devotees
Ceremonies. Vodu ceremonies are compelling performances for both insiders in addition to outsiders. Worshipers who laid out dancing to the drum music may go into trance. Spirits who possess their "wives" may receive got messages for the community, may convey component division inwards judging sure as shooting cases of conflict, in addition to may heal the sick. Above all, they are dancing gods, in addition to at that spot are aesthetic conventions that receive got long traditions.
Fon people of benin performing their Vodoun rituals
In Vodu orders where possession is non usual, ceremonies are all the to a greater extent than dazzling because of the perfection of their collective execution. Rows of dancers, all clothed inwards ceremonial attire, displace across a ritual infinite every bit ane person, performing specific movements. Drums ever provide a sort of text or context for movement, including narrative associations in addition to instruction. Ceremonies are events during which symbolic associations are reinforced, private in addition to collective identity is stated, sure as shooting aspects of identity in addition to ability are recalled in addition to redistributed, healing in addition to admonishment convey place, and, inwards a higher identify all, collective exhilaration, ecstasy, in addition to awe are produced. Ceremonies are ever gifts to the gods.
A human slaughters a caprine animal at the Temple of Pythons during the annual Voodoo Festival inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Dahomey tribes people photographed for Hubert Howe Bancroft's The Book of the Fair, published inwards Chicago inwards 1893
Kingdom of Dahomey (c.1600–1900)
Dahomey was an African kingdom inwards the present-day Republic of Republic of Benin which lasted from 1600 until 1900. Dahomey developed on the Abomey Plateau inwards the early on 1600s in addition to became a regional ability inwards the 1700s past times conquering key cities on the Atlantic coast. For much of the 18th in addition to 19th centuries, the Kingdom of Dahomey was a key regional state, eventually ending tributary condition to the Oyo empire in addition to existence a major location for the Atlantic slave trade, maybe supplying upward to 20% of the slaves to Europe in addition to the Americas.
Vodoun women inwards trance trying to grasp the the ungraspable
Royal Ancestor Worship
Early kings established clear worship of purplish ancestors in addition to centralized their ceremonies inwards the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted spot inwards the solid ground of the dead in addition to it was necessary to larn their permission for many activities on earth.
Dance of the chiefs (circa 1908). Celebration at Abomey, By Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
Ancestor worship pre-existed the kingdom of Dahomey; however, nether King Agaja, a wheel of ritual was created centered some initiative of all celebrating the ancestors of the Rex in addition to and so celebrating a solid unit of measurement lineage.
The celebration at Abomey.Young missy with wooden statue of mystic chair.by Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved multiple elaborate components in addition to some aspects may receive got been added inwards the 19th century. In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, armed services parades, in addition to political councils. Its main religious aspect was to offering thank you lot in addition to gain the approving for ancestors of the purplish lineage. However, the custom also included armed services parades, populace discussions, gift giving (the distribution of coin to in addition to from the king), in addition to human sacrifice in addition to the spilling of blood.
Vodoun adult woman inwards trance
Most of the victims were captives from slave raids in addition to were sacrificed through decapitation, a tradition widely used past times Dahomean kings, in addition to the literal translation for the Fon call for the ceremony Xwetanu is "yearly caput business".
Dahomey Cosmology
Dahomey had a unique shape of West African vodun or voodoo which linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a married adult woman of Agaja brought the vodun to the kingdom in addition to ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having woman mortal characteristics in addition to Lisa having virile mortal characteristics) in addition to it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created past times their woman parent Nana-Buluku. Mawu-Lisa governs the heaven in addition to is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods be inwards the ground in addition to inwards thunder.
Fon vodoun practitioners
Religious practise organized dissimilar priesthoods in addition to shrines for each dissimilar god in addition to each different
pantheon (sky, ground or thunder). Women made upward a important amount of the priest shape in addition to the primary priest was ever a descendant of Dakodonou.
Kings of Dahomey
Gangnihessou, unknown – 1620
According to tradition, Gangnihessou came from a dynasty that originated inwards the sixteenth century. Based inwards Tado, a metropolis on the banks of the Moro River (in modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo), the dynasty rose to eminence on the footing of ane of his 4 brothers, who became the Rex of Great Ardra. After the expiry of the king, his territories were divided alongside the iii remaining brothers, ane of which was Gangnihessou.
Gangnihessou came to dominion some 1620 but was shortly dethroned past times his brother, Dakodonou, piece traveling through the kingdom. His symbols were the virile mortal Gangnihessou-bird (a rebus for his name), a drum, a hunting stick in addition to a throwing stick.
Dakodonou, 1620-1645
Dakodonou was the minute King of Dahomey, who ruled from 1620 to 1645. Dakodonou is portrayed every bit a fell in addition to trigger-happy man. His symbols were an indigo scandalize (a reference to his murder of a sure as shooting indigo planter named Donou, whose trunk he made sport of past times rolling it some inwards his indigo jar, in addition to whose call he appended to his ain original name, ‘Dako’), a tinder box, in addition to a state of war club. Before dying, Dakodonou named his nephew, Aho Houegbadja, every bit his successor.
Houegbadja (or Webaja) 1645-1685
The tertiary King of Dahomey was Aho Houegbadja, who succeeded his uncle, Dakodonou. He ruled from the fourth dimension of his uncle’s expiry inwards 1645 until 1685.
Houegbadja established the political potency in addition to boundaries of Abomey proper past times naming the metropolis every bit his capital. By edifice his palace (named “Agbome,” important “in the midst of the ramparts”) nigh Guedevi, an surface area located a few kilometers to the northwest of Bohicon, he established the surface area every bit the spot of political authority. He was responsible for forming the political civilization that would proceed to characterize Dahomey, with a reign that was marked past times autocratic rule. Houegbadja’s symbols were a fish (houe), fish trap (adja), in addition to state of war monastic tell hoe (kpota).
Akaba, 1685-1708
Houegbadja’s successor was his son, Houessou Akabawas, who became the 4th King of Dahomey. He ruled from 1685 to 1708.
Houessou Akaba’s reign was characterized past times state of war in addition to armed services expansion. His enemies, the Nago (Western Yoruba) kings, attacked Abomey in addition to burned the town. But the warriors of Abomey ultimately defeated the Nago armies in addition to the kingdom extended to include the banks of the Oueme River. Akaba failed, however, to capture Porto-Novo. Akaba’s symbols were the warthog in addition to a saber.
Akaba died of smallpox inwards 1708. Because his only son, Agbo Sassa, was only x years old, Akaba was succeeded instead past times his brother, Dossou Agadja.
Agadja, 1708-1732
Ruling from 1708 to 1740, Dossou Agadja was the 5th King of Dahomey. Despite the fact that Agadja had gained the throne due to the youth of Agbo Sassa, the rightful heir, he refused to give upward ability when the man child came of historic menstruum in addition to forced Agbo Sassa into exile.
Agadja’s reign was characterized past times continual warfare. The Yoruba soldiers of the kingdom of Oyo defeated the regular army of Abomey. The peace price required Agadja to pay tribute to the Oyo Empire, a scheme that continued for the side past times side hundred years. The Tribute of the Kingdom of Abomey to the King of Oyo took the shape of an annual tribute inwards immature men in addition to women destined for slavery or expiry inwards ceremonies, every bit good every bit cloth, guns, animals in addition to pearls.
The kingdom of Abomey grew during Agadja’s reign, in addition to conquered Allada inwards 1724. In 1727 it conquered the kingdom of Savi, in addition to gained command of its major city, Ouidah. When Abomey conquered Savi in addition to Ouidah, it gained direct access to the trading ports along the southern coast in addition to took over the lucrative slave merchandise with the Europeans. As a result, Agadja’s symbol is a European caravel boat. Agadja’s victory over Ouidah came, inwards part, every bit a resultant of his job of a corps of women shock-troopers, called Dahomey Amazons past times the Europeans after the women warriors of Greek myth, inwards his army. The Amazons became a dynastic tradition.
Agadja was succeeded past times Tegbessou.
Tegbessou, 1732-1774
Tegbessou was the 6th King of Dahomey, ruling from 1740 to 1774. His reign was characterized past times internal corruption in addition to failed unusual policy. He killed many coup-plotters in addition to political enemies, refused to pay tribute to the Yoruba, in addition to lost many battles inwards the punitive raids that followed.
His main symbol is a buffalo wearing a tunic. His other symbols are the blunderbuss, a weapon he gave his warriors (his reign marked the initiative of all fourth dimension the Dahomey Royal Army had ready access to firearms) in addition to a door decorated with iii noseless heads, a reference to his victory over a rebellious tributary people, the Republic of Benin Zou, whose corpses he mutilated.
During Tegbessou’s reign, the Dahomey enlarged the slave trade, waging a bitter state of war on their neighbors. It is said 10,000 people were captured in addition to sold into slavery, including some other of import slave trader, the King of Whydah. King Tegbessou made £250,000 a yr selling people into slavery inwards 1750.
Tegbessou was succeeded past times Kpengla.
Kpengla, 1774-1789
The 7th Rex of Dahomey, Kpengla, ruled from 1774 to 1789. His reign focused on expansion, in addition to dramatically increased the size of the kingdom. In monastic tell to expand westward, he killed the primary of the Popo people, Agbamou, in addition to spread his empire into modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo. He destroyed the villages of Ekpe in addition to Badagry (in what is at nowadays Nigeria), that were interfering with Dahomey’s regional monopoly on the slave trade.
King Kpengla (right, nether parasol in addition to carrying sword), leads a troop of Dahomey Amazons. Subjects tin live seen kowtowing (left, foreground)
His main symbol is the akpan bird, a merchandise gun (flintlock), in addition to an Amazon warrior striking her caput against a tree. Kpengla was succeeded past times Agonglo.
Agonglo, 1789-1797
Kpengla was succeeded past times his son, Agonglo. The 8th King of Dahomey, he ruled from 1789 to 1797.
Agonglo instituted several reforms which pleased his subjects: taxes were lowered, in addition to a greater distribution of gifts was made during the annual customs. He reformed the shape of the asen, or sacrificial altar, in addition to supported the surface past times ribs rather than a metallic cone, typical of the before Allada trend altars.
After the menstruum of aggressive armed services expansion of his father, Agonglo consolidated the dominion of the dynasty, his few armed services battles, however, were successful. His symbol is the pineapple.
Agonglo is notable inwards existence the initiative of all of the Dahomean kings to espouse a European woman. One of his wives was Sophie, a Dutch adult woman of mixed ancestry. Agonglo was succeeded past times his eldest son, Adandozan.
Adandozan, 1797-1818
Technically the 9th King of Dahomey, Adandozan is non counted every bit ane of the 12 kings. His call has largely been erased from the history of Abomey in addition to to this twenty-four hr menstruum is to a greater extent than frequently than non not spoken out loud inwards the city. He became Rex when, inwards 1797, the previous Rex died, leaving the throne to his eldest son.
Adandozan’s symbols were a baboon with a swollen stomach, total mouth, in addition to ear of corn inwards manus (an unflattering reference to his enemy, the King of Oyo), in addition to a large parasol (‘the Rex overshadows his enemies’). These symbols are non included inwards Abomey appliques, for the same reasons that Adandozan is non included inwards Abomey’s history.
The traditional stories of Adandozan’s dominion portray him every bit extremely cruel: he is said to receive got raised hyenas to which he would throw alive subjects for amusement. He has been portrayed every bit hopelessly mad, struggling foolishly with the European powers.
The commonly told even is that he refused to pay Francisco Felix da Souza, a Brazilian merchant in addition to trader who had go a major middle-man inwards the Ouidah slave market. Instead, he imprisoned in addition to tortured de Souza, in addition to and so attempted to receive got his ain ministers sell the slaves directly. According to legend, de Souza escaped with the aid of Gakpe, Adandozan’s brother, who returned from exile for that purpose. In return, de Souza helped Gakpe marshall a armed services strength in addition to convey the throne with the assistance of the terrified council of ministers. Gakpe in addition to so position Adandozan inwards prison.
This traditional portrayal may live wrong: similar Richard II of England inwards the Wars of the Roses, Adandozan may receive got been the object of a propagandistic rewriting of history after he lost the throne, turned into a monster past times his successor every bit a way of excusing the coup d’état in addition to legitimizing the novel regime. All stories handgrip that Adandozan tried to strength to a greater extent than favorable price of merchandise with the Europeans involved inwards the export of slaves, in addition to seriously undermined the ability of the extended purplish solid unit of measurement in addition to Vodun cult practitioners at courtroom through administrative reforms.
It may live that these policies themselves provoked Adandozan’s powerful opponents to back upward a coup against him. In monastic tell to justify the coup, Gakpe may in addition to so receive got been obliged to receive got oral historians tell of the monstrous in addition to mad Adandozan.
Ghezo (Gakpe) 1818-1856
Ghezo was the 9th King of Dahomey in addition to is considered ane of the greatest of the 12 historical kings. He ruled from 1818 to 1858. His call before ascending to the throne was Gakpe.
Ghezo’s symbols are 2 birds on a tree, a buffalo, in addition to a clay scandalize sieve with holes inwards it held past times 2 hands, a symbol of unity. Ghezo is said to receive got used the sieve every bit a metaphor for the sort of unity needed for the province to defeat its enemies in addition to overcome its problems; it takes everyone’s manus to block the sieve’s holes in addition to handgrip water. The pierced clay scandalize upheld past times multiple hands has go a national symbol inwards Benin, a large portrayal of it is the backdrop of the speaker’s podium inwards Benin’s National Assembly.
Ghezo ascended to the throne after he overthrew his brother, Adandozan, inwards a coup d’état. The traditional stories province that Adandozan was a cruel ruler, but it is possible these stories may receive got been invented past times Ghezo’s historians to justify the coup.
Throughout his reign, Ghezo waged a armed services displace every yr during the dry out season. His prisoners-of-war were sold into slavery, hence fattening the purplish treasury, increasing the annual budget, in addition to making state of war a really efficient way of raising revenue. Due to the increased strength of his regular army in addition to capital, Ghezo position an terminate to the Oyo tribute paying. He formalized his army, gave his 4,000 Dahomey Amazon woman mortal warriors uniforms, required soldiers to drill with guns in addition to sabres regularly, in addition to was able to repulse Oyo’s onslaught when it came.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo onward, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic, with Ghezo placing bang-up importance on the army, its budget in addition to its structures. An intrinsic component division of the regular army of Dahomey, which increased inwards importance every bit the province became to a greater extent than militaristic, was the elite fighting strength known every bit the Amazons.
Ghezo was also seen every bit an extremely sharp administrator. Because of his slave revenues, he could afford to lower taxes, hence stimulating the agricultural in addition to mercantile economy: agriculture expanded, every bit did merchandise inwards a multifariousness of goods with France. He instituted novel judicial procedures, in addition to was considered to live a exactly gauge of his subjects. He was much loved, in addition to his abrupt expiry inwards a battle against the Yoruba was considered a tragedy.
However loved past times his ain people, Ghezo’s legacy includes his making a major contribution to the slave trade. He said inwards the 1840s that he would do anything the British wanted him to do apart from giving upward slave trade: “The slave merchandise is the ruling regulation of my people. It is the source in addition to the glory of their wealth…the woman parent lulls the kid to slumber with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…”
Ghezo was succeeded past times Glele.
Glele, 1856-1889
Badohou, who took the throne call Glele, is considered (if Adandozan is non counted) to live the 10th King of Dahomey. He succeeded his father, Ghezo, in addition to ruled from 1858 to 1889.
Glele continued his father’s successful state of war campaigns, inwards component division to avenge his father’s death, inwards component division to capture slaves. Glele also signed treaties with the French, who had previously acquired a concession inwards Porto-Novo from its king. The French were successful inwards negotiating with Glele in addition to receiving a grant for a customs in addition to commerce concession inwards Cotonou during his reign. Glele resisted English linguistic communication diplomatic overtures, however, distrusting their manners in addition to noting that they were much to a greater extent than activist inwards their opposition to the slave trade: though French Republic itself had outlawed slavery at the terminate of the 1700s, it allowed the merchandise to proceed elsewhere; Great Britain outlawed slavery inwards the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland in addition to inwards its overseas possessions inwards 1833, in addition to had its navy brand raids against slavers along the West African coast get-go inwards 1840.
Glele, despite the formal terminate of the slave merchandise in addition to its interdiction past times the Europeans in addition to New World powers, continued slavery every bit a domestic institution: his fields were primarily cared for past times slaves, in addition to slaves became a major source of ‘messengers to the ancestors’, inwards other words, sacrificial victims inwards ceremonies.
Near the terminate of Glele’s reign, relations with French Republic deteriorated due to Cotonou’s growing commercial influence in addition to differences of interpretation betwixt Dahomey in addition to French Republic regarding the extent in addition to price of the Cotonou concession grant. Glele, already on his expiry bed, had his boy Prince Kondo convey accuse of negotiations with the French.
Glele’s symbols are the king of beasts in addition to the ritual knife of the adepts of Gu; of fire, iron, war, in addition to cutting edges.
Glele died on Dec 29, 1889, to live succeeded past times Kondo, who took the call Behanzin.
Behanzin, 1889-1894
Behanzin, though the twelfth, is considered the eleventh (if Adandozan is non counted) King of Dahomey. Upon taking the throne, he changed his call from Kondo to Behanzin, every bit it was traditional for Dahomey kings to assume a throne name. He succeeded his father, Glele, in addition to ruled from 1889 to 1894. Behanzin was Abomey’s lastly independent ruler established through traditional ability structures, in addition to was considered to live a bang-up ruler.
Behanzin, King of Dahomey, 1892. Artist: Henri Meyer
Behanzin was seen past times his people every bit intelligent in addition to courageous. He saw that the Europeans were gradually encroaching on his kingdom, in addition to every bit a resultant attempted a unusual policy of isolating the Europeans in addition to rebuffing them. Just before Glele’s death, Behanzin declined to run into French envoy Jean Bayol, claiming conflicts inwards his schedule due to ritual in addition to ceremonial obligations. As a result, Bayol returned to Cotonou to gear upward to go to state of war against Behanzin, named Rex upon Glele’s death. Seeing the preparations, the Dahomeans attacked Bayol’s forces exterior Cotonou inwards 1890; the French regular army stood fast due to superior weaponry in addition to a strategically advantageous position. Eventually Behanzin’s forces were forced to withdraw. Behanzin returned to Abomey, in addition to Bayol to French Republic for a time.
Peace lasted 2 years, during which fourth dimension the French continued to occupy Cotonou. Both sides continued to purchase arms inwards training for some other battle. In 1892, the soldiers of Abomey attacked villages nigh Grand Popo in addition to Porto-Novo inwards an sweat to reassert the older boundaries of Dahomey. This was seen every bit an deed of state of war past times the French, who claimed interests inwards both areas. Bayol, past times at nowadays named Colonial Governor past times the French, declared state of war on Behanzin. The French justified the activity past times characterizing the Dahomeans every bit savages inwards demand of civilizing. Evidence of this savagery, they stated, was the practise of human sacrifice during the annual customs celebrations in addition to at the fourth dimension of a king’s death, in addition to the continued practise of slavery.
The French were victorious inwards attaining the give upward of Behanzin inwards 1894, though they did non procur his signature of national give upward or treaty. He lived out the residue of his life inwards exile inwards Martinique in addition to Algeria. After his death, his remains were returned to Abomey.
His symbols are the shark, the egg, in addition to a captive hanging from a flagpole (a reference to a boastful in addition to rebellious Nago practitioner of harmful magic from Ketou whom the Rex hanged from a flagpole every bit penalisation for his pride). But, his most famous symbol is the smoking pipe.
Behanzin was succeeded past times Agoli-agbo, his distant relative in addition to one-time Army Chief of Staff, the only potential ruler which the French were willing to instate.
Agoli-agbo
Agoli-agbo is considered to receive got been the twelfth, in addition to last, King of Dahomey. He took the throne after the previous king, Behanzin, went into exile after a failed state of war with France. He was inwards ability from 1894 to 1900.
Proclamation of the novel King Agoli-agbo of Dahomey,-.From Le Petit Journal,19 th Feb 1894
The exile of Behanzin did non legalize the French colonization. The French full general Alfred Dodds offered the throne to every ane of the immediate purplish family, inwards homecoming for a signature on a treaty establishing a French protectorate over the Kingdom; all refused. Finally, Behanzin’s Army Chief of Staff (and distant relative), Prince Agoli-agbo was appointed to the throne, every bit a ‘traditional chief’ rather than caput of province of a sovereign nation, past times the French when he agreed to sign the musical instrument of surrender. He ‘reigned’ for only vi years, assisted past times a French Viceroy. The French prepared for direct administration, which they achieved on Feb 12, 1900. Agoli-agbo went into exile inwards Gabon, in addition to the Save River. He returned to alive inwards Abomey every bit a private citizen inwards 1918.
Agoli-agbo’s symbols are a leg kicking a rock, an archer’s bow (a symbol of the homecoming to traditional weapons nether the novel rules established past times the colonial administrators), in addition to a broom.
Agbo. AGBOLI-AGBO DEDJLANI
King of Abomey
Benin
Dedjlani, a old policeman, waited vi years to retire, in addition to and so proceeded with his clandestine coronation ceremonies.“Officially”, at that spot is no longer a Rex inwards Benin. But on september 30, 1989, Dedjlani position on his purplish shoes, in addition to at the historic menstruum of 50 4 became King of Abomey.
Being monogamous, he was obliged to espouse 2 to a greater extent than wives to convey tending of his purplish household. When he goes out, tradition requires that he live sheltered nether an umbrella with his emblem. One of wives must ever live side past times side to him, carrying the purplish spitting bowl. The King also has to wearable his scepter inwards permanence. Holding it inwards his manus or hanging on his shoulder, to a greater extent than than a symbol, the scepter is the King. The silvery dust protector worn on the nose, dates from the nineteenth century, in addition to was inherited from the King Gbehanzin. It protected the King’s olfactory organ from the dust, during the purplish processions inwards Abomey.
Dahomey Amazons
The Dahomey Amazons were a Fon all-female armed services regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey. They were so named past times Western observers in addition to historians due to their similarity to the legendary Amazons described past times the Ancient Greeks.
King Houegbadja, the tertiary king, is said to receive got originally began the grouping which would go the Amazons every bit a corps of purplish bodyguards after edifice a novel palace at Abomey. Houegbadja’s boy King Agadja developed these bodyguards into a militia in addition to successfully used them inwards Dahomey’s defeat of the neighboring kingdom of Savi inwards 1727. European merchants recorded their presence, every bit good every bit similar woman mortal warriors alongside the Ashanti. For the side past times side hundred years or so, they gained a reputation every bit fearless warriors. Though they fought rarely, they ordinarily acquitted themselves good inwards battle.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic. Ghezo placed bang-up importance on the regular army in addition to increased its budget in addition to formalized its structures. The Amazons were rigorously trained, given uniforms, in addition to equipped with Danish guns obtained via the slave trade. By this fourth dimension the Amazons consisted of betwixt 4,000 in addition to 6,000 women, nigh a tertiary of the entire Dahomey army.
European encroachment into West Africa gained measurement during the latter one-half of the nineteenth century, in addition to inwards 1890 the Dahomey King Behanzin began fighting French forces (mainly made upward of Yoruba, who the Dahomeans had been fighting for centuries). It is said that many of the French soldiers fighting inwards Dahomey hesitated before shooting or bayoneting the Amazons. The resulting delay led to many of the French casualties. Ultimately, bolstered past times the French Foreign Legion, in addition to armed with superior weaponry including machine guns, the French inflicted casualties that were x times worse on the Dahomey side. After several battles, the French prevailed. The Legionnaires afterwards wrote nigh the “incredible courage in addition to audacity” of the Amazons. The lastly surviving Amazon died inwards 1979.
Economy
Subsistence in addition to Commercial Activities. Fon are farmers, fishermen, in addition to marketplace women. Nowadays they occupy all the positions in addition to jobs to live found inwards government, civil service, business, in addition to production. Staple crops are yams, maize, in addition to manioc. (Millet was ane time important.) Beans, peas, peanuts, sorghum, sweetness potatoes, onions, okra, peppers, gourds, papayas, bananas, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, crude oil palms, in addition to some rice in addition to cocoa are also grown. Animals raised include pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, guinea fowl, ducks, in addition to pigeons. Fishing is of primary importance along the coast in addition to inwards the Volta region. Cash crops include palm kernels, peanuts, copra, castor beans, kapok, and, past times far the most important, java in addition to cocoa.
Fon in addition to Ewe marketplace women—both wholesalers in addition to retailers—have a nigh monopoly on the internal economy. Even inwards small-scale villages, many women are traders in addition to retailers, selling anything from homemade fermented corn porridge to Coca Cola, frequently specializing inwards a single item such every bit fresh or home-smoked fish, imported Dutch wax cloth, fresh fruits in addition to vegetables, or merchandise beads.
Industrial Arts. Fon engage inwards pottery making, forest sculpting (mostly for religious use), in addition to basketwork; inwards the past, every hamlet had a blacksmith.
Fon people carrying pots at Abomey,Benin
Trade
Fon receive got traded with Yoruba in addition to Hausa for every bit long every bit they receive got had their acquaint identity. The slave merchandise in addition to the common salt merchandise brought other traders from the northward of acquaint Ewe in addition to Fon regions, including every bit far northward every bit Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in addition to perhaps Republic of Mali in addition to Niger. Portuguese traders reached the coast inwards the fifteenth century, fifty-fifty before the Ewe in addition to Fon had migrated that far. By the seventeenth century, when the Volta share had go dwelling to an Ewe polity in addition to the Kingdom of Dahomey had regular relations with Ouidah, European commercial envoys were no longer a novelty on what was in addition to so called the Slave Coast. The Atlantic commerce inwards slaves was a important aspect of Fon life for 2 centuries.
Market activities are cardinal inwards all Fon regions. Women almost ever receive got something to sell on marketplace days, including foodstuffs they brand themselves. They frequently purchase their husband's or brothers' grab of fish fresh from the ocean or river in addition to convey it straight to diverse markets. Or they fume the fish in addition to convey them to markets further inland. Today European, U.S., in addition to Chinese goods are available fifty-fifty inwards small-scale Fon hamlet markets to a greater extent than than 150 kilometers from the coast, frequently taken at that spot past times local women who purchase the goods inwards coastal cities.
Abomey-Calavi
Division of Labor
. Apart from the special condition of kings inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey who did non perform manual labor, the main partition of labor is along gender lines. Men do heavy agricultural labor such every bit clearing the solid ground in addition to staking yam vines; they fish, hunt, in addition to create houses. Women participate inwards the inwards a higher identify activities also, such every bit preparing the palm-frond walling or fencing necessary to hut building, taking accuse of butchered animals in addition to fish, in addition to carrying out almost all agricultural tasks except the really heaviest.
Dance of warrior women,Abomey.
Women also ship headloads every bit heavy every bit whatever charge men tin carry. Although it is frequently said that only women headload, this is obviously untrue. Women are inwards accuse of most marketplace activities, although they may hire men to aid them. One of the few items ordinarily sold past times men inwards the marketplace is beef, frequently brought past times Hausa or other Muslim traders. Most other kinds of work, including cooking, may live done past times women in addition to men, in addition to fifty-fifty the above-mentioned divisions of labor are non absolute. Women in addition to children may bring together with men inwards pulling inwards the enormous in addition to heavy line-fishing nets from the surf after a catch. Gender-specific cash savings in addition to function collectives abound, enabling members to receive got their ain banking every bit good every bit back upward inwards solid building, clearing land, harvesting, fishing, marketing, in addition to all other labors. Especially notable are the Fon dokpwe , or cooperative, or tontine (French). Both women in addition to men engage inwards kid care, although women are considered to receive got greater responsibleness inwards this regard. Groups of men in addition to groups of women may convey tending of whatever in addition to all hamlet children inwards their vicinity at whatever given time.
Fon woman,Sessimé’s, a Beninese Afropoprock musician
Land Tenure
Anyone from a particular share tin farm on solid ground that is non occupied past times anyone else. Inside a settlement, a mortal wishing to employ solid ground must inquire permission of the hamlet primary or the elders of the lineage owning the land. Formerly, rights receive got extended only to job of land; at that spot was no absolute correct to the solid ground itself. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, solid ground was past times Definition the belongings of the king. In most Ewe regions, solid ground is inherited in addition to administrated past times elders of each patriline; whatever lineage fellow member may create or farm on lineage solid ground every bit long every bit she or he respects the rights of others nearby who are already established on the land. Widows of patriline members or other persons non members of the lineage may rest on the solid ground in addition to farm it, but it cannot go past times definitively into some other lineage.
Only inwards the lastly few generations has solid ground come upward to live alienable from lineage tenure past times existence mortgaged or sold. Land non already belonging to a lineage (of which at that spot is scarcely whatever now) may live acquired personally through simply clearing the land, or buying it non-Fon owners; the possessor may dispose of such solid ground without consulting lineage elders. Both women in addition to men receive got rights to lineage land, frequently at nowadays called "inheritance of land," but, inwards areas where solid ground is scarce, women receive got difficulty claiming such rights.
Kinship
Kin Groups in addition to Descent. Descent is primarily patrilineal. Fon receive got exogamous patrisibs composed of lineages, but inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey the purplish sib had exceptional rules. Princesses married commoners in addition to their children belonged to the purplish sib, every bit did the offspring of purplish princes. Cross-cousin matrimony is preferred alongside most Fon groups, peculiarly with mother's brother's daughter.
Holywood Actor djimon Hounsou is a Fon from Benin
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. Most Fon marriages are patrilocal, although neolocal residence has go pop inwards the belatedly twentieth century. Polygyny is the dominion if a human has way to espouse to a greater extent than than ane wife. It is frequently said that an abuse of polygyny leads wives to go out their husbands for other men, frequently younger in addition to every bit yet unmarried, so that women also tend to receive got to a greater extent than than ane married adult man inwards their lifetimes. Fon marriages are of 2 full general types, ane to a greater extent than prestigious than the other. Prestigious matrimony includes payments past times the groom to the bride's begetter or premarital farm labor performed past times a human for his futurity father-in-law. Such bride-wealth or function gives a human command over his children. When this is non performed, the woman parent in addition to her solid unit of measurement receive got all rights over the children; thus, this sort of matrimony is less desirable or prestigious for a husband. Herskovits (1938) outlines xiii dissimilar variations of these 2 major matrimony categories. H5N1 human must never decline a married adult woman offered him, in addition to divorce may live initiated only past times the wife's family. In many Ewe groups, matrimony is less marked past times bride-wealth or bride-service, in addition to fifty-fifty if a human offers only the required drinks in addition to cloths to his bride in addition to her family, he may claim the children every bit members of his ain patriline. In representative of separation, a begetter may maintain his children with him, although inwards many cases wives are allowed to heighten the children. Pregnancy makes a matrimony complete. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, virginity was demanded of brides inwards prestigious marriages. Christian Fon proceed according to the arrangements prescribed inwards their churches.
Domestic Unit. Patrilineal three- or four-generational extended solid unit of measurement compounds, every bit good every bit agnatic extended solid unit of measurement compounds, are common. Another model is a nuclear-family household (often with children from previous marriages) that eventually is joined past times other relatives, such every bit the couple's younger siblings, cousins, nieces, nephews, in addition to foster children.
Fon Kid from Benin
If the married adult man has non vowed monogamy, inwards time, other wives in addition to their children may come upward to expand the chemical compound (each married adult woman with her ain hut or fiddling house). In many cases, other wives in addition to their children shape separate households. Adolescent boys may receive got collective sleeping quarters separate from their mothers in addition to sisters.
Fon kids at Ouidah,benin
Inheritance. Most Fon property, including land, is inherited patrilineally, although some lineage solid ground remains. Cloth wealth in addition to jewelry sometimes go lineage belongings too, along with ancestral stools. Individual property, which may include rights to solid ground in addition to fields, may live inherited patrilineally. In some areas the eldest boy inherits solid ground rights, but livestock in addition to other private belongings go to a man's sister's son. In Lome inheritance is mixed.
Socialization. Virtually everyone, but especially older siblings, takes tending of the children. Grandparents, both woman mortal in addition to male, also pass considerable fourth dimension with children. Fishermen inwards from the ocean frequently sit down some inwards groups during the afternoon, playing boardgames in addition to watching over immature children at the same time.
Angelique Kidjo is a fon
Toddlers are passed from mortal to person, including adolescent boys, who appear to relish taking their turns. Mothers in addition to all woman mortal relatives ship babies on their backs for much of the day; sometimes doting fathers or other virile mortal relatives also wrap babies in addition to toddlers on their backs. Fon adolescents experiment with sexuality early on inwards their teen years, in addition to nowadays pregnancy at a immature age, fifty-fifty if the woman parent is unmarried, is non especially discouraged inwards many communities. Thus virginity is non every bit highly valued every bit it ane time was.
Young Fon worshippers of a mermaid deity gear upward for the Voodoo Festival, inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Young girls aid their mothers, frequently caring for smaller children or carrying loads to market, boys every bit immature every bit 10 may go to ocean with the men in addition to go over the side of the pirogue to drive a schoolhouse of fish into the nets. Inland, immature boys in addition to girls aid perform agricultural tasks in addition to tending for animals. Children are acquaint at all of import social in addition to religious events in addition to may, at a really early on age, go "spouses" of of import spirits or gods, hence inheriting sizable responsibilities in addition to the special, frequently prestigious, identity, that goes with them. Children every bit immature every bit 10 may go into trance during Vodu (Fon) possession ceremonies. They also relish such events every bit recreation in addition to convey payoff of opportunities for drumming, singing, in addition to dancing performances; teenagers in addition to immature adults may courtroom during in addition to after such religious rituals.
Fon missy braiding her sisters pilus at Ouidah,Benin
Political Organization.
Although the Fon kingdom had a centralized province with a powerful ahosu (King), since its collapse that construction is no longer available. Fon villages had hamlet autonomy before they were consolidated into a kingdom inwards the seventeenth century, in addition to hence each hamlet primary was a "king" (toxosu ) to whom the heads of each chemical compound answered. The Kingdom of Dahomey forced these chiefs to swear loyalty to the ruler or live sacrificed (some were sold into slavery). Sibs inwards Fon villages receive got considerable political influence, but the primary is hardly all-powerful.
His Majesty Agboli Agbo Dedjani, Last King of the Dan-Home Dynasty, Abomey, Republic of Benin (Dahomey), Africa
Social Control. Although during the colonial menstruum chiefs had considerable command (and soundless do every bit far every bit administrative decisions are concerned), potency is widely distributed inwards villages in addition to regions. Whereas Fon are nominally nether the jurisdiction of French-inspired legal systems, the laws of the ancestors in addition to the moral frameworks of Vodu worship tend to receive got exactly every bit much, if non more, potency than official law inwards many communities. Even inwards colonial in addition to precolonial periods, the component division of primary in addition to the ranks of the elders were ordinarily filled with men (and some women) who were linked to religious orders.
Fon women at Ouidah
Individual conduct for many is constantly interpreted in addition to adjusted through the lenses of Afa (or Fa) divination, which includes the "laws of destiny," or the "law-deity who brought me here" (esesidomeda ). Thus, supernatural sanctions are to a greater extent than powerful than province legal systems for numerous Fon. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, kings were tyrannical according to numerous sources; hamlet chiefs, inwards keeping with before practices, were not. Decisions of hamlet chiefs had to live reported to the king, however, so that concluding command was inwards his hands. The king's tribunal of chiefs was expected to gauge harshly so that the Rex himself could demonstrate clemency past times lightening the sentence. During the colonial period, at that spot was bang-up tension betwixt sure as shooting Ewe Vodu orders in addition to colonial administrators who claimed the Vodu "courts" were presuming to convey the identify of official courts. Numerous shrines were hence destroyed past times High German in addition to French authorities. Vodu worshipers frequently did non consider the powers of the colonial governments to live legitimate,
Fon people.
Conflict
Conflict inwards villages is typically brought to a grouping of "judges," including the chief, Vodu priests, in addition to both virile mortal in addition to woman mortal elders. The entire hamlet has the correct to attend, in addition to whoever wishes to speak may do so. Often divorce cases, theft, assault, in addition to instances of injury through witchcraft do non go before official courts of law. Even cases that do go before official courts of law, including murder, may live rejudged past times Vodu priests in addition to communities because the conflict at the source of the law-breaking is non idea to live only personal. All conflict is a reflection of the social trunk inwards its human relationship to the relaxation of the cosmos.
Fon
Religion in addition to Expressive Culture
Religious Beliefs. Various Vodu (Fon) orders are at the foundation of Fon religion. H5N1 High God exists, according to numerous informants. Among Fon, Mawu in addition to Lisa are a couple, twins, or a woman mortal (Mawu) in addition to virile mortal (Lisa) hermaphrodite divinity. Fon may say the world was created past times Nana-Buluku, who gave nascence to Mawu in addition to Lisa. For others, Nana-Buluku, Mawu, in addition to Lisa are all Vodus, in addition to at that spot is no all-powerful separate creator.
Gu or Egu, the warrior in addition to hunter god of iron, is cardinal alongside all Fon groups. There are a issue of other Vodu orders, including Gorovodu, which is pop across Fon populations inwards Benin. Mama Tchamba, a related order, involves the worship of the spirits of slaves from the northward that Ewe ane time owned in addition to married. The selfhood of each private is involved with these major deities in addition to spirit personalities. They are also protectors, healers, judges, in addition to consummate performers.
Vodoun practitioners at Ouidah voodoo festival inwards Benin
All Vodu orders function manus inwards manus with Afa (or Fa) divination, a complex interpretive framework within which each mortal has a life sign (kpoli ), of which at that spot are a total of 256. Each sign is connected to a laid of plants in addition to animals, stories in addition to songs, dietary taboos, Vodus, in addition to dangers in addition to strengths, all associated with each other, every bit though clan-related. Events, projects, activities, in addition to relationships also receive got their ain Afa signs. Everything inwards the universe is related to Afa texts in addition to themes, every bit though nature itself were divided into exogamous clans.
Some Fon receive got go Christians; given their proximity to the coast, these ethnic groups were alongside the initiative of all to convey Christianity inwards the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries. Certain Christian groups originating inwards West Africa, such every bit Aladura in addition to Celeste, receive got a considerable next on the coast.
Fon christian Celestial believers
Religious Practitioners. Vodu priests are ordinarily men, but postmenopausal women may go priestesses. The bang-up bulk of spirit hosts or "wives" of the Vodus are women. Priests, priestesses, in addition to "wives" of the Yehve deities (Sosi, Avlesi, Dasi, etc.) do non ordinarily practise trance. Afa diviners are almost ever men, although it is said that a adult woman tin go a diviner if she wishes.
vodoun devotees
Ceremonies. Vodu ceremonies are compelling performances for both insiders in addition to outsiders. Worshipers who laid out dancing to the drum music may go into trance. Spirits who possess their "wives" may receive got messages for the community, may convey component division inwards judging sure as shooting cases of conflict, in addition to may heal the sick. Above all, they are dancing gods, in addition to at that spot are aesthetic conventions that receive got long traditions.
Fon people of benin performing their Vodoun rituals
In Vodu orders where possession is non usual, ceremonies are all the to a greater extent than dazzling because of the perfection of their collective execution. Rows of dancers, all clothed inwards ceremonial attire, displace across a ritual infinite every bit ane person, performing specific movements. Drums ever provide a sort of text or context for movement, including narrative associations in addition to instruction. Ceremonies are events during which symbolic associations are reinforced, private in addition to collective identity is stated, sure as shooting aspects of identity in addition to ability are recalled in addition to redistributed, healing in addition to admonishment convey place, and, inwards a higher identify all, collective exhilaration, ecstasy, in addition to awe are produced. Ceremonies are ever gifts to the gods.
A human slaughters a caprine animal at the Temple of Pythons during the annual Voodoo Festival inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Afa divination involves numerous complicated rituals based on a binary scheme of questions in addition to responses, in addition to permutations of the 256 life signs associated with collections of oral texts.
vodounsi
Arts.
Fon artists are widely known for their appliqué hangings with legendary motifs from the Kingdom of Dahomey in addition to Vodu culture. Elaborate engraving or carving of calabashes is some other Fon art. Brass casting (using the cireperdue, or lost-wax method) has been practiced past times the Fon since early on times. Brass workers belonged to special guilds inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey; they created some of the to a greater extent than striking objects constituting the king's wealth. Silverwork was also mastered. Fon soundless carve wooden bocio figures for spiritual practices, every bit good every bit Legba statues (guardian deities) in addition to other Vodu god-objects. Earthen Legbas are also common. Some god-objects, solely abstract inwards form, are confected every bit a collage-sculpture, with numerous ingredients including cowry shells, caprine animal horns, cows' tails, birds' claws, Fe bells, in addition to tree roots, all united with cherry-red clay in addition to glazed with the blood of sacrificial animals. Drums of many dissimilar kinds are produced for specific ceremonies. Vodu costumes for spirit possession may live richly adorned with cowries sewn on inwards patterns. All of the objects necessary for Fa (Fon) divination are also created with bang-up tending in addition to elaboration; hence they are sometimes bought past times Europeans every bit objects of art. Stools are of import to Fon lineages. They are frequently carved with narrative particular so that their symbolic significance is inscribed for futurity generations to see.
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Costume for Adzohu, a sacred dance-drumming from the Fon people of Benin, West Africa
Festivals
GeledeTraditional Festival of the Fon people inwards South Benin
Gelede is a cult dedicated to Mother Earth. It is celebrated past times the whole community to promote fertility of both the people in addition to the soil. Each mask is sculpted in addition to represents a dissimilar grapheme but only the initiates know the truthful nature in addition to secrets of those symbolic characters.
The masks are brightly painted in addition to displace similar puppets linking myths in addition to moral stories through mime. It is both educational in addition to quite hilarious. The delighted crowd express joy in addition to clap their hands every bit they sentry inwards appreciation. It is a fascinating mix of street theater in addition to magical theatre.
Gelede Mask festival
Egun, traditional Celebration
Egun masks stand upward for the spirits of the deceased in addition to according to the locals; they "are" the deceased.
Vodoun women inwards trance trying to grasp the the ungraspable
Royal Ancestor Worship
Early kings established clear worship of purplish ancestors in addition to centralized their ceremonies inwards the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted spot inwards the solid ground of the dead in addition to it was necessary to larn their permission for many activities on earth.
Dance of the chiefs (circa 1908). Celebration at Abomey, By Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
Ancestor worship pre-existed the kingdom of Dahomey; however, nether King Agaja, a wheel of ritual was created centered some initiative of all celebrating the ancestors of the Rex in addition to and so celebrating a solid unit of measurement lineage.
The celebration at Abomey.Young missy with wooden statue of mystic chair.by Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved multiple elaborate components in addition to some aspects may receive got been added inwards the 19th century. In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, armed services parades, in addition to political councils. Its main religious aspect was to offering thank you lot in addition to gain the approving for ancestors of the purplish lineage. However, the custom also included armed services parades, populace discussions, gift giving (the distribution of coin to in addition to from the king), in addition to human sacrifice in addition to the spilling of blood.
Vodoun adult woman inwards trance
Most of the victims were captives from slave raids in addition to were sacrificed through decapitation, a tradition widely used past times Dahomean kings, in addition to the literal translation for the Fon call for the ceremony Xwetanu is "yearly caput business".
Dahomey Cosmology
Dahomey had a unique shape of West African vodun or voodoo which linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a married adult woman of Agaja brought the vodun to the kingdom in addition to ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having woman mortal characteristics in addition to Lisa having virile mortal characteristics) in addition to it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created past times their woman parent Nana-Buluku. Mawu-Lisa governs the heaven in addition to is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods be inwards the ground in addition to inwards thunder.
Fon vodoun practitioners
Religious practise organized dissimilar priesthoods in addition to shrines for each dissimilar god in addition to each different
pantheon (sky, ground or thunder). Women made upward a important amount of the priest shape in addition to the primary priest was ever a descendant of Dakodonou.
Kings of Dahomey
Gangnihessou, unknown – 1620
According to tradition, Gangnihessou came from a dynasty that originated inwards the sixteenth century. Based inwards Tado, a metropolis on the banks of the Moro River (in modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo), the dynasty rose to eminence on the footing of ane of his 4 brothers, who became the Rex of Great Ardra. After the expiry of the king, his territories were divided alongside the iii remaining brothers, ane of which was Gangnihessou.
Gangnihessou came to dominion some 1620 but was shortly dethroned past times his brother, Dakodonou, piece traveling through the kingdom. His symbols were the virile mortal Gangnihessou-bird (a rebus for his name), a drum, a hunting stick in addition to a throwing stick.
Dakodonou, 1620-1645
Dakodonou was the minute King of Dahomey, who ruled from 1620 to 1645. Dakodonou is portrayed every bit a fell in addition to trigger-happy man. His symbols were an indigo scandalize (a reference to his murder of a sure as shooting indigo planter named Donou, whose trunk he made sport of past times rolling it some inwards his indigo jar, in addition to whose call he appended to his ain original name, ‘Dako’), a tinder box, in addition to a state of war club. Before dying, Dakodonou named his nephew, Aho Houegbadja, every bit his successor.
Houegbadja (or Webaja) 1645-1685
The tertiary King of Dahomey was Aho Houegbadja, who succeeded his uncle, Dakodonou. He ruled from the fourth dimension of his uncle’s expiry inwards 1645 until 1685.
Houegbadja established the political potency in addition to boundaries of Abomey proper past times naming the metropolis every bit his capital. By edifice his palace (named “Agbome,” important “in the midst of the ramparts”) nigh Guedevi, an surface area located a few kilometers to the northwest of Bohicon, he established the surface area every bit the spot of political authority. He was responsible for forming the political civilization that would proceed to characterize Dahomey, with a reign that was marked past times autocratic rule. Houegbadja’s symbols were a fish (houe), fish trap (adja), in addition to state of war monastic tell hoe (kpota).
Akaba, 1685-1708
Houegbadja’s successor was his son, Houessou Akabawas, who became the 4th King of Dahomey. He ruled from 1685 to 1708.
Houessou Akaba’s reign was characterized past times state of war in addition to armed services expansion. His enemies, the Nago (Western Yoruba) kings, attacked Abomey in addition to burned the town. But the warriors of Abomey ultimately defeated the Nago armies in addition to the kingdom extended to include the banks of the Oueme River. Akaba failed, however, to capture Porto-Novo. Akaba’s symbols were the warthog in addition to a saber.
Akaba died of smallpox inwards 1708. Because his only son, Agbo Sassa, was only x years old, Akaba was succeeded instead past times his brother, Dossou Agadja.
Agadja, 1708-1732
Ruling from 1708 to 1740, Dossou Agadja was the 5th King of Dahomey. Despite the fact that Agadja had gained the throne due to the youth of Agbo Sassa, the rightful heir, he refused to give upward ability when the man child came of historic menstruum in addition to forced Agbo Sassa into exile.
Agadja’s reign was characterized past times continual warfare. The Yoruba soldiers of the kingdom of Oyo defeated the regular army of Abomey. The peace price required Agadja to pay tribute to the Oyo Empire, a scheme that continued for the side past times side hundred years. The Tribute of the Kingdom of Abomey to the King of Oyo took the shape of an annual tribute inwards immature men in addition to women destined for slavery or expiry inwards ceremonies, every bit good every bit cloth, guns, animals in addition to pearls.
The kingdom of Abomey grew during Agadja’s reign, in addition to conquered Allada inwards 1724. In 1727 it conquered the kingdom of Savi, in addition to gained command of its major city, Ouidah. When Abomey conquered Savi in addition to Ouidah, it gained direct access to the trading ports along the southern coast in addition to took over the lucrative slave merchandise with the Europeans. As a result, Agadja’s symbol is a European caravel boat. Agadja’s victory over Ouidah came, inwards part, every bit a resultant of his job of a corps of women shock-troopers, called Dahomey Amazons past times the Europeans after the women warriors of Greek myth, inwards his army. The Amazons became a dynastic tradition.
Agadja was succeeded past times Tegbessou.
Tegbessou, 1732-1774
Tegbessou was the 6th King of Dahomey, ruling from 1740 to 1774. His reign was characterized past times internal corruption in addition to failed unusual policy. He killed many coup-plotters in addition to political enemies, refused to pay tribute to the Yoruba, in addition to lost many battles inwards the punitive raids that followed.
His main symbol is a buffalo wearing a tunic. His other symbols are the blunderbuss, a weapon he gave his warriors (his reign marked the initiative of all fourth dimension the Dahomey Royal Army had ready access to firearms) in addition to a door decorated with iii noseless heads, a reference to his victory over a rebellious tributary people, the Republic of Benin Zou, whose corpses he mutilated.
During Tegbessou’s reign, the Dahomey enlarged the slave trade, waging a bitter state of war on their neighbors. It is said 10,000 people were captured in addition to sold into slavery, including some other of import slave trader, the King of Whydah. King Tegbessou made £250,000 a yr selling people into slavery inwards 1750.
Tegbessou was succeeded past times Kpengla.
Kpengla, 1774-1789
The 7th Rex of Dahomey, Kpengla, ruled from 1774 to 1789. His reign focused on expansion, in addition to dramatically increased the size of the kingdom. In monastic tell to expand westward, he killed the primary of the Popo people, Agbamou, in addition to spread his empire into modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo. He destroyed the villages of Ekpe in addition to Badagry (in what is at nowadays Nigeria), that were interfering with Dahomey’s regional monopoly on the slave trade.
King Kpengla (right, nether parasol in addition to carrying sword), leads a troop of Dahomey Amazons. Subjects tin live seen kowtowing (left, foreground)
His main symbol is the akpan bird, a merchandise gun (flintlock), in addition to an Amazon warrior striking her caput against a tree. Kpengla was succeeded past times Agonglo.
Agonglo, 1789-1797
Kpengla was succeeded past times his son, Agonglo. The 8th King of Dahomey, he ruled from 1789 to 1797.
Agonglo instituted several reforms which pleased his subjects: taxes were lowered, in addition to a greater distribution of gifts was made during the annual customs. He reformed the shape of the asen, or sacrificial altar, in addition to supported the surface past times ribs rather than a metallic cone, typical of the before Allada trend altars.
After the menstruum of aggressive armed services expansion of his father, Agonglo consolidated the dominion of the dynasty, his few armed services battles, however, were successful. His symbol is the pineapple.
Agonglo is notable inwards existence the initiative of all of the Dahomean kings to espouse a European woman. One of his wives was Sophie, a Dutch adult woman of mixed ancestry. Agonglo was succeeded past times his eldest son, Adandozan.
Adandozan, 1797-1818
Technically the 9th King of Dahomey, Adandozan is non counted every bit ane of the 12 kings. His call has largely been erased from the history of Abomey in addition to to this twenty-four hr menstruum is to a greater extent than frequently than non not spoken out loud inwards the city. He became Rex when, inwards 1797, the previous Rex died, leaving the throne to his eldest son.
Adandozan’s symbols were a baboon with a swollen stomach, total mouth, in addition to ear of corn inwards manus (an unflattering reference to his enemy, the King of Oyo), in addition to a large parasol (‘the Rex overshadows his enemies’). These symbols are non included inwards Abomey appliques, for the same reasons that Adandozan is non included inwards Abomey’s history.
The traditional stories of Adandozan’s dominion portray him every bit extremely cruel: he is said to receive got raised hyenas to which he would throw alive subjects for amusement. He has been portrayed every bit hopelessly mad, struggling foolishly with the European powers.
The commonly told even is that he refused to pay Francisco Felix da Souza, a Brazilian merchant in addition to trader who had go a major middle-man inwards the Ouidah slave market. Instead, he imprisoned in addition to tortured de Souza, in addition to and so attempted to receive got his ain ministers sell the slaves directly. According to legend, de Souza escaped with the aid of Gakpe, Adandozan’s brother, who returned from exile for that purpose. In return, de Souza helped Gakpe marshall a armed services strength in addition to convey the throne with the assistance of the terrified council of ministers. Gakpe in addition to so position Adandozan inwards prison.
This traditional portrayal may live wrong: similar Richard II of England inwards the Wars of the Roses, Adandozan may receive got been the object of a propagandistic rewriting of history after he lost the throne, turned into a monster past times his successor every bit a way of excusing the coup d’état in addition to legitimizing the novel regime. All stories handgrip that Adandozan tried to strength to a greater extent than favorable price of merchandise with the Europeans involved inwards the export of slaves, in addition to seriously undermined the ability of the extended purplish solid unit of measurement in addition to Vodun cult practitioners at courtroom through administrative reforms.
It may live that these policies themselves provoked Adandozan’s powerful opponents to back upward a coup against him. In monastic tell to justify the coup, Gakpe may in addition to so receive got been obliged to receive got oral historians tell of the monstrous in addition to mad Adandozan.
Ghezo (Gakpe) 1818-1856
Ghezo was the 9th King of Dahomey in addition to is considered ane of the greatest of the 12 historical kings. He ruled from 1818 to 1858. His call before ascending to the throne was Gakpe.
Ghezo’s symbols are 2 birds on a tree, a buffalo, in addition to a clay scandalize sieve with holes inwards it held past times 2 hands, a symbol of unity. Ghezo is said to receive got used the sieve every bit a metaphor for the sort of unity needed for the province to defeat its enemies in addition to overcome its problems; it takes everyone’s manus to block the sieve’s holes in addition to handgrip water. The pierced clay scandalize upheld past times multiple hands has go a national symbol inwards Benin, a large portrayal of it is the backdrop of the speaker’s podium inwards Benin’s National Assembly.
Ghezo ascended to the throne after he overthrew his brother, Adandozan, inwards a coup d’état. The traditional stories province that Adandozan was a cruel ruler, but it is possible these stories may receive got been invented past times Ghezo’s historians to justify the coup.
Throughout his reign, Ghezo waged a armed services displace every yr during the dry out season. His prisoners-of-war were sold into slavery, hence fattening the purplish treasury, increasing the annual budget, in addition to making state of war a really efficient way of raising revenue. Due to the increased strength of his regular army in addition to capital, Ghezo position an terminate to the Oyo tribute paying. He formalized his army, gave his 4,000 Dahomey Amazon woman mortal warriors uniforms, required soldiers to drill with guns in addition to sabres regularly, in addition to was able to repulse Oyo’s onslaught when it came.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo onward, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic, with Ghezo placing bang-up importance on the army, its budget in addition to its structures. An intrinsic component division of the regular army of Dahomey, which increased inwards importance every bit the province became to a greater extent than militaristic, was the elite fighting strength known every bit the Amazons.
Ghezo was also seen every bit an extremely sharp administrator. Because of his slave revenues, he could afford to lower taxes, hence stimulating the agricultural in addition to mercantile economy: agriculture expanded, every bit did merchandise inwards a multifariousness of goods with France. He instituted novel judicial procedures, in addition to was considered to live a exactly gauge of his subjects. He was much loved, in addition to his abrupt expiry inwards a battle against the Yoruba was considered a tragedy.
However loved past times his ain people, Ghezo’s legacy includes his making a major contribution to the slave trade. He said inwards the 1840s that he would do anything the British wanted him to do apart from giving upward slave trade: “The slave merchandise is the ruling regulation of my people. It is the source in addition to the glory of their wealth…the woman parent lulls the kid to slumber with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…”
Ghezo was succeeded past times Glele.
Glele, 1856-1889
Badohou, who took the throne call Glele, is considered (if Adandozan is non counted) to live the 10th King of Dahomey. He succeeded his father, Ghezo, in addition to ruled from 1858 to 1889.
Glele continued his father’s successful state of war campaigns, inwards component division to avenge his father’s death, inwards component division to capture slaves. Glele also signed treaties with the French, who had previously acquired a concession inwards Porto-Novo from its king. The French were successful inwards negotiating with Glele in addition to receiving a grant for a customs in addition to commerce concession inwards Cotonou during his reign. Glele resisted English linguistic communication diplomatic overtures, however, distrusting their manners in addition to noting that they were much to a greater extent than activist inwards their opposition to the slave trade: though French Republic itself had outlawed slavery at the terminate of the 1700s, it allowed the merchandise to proceed elsewhere; Great Britain outlawed slavery inwards the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland in addition to inwards its overseas possessions inwards 1833, in addition to had its navy brand raids against slavers along the West African coast get-go inwards 1840.
Glele, despite the formal terminate of the slave merchandise in addition to its interdiction past times the Europeans in addition to New World powers, continued slavery every bit a domestic institution: his fields were primarily cared for past times slaves, in addition to slaves became a major source of ‘messengers to the ancestors’, inwards other words, sacrificial victims inwards ceremonies.
Near the terminate of Glele’s reign, relations with French Republic deteriorated due to Cotonou’s growing commercial influence in addition to differences of interpretation betwixt Dahomey in addition to French Republic regarding the extent in addition to price of the Cotonou concession grant. Glele, already on his expiry bed, had his boy Prince Kondo convey accuse of negotiations with the French.
Glele’s symbols are the king of beasts in addition to the ritual knife of the adepts of Gu; of fire, iron, war, in addition to cutting edges.
Glele died on Dec 29, 1889, to live succeeded past times Kondo, who took the call Behanzin.
Behanzin, 1889-1894
Behanzin, though the twelfth, is considered the eleventh (if Adandozan is non counted) King of Dahomey. Upon taking the throne, he changed his call from Kondo to Behanzin, every bit it was traditional for Dahomey kings to assume a throne name. He succeeded his father, Glele, in addition to ruled from 1889 to 1894. Behanzin was Abomey’s lastly independent ruler established through traditional ability structures, in addition to was considered to live a bang-up ruler.
Behanzin, King of Dahomey, 1892. Artist: Henri Meyer
Behanzin was seen past times his people every bit intelligent in addition to courageous. He saw that the Europeans were gradually encroaching on his kingdom, in addition to every bit a resultant attempted a unusual policy of isolating the Europeans in addition to rebuffing them. Just before Glele’s death, Behanzin declined to run into French envoy Jean Bayol, claiming conflicts inwards his schedule due to ritual in addition to ceremonial obligations. As a result, Bayol returned to Cotonou to gear upward to go to state of war against Behanzin, named Rex upon Glele’s death. Seeing the preparations, the Dahomeans attacked Bayol’s forces exterior Cotonou inwards 1890; the French regular army stood fast due to superior weaponry in addition to a strategically advantageous position. Eventually Behanzin’s forces were forced to withdraw. Behanzin returned to Abomey, in addition to Bayol to French Republic for a time.
Peace lasted 2 years, during which fourth dimension the French continued to occupy Cotonou. Both sides continued to purchase arms inwards training for some other battle. In 1892, the soldiers of Abomey attacked villages nigh Grand Popo in addition to Porto-Novo inwards an sweat to reassert the older boundaries of Dahomey. This was seen every bit an deed of state of war past times the French, who claimed interests inwards both areas. Bayol, past times at nowadays named Colonial Governor past times the French, declared state of war on Behanzin. The French justified the activity past times characterizing the Dahomeans every bit savages inwards demand of civilizing. Evidence of this savagery, they stated, was the practise of human sacrifice during the annual customs celebrations in addition to at the fourth dimension of a king’s death, in addition to the continued practise of slavery.
The French were victorious inwards attaining the give upward of Behanzin inwards 1894, though they did non procur his signature of national give upward or treaty. He lived out the residue of his life inwards exile inwards Martinique in addition to Algeria. After his death, his remains were returned to Abomey.
His symbols are the shark, the egg, in addition to a captive hanging from a flagpole (a reference to a boastful in addition to rebellious Nago practitioner of harmful magic from Ketou whom the Rex hanged from a flagpole every bit penalisation for his pride). But, his most famous symbol is the smoking pipe.
Behanzin was succeeded past times Agoli-agbo, his distant relative in addition to one-time Army Chief of Staff, the only potential ruler which the French were willing to instate.
Agoli-agbo
Agoli-agbo is considered to receive got been the twelfth, in addition to last, King of Dahomey. He took the throne after the previous king, Behanzin, went into exile after a failed state of war with France. He was inwards ability from 1894 to 1900.
Proclamation of the novel King Agoli-agbo of Dahomey,-.From Le Petit Journal,19 th Feb 1894
The exile of Behanzin did non legalize the French colonization. The French full general Alfred Dodds offered the throne to every ane of the immediate purplish family, inwards homecoming for a signature on a treaty establishing a French protectorate over the Kingdom; all refused. Finally, Behanzin’s Army Chief of Staff (and distant relative), Prince Agoli-agbo was appointed to the throne, every bit a ‘traditional chief’ rather than caput of province of a sovereign nation, past times the French when he agreed to sign the musical instrument of surrender. He ‘reigned’ for only vi years, assisted past times a French Viceroy. The French prepared for direct administration, which they achieved on Feb 12, 1900. Agoli-agbo went into exile inwards Gabon, in addition to the Save River. He returned to alive inwards Abomey every bit a private citizen inwards 1918.
Agoli-agbo’s symbols are a leg kicking a rock, an archer’s bow (a symbol of the homecoming to traditional weapons nether the novel rules established past times the colonial administrators), in addition to a broom.
Agbo. AGBOLI-AGBO DEDJLANI
King of Abomey
Benin
Dedjlani, a old policeman, waited vi years to retire, in addition to and so proceeded with his clandestine coronation ceremonies.“Officially”, at that spot is no longer a Rex inwards Benin. But on september 30, 1989, Dedjlani position on his purplish shoes, in addition to at the historic menstruum of 50 4 became King of Abomey.
Being monogamous, he was obliged to espouse 2 to a greater extent than wives to convey tending of his purplish household. When he goes out, tradition requires that he live sheltered nether an umbrella with his emblem. One of wives must ever live side past times side to him, carrying the purplish spitting bowl. The King also has to wearable his scepter inwards permanence. Holding it inwards his manus or hanging on his shoulder, to a greater extent than than a symbol, the scepter is the King. The silvery dust protector worn on the nose, dates from the nineteenth century, in addition to was inherited from the King Gbehanzin. It protected the King’s olfactory organ from the dust, during the purplish processions inwards Abomey.
Dahomey Amazons
The Dahomey Amazons were a Fon all-female armed services regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey. They were so named past times Western observers in addition to historians due to their similarity to the legendary Amazons described past times the Ancient Greeks.
King Houegbadja, the tertiary king, is said to receive got originally began the grouping which would go the Amazons every bit a corps of purplish bodyguards after edifice a novel palace at Abomey. Houegbadja’s boy King Agadja developed these bodyguards into a militia in addition to successfully used them inwards Dahomey’s defeat of the neighboring kingdom of Savi inwards 1727. European merchants recorded their presence, every bit good every bit similar woman mortal warriors alongside the Ashanti. For the side past times side hundred years or so, they gained a reputation every bit fearless warriors. Though they fought rarely, they ordinarily acquitted themselves good inwards battle.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic. Ghezo placed bang-up importance on the regular army in addition to increased its budget in addition to formalized its structures. The Amazons were rigorously trained, given uniforms, in addition to equipped with Danish guns obtained via the slave trade. By this fourth dimension the Amazons consisted of betwixt 4,000 in addition to 6,000 women, nigh a tertiary of the entire Dahomey army.
European encroachment into West Africa gained measurement during the latter one-half of the nineteenth century, in addition to inwards 1890 the Dahomey King Behanzin began fighting French forces (mainly made upward of Yoruba, who the Dahomeans had been fighting for centuries). It is said that many of the French soldiers fighting inwards Dahomey hesitated before shooting or bayoneting the Amazons. The resulting delay led to many of the French casualties. Ultimately, bolstered past times the French Foreign Legion, in addition to armed with superior weaponry including machine guns, the French inflicted casualties that were x times worse on the Dahomey side. After several battles, the French prevailed. The Legionnaires afterwards wrote nigh the “incredible courage in addition to audacity” of the Amazons. The lastly surviving Amazon died inwards 1979.
Economy
Subsistence in addition to Commercial Activities. Fon are farmers, fishermen, in addition to marketplace women. Nowadays they occupy all the positions in addition to jobs to live found inwards government, civil service, business, in addition to production. Staple crops are yams, maize, in addition to manioc. (Millet was ane time important.) Beans, peas, peanuts, sorghum, sweetness potatoes, onions, okra, peppers, gourds, papayas, bananas, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, crude oil palms, in addition to some rice in addition to cocoa are also grown. Animals raised include pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, guinea fowl, ducks, in addition to pigeons. Fishing is of primary importance along the coast in addition to inwards the Volta region. Cash crops include palm kernels, peanuts, copra, castor beans, kapok, and, past times far the most important, java in addition to cocoa.
Fon in addition to Ewe marketplace women—both wholesalers in addition to retailers—have a nigh monopoly on the internal economy. Even inwards small-scale villages, many women are traders in addition to retailers, selling anything from homemade fermented corn porridge to Coca Cola, frequently specializing inwards a single item such every bit fresh or home-smoked fish, imported Dutch wax cloth, fresh fruits in addition to vegetables, or merchandise beads.
Industrial Arts. Fon engage inwards pottery making, forest sculpting (mostly for religious use), in addition to basketwork; inwards the past, every hamlet had a blacksmith.
Fon people carrying pots at Abomey,Benin
Trade
Fon receive got traded with Yoruba in addition to Hausa for every bit long every bit they receive got had their acquaint identity. The slave merchandise in addition to the common salt merchandise brought other traders from the northward of acquaint Ewe in addition to Fon regions, including every bit far northward every bit Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in addition to perhaps Republic of Mali in addition to Niger. Portuguese traders reached the coast inwards the fifteenth century, fifty-fifty before the Ewe in addition to Fon had migrated that far. By the seventeenth century, when the Volta share had go dwelling to an Ewe polity in addition to the Kingdom of Dahomey had regular relations with Ouidah, European commercial envoys were no longer a novelty on what was in addition to so called the Slave Coast. The Atlantic commerce inwards slaves was a important aspect of Fon life for 2 centuries.
Market activities are cardinal inwards all Fon regions. Women almost ever receive got something to sell on marketplace days, including foodstuffs they brand themselves. They frequently purchase their husband's or brothers' grab of fish fresh from the ocean or river in addition to convey it straight to diverse markets. Or they fume the fish in addition to convey them to markets further inland. Today European, U.S., in addition to Chinese goods are available fifty-fifty inwards small-scale Fon hamlet markets to a greater extent than than 150 kilometers from the coast, frequently taken at that spot past times local women who purchase the goods inwards coastal cities.
Abomey-Calavi
Division of Labor
. Apart from the special condition of kings inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey who did non perform manual labor, the main partition of labor is along gender lines. Men do heavy agricultural labor such every bit clearing the solid ground in addition to staking yam vines; they fish, hunt, in addition to create houses. Women participate inwards the inwards a higher identify activities also, such every bit preparing the palm-frond walling or fencing necessary to hut building, taking accuse of butchered animals in addition to fish, in addition to carrying out almost all agricultural tasks except the really heaviest.
Dance of warrior women,Abomey.
Women also ship headloads every bit heavy every bit whatever charge men tin carry. Although it is frequently said that only women headload, this is obviously untrue. Women are inwards accuse of most marketplace activities, although they may hire men to aid them. One of the few items ordinarily sold past times men inwards the marketplace is beef, frequently brought past times Hausa or other Muslim traders. Most other kinds of work, including cooking, may live done past times women in addition to men, in addition to fifty-fifty the above-mentioned divisions of labor are non absolute. Women in addition to children may bring together with men inwards pulling inwards the enormous in addition to heavy line-fishing nets from the surf after a catch. Gender-specific cash savings in addition to function collectives abound, enabling members to receive got their ain banking every bit good every bit back upward inwards solid building, clearing land, harvesting, fishing, marketing, in addition to all other labors. Especially notable are the Fon dokpwe , or cooperative, or tontine (French). Both women in addition to men engage inwards kid care, although women are considered to receive got greater responsibleness inwards this regard. Groups of men in addition to groups of women may convey tending of whatever in addition to all hamlet children inwards their vicinity at whatever given time.
Fon woman,Sessimé’s, a Beninese Afropoprock musician
Land Tenure
Anyone from a particular share tin farm on solid ground that is non occupied past times anyone else. Inside a settlement, a mortal wishing to employ solid ground must inquire permission of the hamlet primary or the elders of the lineage owning the land. Formerly, rights receive got extended only to job of land; at that spot was no absolute correct to the solid ground itself. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, solid ground was past times Definition the belongings of the king. In most Ewe regions, solid ground is inherited in addition to administrated past times elders of each patriline; whatever lineage fellow member may create or farm on lineage solid ground every bit long every bit she or he respects the rights of others nearby who are already established on the land. Widows of patriline members or other persons non members of the lineage may rest on the solid ground in addition to farm it, but it cannot go past times definitively into some other lineage.
Only inwards the lastly few generations has solid ground come upward to live alienable from lineage tenure past times existence mortgaged or sold. Land non already belonging to a lineage (of which at that spot is scarcely whatever now) may live acquired personally through simply clearing the land, or buying it non-Fon owners; the possessor may dispose of such solid ground without consulting lineage elders. Both women in addition to men receive got rights to lineage land, frequently at nowadays called "inheritance of land," but, inwards areas where solid ground is scarce, women receive got difficulty claiming such rights.
Kinship
Kin Groups in addition to Descent. Descent is primarily patrilineal. Fon receive got exogamous patrisibs composed of lineages, but inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey the purplish sib had exceptional rules. Princesses married commoners in addition to their children belonged to the purplish sib, every bit did the offspring of purplish princes. Cross-cousin matrimony is preferred alongside most Fon groups, peculiarly with mother's brother's daughter.
Holywood Actor djimon Hounsou is a Fon from Benin
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. Most Fon marriages are patrilocal, although neolocal residence has go pop inwards the belatedly twentieth century. Polygyny is the dominion if a human has way to espouse to a greater extent than than ane wife. It is frequently said that an abuse of polygyny leads wives to go out their husbands for other men, frequently younger in addition to every bit yet unmarried, so that women also tend to receive got to a greater extent than than ane married adult man inwards their lifetimes. Fon marriages are of 2 full general types, ane to a greater extent than prestigious than the other. Prestigious matrimony includes payments past times the groom to the bride's begetter or premarital farm labor performed past times a human for his futurity father-in-law. Such bride-wealth or function gives a human command over his children. When this is non performed, the woman parent in addition to her solid unit of measurement receive got all rights over the children; thus, this sort of matrimony is less desirable or prestigious for a husband. Herskovits (1938) outlines xiii dissimilar variations of these 2 major matrimony categories. H5N1 human must never decline a married adult woman offered him, in addition to divorce may live initiated only past times the wife's family. In many Ewe groups, matrimony is less marked past times bride-wealth or bride-service, in addition to fifty-fifty if a human offers only the required drinks in addition to cloths to his bride in addition to her family, he may claim the children every bit members of his ain patriline. In representative of separation, a begetter may maintain his children with him, although inwards many cases wives are allowed to heighten the children. Pregnancy makes a matrimony complete. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, virginity was demanded of brides inwards prestigious marriages. Christian Fon proceed according to the arrangements prescribed inwards their churches.
Domestic Unit. Patrilineal three- or four-generational extended solid unit of measurement compounds, every bit good every bit agnatic extended solid unit of measurement compounds, are common. Another model is a nuclear-family household (often with children from previous marriages) that eventually is joined past times other relatives, such every bit the couple's younger siblings, cousins, nieces, nephews, in addition to foster children.
Fon Kid from Benin
If the married adult man has non vowed monogamy, inwards time, other wives in addition to their children may come upward to expand the chemical compound (each married adult woman with her ain hut or fiddling house). In many cases, other wives in addition to their children shape separate households. Adolescent boys may receive got collective sleeping quarters separate from their mothers in addition to sisters.
Fon kids at Ouidah,benin
Inheritance. Most Fon property, including land, is inherited patrilineally, although some lineage solid ground remains. Cloth wealth in addition to jewelry sometimes go lineage belongings too, along with ancestral stools. Individual property, which may include rights to solid ground in addition to fields, may live inherited patrilineally. In some areas the eldest boy inherits solid ground rights, but livestock in addition to other private belongings go to a man's sister's son. In Lome inheritance is mixed.
Socialization. Virtually everyone, but especially older siblings, takes tending of the children. Grandparents, both woman mortal in addition to male, also pass considerable fourth dimension with children. Fishermen inwards from the ocean frequently sit down some inwards groups during the afternoon, playing boardgames in addition to watching over immature children at the same time.
Angelique Kidjo is a fon
Toddlers are passed from mortal to person, including adolescent boys, who appear to relish taking their turns. Mothers in addition to all woman mortal relatives ship babies on their backs for much of the day; sometimes doting fathers or other virile mortal relatives also wrap babies in addition to toddlers on their backs. Fon adolescents experiment with sexuality early on inwards their teen years, in addition to nowadays pregnancy at a immature age, fifty-fifty if the woman parent is unmarried, is non especially discouraged inwards many communities. Thus virginity is non every bit highly valued every bit it ane time was.
Young Fon worshippers of a mermaid deity gear upward for the Voodoo Festival, inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Young girls aid their mothers, frequently caring for smaller children or carrying loads to market, boys every bit immature every bit 10 may go to ocean with the men in addition to go over the side of the pirogue to drive a schoolhouse of fish into the nets. Inland, immature boys in addition to girls aid perform agricultural tasks in addition to tending for animals. Children are acquaint at all of import social in addition to religious events in addition to may, at a really early on age, go "spouses" of of import spirits or gods, hence inheriting sizable responsibilities in addition to the special, frequently prestigious, identity, that goes with them. Children every bit immature every bit 10 may go into trance during Vodu (Fon) possession ceremonies. They also relish such events every bit recreation in addition to convey payoff of opportunities for drumming, singing, in addition to dancing performances; teenagers in addition to immature adults may courtroom during in addition to after such religious rituals.
Fon missy braiding her sisters pilus at Ouidah,Benin
Political Organization.
Although the Fon kingdom had a centralized province with a powerful ahosu (King), since its collapse that construction is no longer available. Fon villages had hamlet autonomy before they were consolidated into a kingdom inwards the seventeenth century, in addition to hence each hamlet primary was a "king" (toxosu ) to whom the heads of each chemical compound answered. The Kingdom of Dahomey forced these chiefs to swear loyalty to the ruler or live sacrificed (some were sold into slavery). Sibs inwards Fon villages receive got considerable political influence, but the primary is hardly all-powerful.
His Majesty Agboli Agbo Dedjani, Last King of the Dan-Home Dynasty, Abomey, Republic of Benin (Dahomey), Africa
Social Control. Although during the colonial menstruum chiefs had considerable command (and soundless do every bit far every bit administrative decisions are concerned), potency is widely distributed inwards villages in addition to regions. Whereas Fon are nominally nether the jurisdiction of French-inspired legal systems, the laws of the ancestors in addition to the moral frameworks of Vodu worship tend to receive got exactly every bit much, if non more, potency than official law inwards many communities. Even inwards colonial in addition to precolonial periods, the component division of primary in addition to the ranks of the elders were ordinarily filled with men (and some women) who were linked to religious orders.
Fon women at Ouidah
Individual conduct for many is constantly interpreted in addition to adjusted through the lenses of Afa (or Fa) divination, which includes the "laws of destiny," or the "law-deity who brought me here" (esesidomeda ). Thus, supernatural sanctions are to a greater extent than powerful than province legal systems for numerous Fon. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, kings were tyrannical according to numerous sources; hamlet chiefs, inwards keeping with before practices, were not. Decisions of hamlet chiefs had to live reported to the king, however, so that concluding command was inwards his hands. The king's tribunal of chiefs was expected to gauge harshly so that the Rex himself could demonstrate clemency past times lightening the sentence. During the colonial period, at that spot was bang-up tension betwixt sure as shooting Ewe Vodu orders in addition to colonial administrators who claimed the Vodu "courts" were presuming to convey the identify of official courts. Numerous shrines were hence destroyed past times High German in addition to French authorities. Vodu worshipers frequently did non consider the powers of the colonial governments to live legitimate,
Fon people.
Conflict
Conflict inwards villages is typically brought to a grouping of "judges," including the chief, Vodu priests, in addition to both virile mortal in addition to woman mortal elders. The entire hamlet has the correct to attend, in addition to whoever wishes to speak may do so. Often divorce cases, theft, assault, in addition to instances of injury through witchcraft do non go before official courts of law. Even cases that do go before official courts of law, including murder, may live rejudged past times Vodu priests in addition to communities because the conflict at the source of the law-breaking is non idea to live only personal. All conflict is a reflection of the social trunk inwards its human relationship to the relaxation of the cosmos.
Fon
Religion in addition to Expressive Culture
Religious Beliefs. Various Vodu (Fon) orders are at the foundation of Fon religion. H5N1 High God exists, according to numerous informants. Among Fon, Mawu in addition to Lisa are a couple, twins, or a woman mortal (Mawu) in addition to virile mortal (Lisa) hermaphrodite divinity. Fon may say the world was created past times Nana-Buluku, who gave nascence to Mawu in addition to Lisa. For others, Nana-Buluku, Mawu, in addition to Lisa are all Vodus, in addition to at that spot is no all-powerful separate creator.
Gu or Egu, the warrior in addition to hunter god of iron, is cardinal alongside all Fon groups. There are a issue of other Vodu orders, including Gorovodu, which is pop across Fon populations inwards Benin. Mama Tchamba, a related order, involves the worship of the spirits of slaves from the northward that Ewe ane time owned in addition to married. The selfhood of each private is involved with these major deities in addition to spirit personalities. They are also protectors, healers, judges, in addition to consummate performers.
Vodoun practitioners at Ouidah voodoo festival inwards Benin
All Vodu orders function manus inwards manus with Afa (or Fa) divination, a complex interpretive framework within which each mortal has a life sign (kpoli ), of which at that spot are a total of 256. Each sign is connected to a laid of plants in addition to animals, stories in addition to songs, dietary taboos, Vodus, in addition to dangers in addition to strengths, all associated with each other, every bit though clan-related. Events, projects, activities, in addition to relationships also receive got their ain Afa signs. Everything inwards the universe is related to Afa texts in addition to themes, every bit though nature itself were divided into exogamous clans.
Some Fon receive got go Christians; given their proximity to the coast, these ethnic groups were alongside the initiative of all to convey Christianity inwards the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries. Certain Christian groups originating inwards West Africa, such every bit Aladura in addition to Celeste, receive got a considerable next on the coast.
Fon christian Celestial believers
Religious Practitioners. Vodu priests are ordinarily men, but postmenopausal women may go priestesses. The bang-up bulk of spirit hosts or "wives" of the Vodus are women. Priests, priestesses, in addition to "wives" of the Yehve deities (Sosi, Avlesi, Dasi, etc.) do non ordinarily practise trance. Afa diviners are almost ever men, although it is said that a adult woman tin go a diviner if she wishes.
vodoun devotees
Ceremonies. Vodu ceremonies are compelling performances for both insiders in addition to outsiders. Worshipers who laid out dancing to the drum music may go into trance. Spirits who possess their "wives" may receive got messages for the community, may convey component division inwards judging sure as shooting cases of conflict, in addition to may heal the sick. Above all, they are dancing gods, in addition to at that spot are aesthetic conventions that receive got long traditions.
Fon people of benin performing their Vodoun rituals
In Vodu orders where possession is non usual, ceremonies are all the to a greater extent than dazzling because of the perfection of their collective execution. Rows of dancers, all clothed inwards ceremonial attire, displace across a ritual infinite every bit ane person, performing specific movements. Drums ever provide a sort of text or context for movement, including narrative associations in addition to instruction. Ceremonies are events during which symbolic associations are reinforced, private in addition to collective identity is stated, sure as shooting aspects of identity in addition to ability are recalled in addition to redistributed, healing in addition to admonishment convey place, and, inwards a higher identify all, collective exhilaration, ecstasy, in addition to awe are produced. Ceremonies are ever gifts to the gods.
A human slaughters a caprine animal at the Temple of Pythons during the annual Voodoo Festival inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
The side past times side Gandaxi volition convey identify – after the lastly ane was held thirty years agone – from Nov 2012 to March 2013 in addition to volition live divided into 2 periods lasting 4 ½ months altogether. The initiative of all calendar month volition live solely devoted to organisation in addition to shut to the public. Then, bang-up surprises volition live waiting for us!!!
Medicine. Today many Fon seek medical assistance inwards modern clinics in addition to hospitals in addition to go to Westerntrained doctors. They may also frequent local healers in addition to Vodu priests who employ plants in addition to carbonized ingredients, every bit good every bit rituals to address affliction in addition to conflicts playing themselves out inwards a person's trunk in addition to soul.
Vodu medicine is non hostile to modern biomedicine. Upon call for Afa, though divination, what to do nigh illness, a sufferer may live told past times Fa to go to a doc inwards town. Vodu medicine is peculiarly effective inwards cases of madness. Ingestion of roots in addition to plants, every bit good every bit "speaking hurting in addition to desire" to the Vodus larn inwards possible for the alienated to mourn losses in addition to go on with life ane time again.
Fon mystic healer/voodoun practitioner in addition to a guide,Jean Zossounjbo, a guide, shows a python at the Temple of Pythons inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Wednesday, Jan. 9, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Vodoun women inwards trance trying to grasp the the ungraspable
Royal Ancestor Worship
Early kings established clear worship of purplish ancestors in addition to centralized their ceremonies inwards the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted spot inwards the solid ground of the dead in addition to it was necessary to larn their permission for many activities on earth.
Dance of the chiefs (circa 1908). Celebration at Abomey, By Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
Ancestor worship pre-existed the kingdom of Dahomey; however, nether King Agaja, a wheel of ritual was created centered some initiative of all celebrating the ancestors of the Rex in addition to and so celebrating a solid unit of measurement lineage.
The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved multiple elaborate components in addition to some aspects may receive got been added inwards the 19th century. In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, armed services parades, in addition to political councils. Its main religious aspect was to offering thank you lot in addition to gain the approving for ancestors of the purplish lineage. However, the custom also included armed services parades, populace discussions, gift giving (the distribution of coin to in addition to from the king), in addition to human sacrifice in addition to the spilling of blood.
Vodoun adult woman inwards trance
Most of the victims were captives from slave raids in addition to were sacrificed through decapitation, a tradition widely used past times Dahomean kings, in addition to the literal translation for the Fon call for the ceremony Xwetanu is "yearly caput business".
Dahomey Cosmology
Dahomey had a unique shape of West African vodun or voodoo which linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a married adult woman of Agaja brought the vodun to the kingdom in addition to ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having woman mortal characteristics in addition to Lisa having virile mortal characteristics) in addition to it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created past times their woman parent Nana-Buluku. Mawu-Lisa governs the heaven in addition to is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods be inwards the ground in addition to inwards thunder.
Fon vodoun practitioners
Religious practise organized dissimilar priesthoods in addition to shrines for each dissimilar god in addition to each different
pantheon (sky, ground or thunder). Women made upward a important amount of the priest shape in addition to the primary priest was ever a descendant of Dakodonou.
Kings of Dahomey
Gangnihessou, unknown – 1620
According to tradition, Gangnihessou came from a dynasty that originated inwards the sixteenth century. Based inwards Tado, a metropolis on the banks of the Moro River (in modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo), the dynasty rose to eminence on the footing of ane of his 4 brothers, who became the Rex of Great Ardra. After the expiry of the king, his territories were divided alongside the iii remaining brothers, ane of which was Gangnihessou.
Gangnihessou came to dominion some 1620 but was shortly dethroned past times his brother, Dakodonou, piece traveling through the kingdom. His symbols were the virile mortal Gangnihessou-bird (a rebus for his name), a drum, a hunting stick in addition to a throwing stick.
Dakodonou, 1620-1645
Dakodonou was the minute King of Dahomey, who ruled from 1620 to 1645. Dakodonou is portrayed every bit a fell in addition to trigger-happy man. His symbols were an indigo scandalize (a reference to his murder of a sure as shooting indigo planter named Donou, whose trunk he made sport of past times rolling it some inwards his indigo jar, in addition to whose call he appended to his ain original name, ‘Dako’), a tinder box, in addition to a state of war club. Before dying, Dakodonou named his nephew, Aho Houegbadja, every bit his successor.
Houegbadja (or Webaja) 1645-1685
The tertiary King of Dahomey was Aho Houegbadja, who succeeded his uncle, Dakodonou. He ruled from the fourth dimension of his uncle’s expiry inwards 1645 until 1685.
Houegbadja established the political potency in addition to boundaries of Abomey proper past times naming the metropolis every bit his capital. By edifice his palace (named “Agbome,” important “in the midst of the ramparts”) nigh Guedevi, an surface area located a few kilometers to the northwest of Bohicon, he established the surface area every bit the spot of political authority. He was responsible for forming the political civilization that would proceed to characterize Dahomey, with a reign that was marked past times autocratic rule. Houegbadja’s symbols were a fish (houe), fish trap (adja), in addition to state of war monastic tell hoe (kpota).
Akaba, 1685-1708
Houegbadja’s successor was his son, Houessou Akabawas, who became the 4th King of Dahomey. He ruled from 1685 to 1708.
Houessou Akaba’s reign was characterized past times state of war in addition to armed services expansion. His enemies, the Nago (Western Yoruba) kings, attacked Abomey in addition to burned the town. But the warriors of Abomey ultimately defeated the Nago armies in addition to the kingdom extended to include the banks of the Oueme River. Akaba failed, however, to capture Porto-Novo. Akaba’s symbols were the warthog in addition to a saber.
Akaba died of smallpox inwards 1708. Because his only son, Agbo Sassa, was only x years old, Akaba was succeeded instead past times his brother, Dossou Agadja.
Agadja, 1708-1732
Ruling from 1708 to 1740, Dossou Agadja was the 5th King of Dahomey. Despite the fact that Agadja had gained the throne due to the youth of Agbo Sassa, the rightful heir, he refused to give upward ability when the man child came of historic menstruum in addition to forced Agbo Sassa into exile.
Agadja’s reign was characterized past times continual warfare. The Yoruba soldiers of the kingdom of Oyo defeated the regular army of Abomey. The peace price required Agadja to pay tribute to the Oyo Empire, a scheme that continued for the side past times side hundred years. The Tribute of the Kingdom of Abomey to the King of Oyo took the shape of an annual tribute inwards immature men in addition to women destined for slavery or expiry inwards ceremonies, every bit good every bit cloth, guns, animals in addition to pearls.
The kingdom of Abomey grew during Agadja’s reign, in addition to conquered Allada inwards 1724. In 1727 it conquered the kingdom of Savi, in addition to gained command of its major city, Ouidah. When Abomey conquered Savi in addition to Ouidah, it gained direct access to the trading ports along the southern coast in addition to took over the lucrative slave merchandise with the Europeans. As a result, Agadja’s symbol is a European caravel boat. Agadja’s victory over Ouidah came, inwards part, every bit a resultant of his job of a corps of women shock-troopers, called Dahomey Amazons past times the Europeans after the women warriors of Greek myth, inwards his army. The Amazons became a dynastic tradition.
Agadja was succeeded past times Tegbessou.
Tegbessou, 1732-1774
Tegbessou was the 6th King of Dahomey, ruling from 1740 to 1774. His reign was characterized past times internal corruption in addition to failed unusual policy. He killed many coup-plotters in addition to political enemies, refused to pay tribute to the Yoruba, in addition to lost many battles inwards the punitive raids that followed.
His main symbol is a buffalo wearing a tunic. His other symbols are the blunderbuss, a weapon he gave his warriors (his reign marked the initiative of all fourth dimension the Dahomey Royal Army had ready access to firearms) in addition to a door decorated with iii noseless heads, a reference to his victory over a rebellious tributary people, the Republic of Benin Zou, whose corpses he mutilated.
During Tegbessou’s reign, the Dahomey enlarged the slave trade, waging a bitter state of war on their neighbors. It is said 10,000 people were captured in addition to sold into slavery, including some other of import slave trader, the King of Whydah. King Tegbessou made £250,000 a yr selling people into slavery inwards 1750.
Tegbessou was succeeded past times Kpengla.
Kpengla, 1774-1789
The 7th Rex of Dahomey, Kpengla, ruled from 1774 to 1789. His reign focused on expansion, in addition to dramatically increased the size of the kingdom. In monastic tell to expand westward, he killed the primary of the Popo people, Agbamou, in addition to spread his empire into modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo. He destroyed the villages of Ekpe in addition to Badagry (in what is at nowadays Nigeria), that were interfering with Dahomey’s regional monopoly on the slave trade.
King Kpengla (right, nether parasol in addition to carrying sword), leads a troop of Dahomey Amazons. Subjects tin live seen kowtowing (left, foreground)
His main symbol is the akpan bird, a merchandise gun (flintlock), in addition to an Amazon warrior striking her caput against a tree. Kpengla was succeeded past times Agonglo.
Agonglo, 1789-1797
Kpengla was succeeded past times his son, Agonglo. The 8th King of Dahomey, he ruled from 1789 to 1797.
Agonglo instituted several reforms which pleased his subjects: taxes were lowered, in addition to a greater distribution of gifts was made during the annual customs. He reformed the shape of the asen, or sacrificial altar, in addition to supported the surface past times ribs rather than a metallic cone, typical of the before Allada trend altars.
After the menstruum of aggressive armed services expansion of his father, Agonglo consolidated the dominion of the dynasty, his few armed services battles, however, were successful. His symbol is the pineapple.
Agonglo is notable inwards existence the initiative of all of the Dahomean kings to espouse a European woman. One of his wives was Sophie, a Dutch adult woman of mixed ancestry. Agonglo was succeeded past times his eldest son, Adandozan.
Adandozan, 1797-1818
Technically the 9th King of Dahomey, Adandozan is non counted every bit ane of the 12 kings. His call has largely been erased from the history of Abomey in addition to to this twenty-four hr menstruum is to a greater extent than frequently than non not spoken out loud inwards the city. He became Rex when, inwards 1797, the previous Rex died, leaving the throne to his eldest son.
Adandozan’s symbols were a baboon with a swollen stomach, total mouth, in addition to ear of corn inwards manus (an unflattering reference to his enemy, the King of Oyo), in addition to a large parasol (‘the Rex overshadows his enemies’). These symbols are non included inwards Abomey appliques, for the same reasons that Adandozan is non included inwards Abomey’s history.
The traditional stories of Adandozan’s dominion portray him every bit extremely cruel: he is said to receive got raised hyenas to which he would throw alive subjects for amusement. He has been portrayed every bit hopelessly mad, struggling foolishly with the European powers.
The commonly told even is that he refused to pay Francisco Felix da Souza, a Brazilian merchant in addition to trader who had go a major middle-man inwards the Ouidah slave market. Instead, he imprisoned in addition to tortured de Souza, in addition to and so attempted to receive got his ain ministers sell the slaves directly. According to legend, de Souza escaped with the aid of Gakpe, Adandozan’s brother, who returned from exile for that purpose. In return, de Souza helped Gakpe marshall a armed services strength in addition to convey the throne with the assistance of the terrified council of ministers. Gakpe in addition to so position Adandozan inwards prison.
This traditional portrayal may live wrong: similar Richard II of England inwards the Wars of the Roses, Adandozan may receive got been the object of a propagandistic rewriting of history after he lost the throne, turned into a monster past times his successor every bit a way of excusing the coup d’état in addition to legitimizing the novel regime. All stories handgrip that Adandozan tried to strength to a greater extent than favorable price of merchandise with the Europeans involved inwards the export of slaves, in addition to seriously undermined the ability of the extended purplish solid unit of measurement in addition to Vodun cult practitioners at courtroom through administrative reforms.
It may live that these policies themselves provoked Adandozan’s powerful opponents to back upward a coup against him. In monastic tell to justify the coup, Gakpe may in addition to so receive got been obliged to receive got oral historians tell of the monstrous in addition to mad Adandozan.
Ghezo (Gakpe) 1818-1856
Ghezo was the 9th King of Dahomey in addition to is considered ane of the greatest of the 12 historical kings. He ruled from 1818 to 1858. His call before ascending to the throne was Gakpe.
Ghezo’s symbols are 2 birds on a tree, a buffalo, in addition to a clay scandalize sieve with holes inwards it held past times 2 hands, a symbol of unity. Ghezo is said to receive got used the sieve every bit a metaphor for the sort of unity needed for the province to defeat its enemies in addition to overcome its problems; it takes everyone’s manus to block the sieve’s holes in addition to handgrip water. The pierced clay scandalize upheld past times multiple hands has go a national symbol inwards Benin, a large portrayal of it is the backdrop of the speaker’s podium inwards Benin’s National Assembly.
Ghezo ascended to the throne after he overthrew his brother, Adandozan, inwards a coup d’état. The traditional stories province that Adandozan was a cruel ruler, but it is possible these stories may receive got been invented past times Ghezo’s historians to justify the coup.
Throughout his reign, Ghezo waged a armed services displace every yr during the dry out season. His prisoners-of-war were sold into slavery, hence fattening the purplish treasury, increasing the annual budget, in addition to making state of war a really efficient way of raising revenue. Due to the increased strength of his regular army in addition to capital, Ghezo position an terminate to the Oyo tribute paying. He formalized his army, gave his 4,000 Dahomey Amazon woman mortal warriors uniforms, required soldiers to drill with guns in addition to sabres regularly, in addition to was able to repulse Oyo’s onslaught when it came.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo onward, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic, with Ghezo placing bang-up importance on the army, its budget in addition to its structures. An intrinsic component division of the regular army of Dahomey, which increased inwards importance every bit the province became to a greater extent than militaristic, was the elite fighting strength known every bit the Amazons.
Ghezo was also seen every bit an extremely sharp administrator. Because of his slave revenues, he could afford to lower taxes, hence stimulating the agricultural in addition to mercantile economy: agriculture expanded, every bit did merchandise inwards a multifariousness of goods with France. He instituted novel judicial procedures, in addition to was considered to live a exactly gauge of his subjects. He was much loved, in addition to his abrupt expiry inwards a battle against the Yoruba was considered a tragedy.
However loved past times his ain people, Ghezo’s legacy includes his making a major contribution to the slave trade. He said inwards the 1840s that he would do anything the British wanted him to do apart from giving upward slave trade: “The slave merchandise is the ruling regulation of my people. It is the source in addition to the glory of their wealth…the woman parent lulls the kid to slumber with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…”
Ghezo was succeeded past times Glele.
Glele, 1856-1889
Badohou, who took the throne call Glele, is considered (if Adandozan is non counted) to live the 10th King of Dahomey. He succeeded his father, Ghezo, in addition to ruled from 1858 to 1889.
King Glele of Dahomey (1858-1889) left, in addition to Ghezo (right)
Glele continued his father’s successful state of war campaigns, inwards component division to avenge his father’s death, inwards component division to capture slaves. Glele also signed treaties with the French, who had previously acquired a concession inwards Porto-Novo from its king. The French were successful inwards negotiating with Glele in addition to receiving a grant for a customs in addition to commerce concession inwards Cotonou during his reign. Glele resisted English linguistic communication diplomatic overtures, however, distrusting their manners in addition to noting that they were much to a greater extent than activist inwards their opposition to the slave trade: though French Republic itself had outlawed slavery at the terminate of the 1700s, it allowed the merchandise to proceed elsewhere; Great Britain outlawed slavery inwards the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland in addition to inwards its overseas possessions inwards 1833, in addition to had its navy brand raids against slavers along the West African coast get-go inwards 1840.
Glele, despite the formal terminate of the slave merchandise in addition to its interdiction past times the Europeans in addition to New World powers, continued slavery every bit a domestic institution: his fields were primarily cared for past times slaves, in addition to slaves became a major source of ‘messengers to the ancestors’, inwards other words, sacrificial victims inwards ceremonies.
Near the terminate of Glele’s reign, relations with French Republic deteriorated due to Cotonou’s growing commercial influence in addition to differences of interpretation betwixt Dahomey in addition to French Republic regarding the extent in addition to price of the Cotonou concession grant. Glele, already on his expiry bed, had his boy Prince Kondo convey accuse of negotiations with the French.
Glele’s symbols are the king of beasts in addition to the ritual knife of the adepts of Gu; of fire, iron, war, in addition to cutting edges.
Glele died on Dec 29, 1889, to live succeeded past times Kondo, who took the call Behanzin.
Behanzin, 1889-1894
Behanzin, though the twelfth, is considered the eleventh (if Adandozan is non counted) King of Dahomey. Upon taking the throne, he changed his call from Kondo to Behanzin, every bit it was traditional for Dahomey kings to assume a throne name. He succeeded his father, Glele, in addition to ruled from 1889 to 1894. Behanzin was Abomey’s lastly independent ruler established through traditional ability structures, in addition to was considered to live a bang-up ruler.
Behanzin was seen past times his people every bit intelligent in addition to courageous. He saw that the Europeans were gradually encroaching on his kingdom, in addition to every bit a resultant attempted a unusual policy of isolating the Europeans in addition to rebuffing them. Just before Glele’s death, Behanzin declined to run into French envoy Jean Bayol, claiming conflicts inwards his schedule due to ritual in addition to ceremonial obligations. As a result, Bayol returned to Cotonou to gear upward to go to state of war against Behanzin, named Rex upon Glele’s death. Seeing the preparations, the Dahomeans attacked Bayol’s forces exterior Cotonou inwards 1890; the French regular army stood fast due to superior weaponry in addition to a strategically advantageous position. Eventually Behanzin’s forces were forced to withdraw. Behanzin returned to Abomey, in addition to Bayol to French Republic for a time.
Peace lasted 2 years, during which fourth dimension the French continued to occupy Cotonou. Both sides continued to purchase arms inwards training for some other battle. In 1892, the soldiers of Abomey attacked villages nigh Grand Popo in addition to Porto-Novo inwards an sweat to reassert the older boundaries of Dahomey. This was seen every bit an deed of state of war past times the French, who claimed interests inwards both areas. Bayol, past times at nowadays named Colonial Governor past times the French, declared state of war on Behanzin. The French justified the activity past times characterizing the Dahomeans every bit savages inwards demand of civilizing. Evidence of this savagery, they stated, was the practise of human sacrifice during the annual customs celebrations in addition to at the fourth dimension of a king’s death, in addition to the continued practise of slavery.
The French were victorious inwards attaining the give upward of Behanzin inwards 1894, though they did non procur his signature of national give upward or treaty. He lived out the residue of his life inwards exile inwards Martinique in addition to Algeria. After his death, his remains were returned to Abomey.
His symbols are the shark, the egg, in addition to a captive hanging from a flagpole (a reference to a boastful in addition to rebellious Nago practitioner of harmful magic from Ketou whom the Rex hanged from a flagpole every bit penalisation for his pride). But, his most famous symbol is the smoking pipe.
Behanzin was succeeded past times Agoli-agbo, his distant relative in addition to one-time Army Chief of Staff, the only potential ruler which the French were willing to instate.
Agoli-agbo
Agoli-agbo is considered to receive got been the twelfth, in addition to last, King of Dahomey. He took the throne after the previous king, Behanzin, went into exile after a failed state of war with France. He was inwards ability from 1894 to 1900.
The exile of Behanzin did non legalize the French colonization. The French full general Alfred Dodds offered the throne to every ane of the immediate purplish family, inwards homecoming for a signature on a treaty establishing a French protectorate over the Kingdom; all refused. Finally, Behanzin’s Army Chief of Staff (and distant relative), Prince Agoli-agbo was appointed to the throne, every bit a ‘traditional chief’ rather than caput of province of a sovereign nation, past times the French when he agreed to sign the musical instrument of surrender. He ‘reigned’ for only vi years, assisted past times a French Viceroy. The French prepared for direct administration, which they achieved on Feb 12, 1900. Agoli-agbo went into exile inwards Gabon, in addition to the Save River. He returned to alive inwards Abomey every bit a private citizen inwards 1918.
Agoli-agbo’s symbols are a leg kicking a rock, an archer’s bow (a symbol of the homecoming to traditional weapons nether the novel rules established past times the colonial administrators), in addition to a broom.
Agbo. AGBOLI-AGBO DEDJLANI
King of Abomey
Benin
Dedjlani, a old policeman, waited vi years to retire, in addition to and so proceeded with his clandestine coronation ceremonies.“Officially”, at that spot is no longer a Rex inwards Benin. But on september 30, 1989, Dedjlani position on his purplish shoes, in addition to at the historic menstruum of 50 4 became King of Abomey.
Being monogamous, he was obliged to espouse 2 to a greater extent than wives to convey tending of his purplish household. When he goes out, tradition requires that he live sheltered nether an umbrella with his emblem. One of wives must ever live side past times side to him, carrying the purplish spitting bowl. The King also has to wearable his scepter inwards permanence. Holding it inwards his manus or hanging on his shoulder, to a greater extent than than a symbol, the scepter is the King. The silvery dust protector worn on the nose, dates from the nineteenth century, in addition to was inherited from the King Gbehanzin. It protected the King’s olfactory organ from the dust, during the purplish processions inwards Abomey.
Dahomey Amazons
The Dahomey Amazons were a Fon all-female armed services regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey. They were so named past times Western observers in addition to historians due to their similarity to the legendary Amazons described past times the Ancient Greeks.
King Houegbadja, the tertiary king, is said to receive got originally began the grouping which would go the Amazons every bit a corps of purplish bodyguards after edifice a novel palace at Abomey. Houegbadja’s boy King Agadja developed these bodyguards into a militia in addition to successfully used them inwards Dahomey’s defeat of the neighboring kingdom of Savi inwards 1727. European merchants recorded their presence, every bit good every bit similar woman mortal warriors alongside the Ashanti. For the side past times side hundred years or so, they gained a reputation every bit fearless warriors. Though they fought rarely, they ordinarily acquitted themselves good inwards battle.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic. Ghezo placed bang-up importance on the regular army in addition to increased its budget in addition to formalized its structures. The Amazons were rigorously trained, given uniforms, in addition to equipped with Danish guns obtained via the slave trade. By this fourth dimension the Amazons consisted of betwixt 4,000 in addition to 6,000 women, nigh a tertiary of the entire Dahomey army.
European encroachment into West Africa gained measurement during the latter one-half of the nineteenth century, in addition to inwards 1890 the Dahomey King Behanzin began fighting French forces (mainly made upward of Yoruba, who the Dahomeans had been fighting for centuries). It is said that many of the French soldiers fighting inwards Dahomey hesitated before shooting or bayoneting the Amazons. The resulting delay led to many of the French casualties. Ultimately, bolstered past times the French Foreign Legion, in addition to armed with superior weaponry including machine guns, the French inflicted casualties that were x times worse on the Dahomey side. After several battles, the French prevailed. The Legionnaires afterwards wrote nigh the “incredible courage in addition to audacity” of the Amazons. The lastly surviving Amazon died inwards 1979.
Economy
Subsistence in addition to Commercial Activities. Fon are farmers, fishermen, in addition to marketplace women. Nowadays they occupy all the positions in addition to jobs to live found inwards government, civil service, business, in addition to production. Staple crops are yams, maize, in addition to manioc. (Millet was ane time important.) Beans, peas, peanuts, sorghum, sweetness potatoes, onions, okra, peppers, gourds, papayas, bananas, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, crude oil palms, in addition to some rice in addition to cocoa are also grown. Animals raised include pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, guinea fowl, ducks, in addition to pigeons. Fishing is of primary importance along the coast in addition to inwards the Volta region. Cash crops include palm kernels, peanuts, copra, castor beans, kapok, and, past times far the most important, java in addition to cocoa.
Fon in addition to Ewe marketplace women—both wholesalers in addition to retailers—have a nigh monopoly on the internal economy. Even inwards small-scale villages, many women are traders in addition to retailers, selling anything from homemade fermented corn porridge to Coca Cola, frequently specializing inwards a single item such every bit fresh or home-smoked fish, imported Dutch wax cloth, fresh fruits in addition to vegetables, or merchandise beads.
Industrial Arts. Fon engage inwards pottery making, forest sculpting (mostly for religious use), in addition to basketwork; inwards the past, every hamlet had a blacksmith.
Fon people carrying pots at Abomey,Benin
Trade
Fon receive got traded with Yoruba in addition to Hausa for every bit long every bit they receive got had their acquaint identity. The slave merchandise in addition to the common salt merchandise brought other traders from the northward of acquaint Ewe in addition to Fon regions, including every bit far northward every bit Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in addition to perhaps Republic of Mali in addition to Niger. Portuguese traders reached the coast inwards the fifteenth century, fifty-fifty before the Ewe in addition to Fon had migrated that far. By the seventeenth century, when the Volta share had go dwelling to an Ewe polity in addition to the Kingdom of Dahomey had regular relations with Ouidah, European commercial envoys were no longer a novelty on what was in addition to so called the Slave Coast. The Atlantic commerce inwards slaves was a important aspect of Fon life for 2 centuries.
Market activities are cardinal inwards all Fon regions. Women almost ever receive got something to sell on marketplace days, including foodstuffs they brand themselves. They frequently purchase their husband's or brothers' grab of fish fresh from the ocean or river in addition to convey it straight to diverse markets. Or they fume the fish in addition to convey them to markets further inland. Today European, U.S., in addition to Chinese goods are available fifty-fifty inwards small-scale Fon hamlet markets to a greater extent than than 150 kilometers from the coast, frequently taken at that spot past times local women who purchase the goods inwards coastal cities.
Abomey-Calavi
Division of Labor
. Apart from the special condition of kings inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey who did non perform manual labor, the main partition of labor is along gender lines. Men do heavy agricultural labor such every bit clearing the solid ground in addition to staking yam vines; they fish, hunt, in addition to create houses. Women participate inwards the inwards a higher identify activities also, such every bit preparing the palm-frond walling or fencing necessary to hut building, taking accuse of butchered animals in addition to fish, in addition to carrying out almost all agricultural tasks except the really heaviest.
Dance of warrior women,Abomey.
Women also ship headloads every bit heavy every bit whatever charge men tin carry. Although it is frequently said that only women headload, this is obviously untrue. Women are inwards accuse of most marketplace activities, although they may hire men to aid them. One of the few items ordinarily sold past times men inwards the marketplace is beef, frequently brought past times Hausa or other Muslim traders. Most other kinds of work, including cooking, may live done past times women in addition to men, in addition to fifty-fifty the above-mentioned divisions of labor are non absolute. Women in addition to children may bring together with men inwards pulling inwards the enormous in addition to heavy line-fishing nets from the surf after a catch. Gender-specific cash savings in addition to function collectives abound, enabling members to receive got their ain banking every bit good every bit back upward inwards solid building, clearing land, harvesting, fishing, marketing, in addition to all other labors. Especially notable are the Fon dokpwe , or cooperative, or tontine (French). Both women in addition to men engage inwards kid care, although women are considered to receive got greater responsibleness inwards this regard. Groups of men in addition to groups of women may convey tending of whatever in addition to all hamlet children inwards their vicinity at whatever given time.
Fon woman,Sessimé’s, a Beninese Afropoprock musician
Land Tenure
Anyone from a particular share tin farm on solid ground that is non occupied past times anyone else. Inside a settlement, a mortal wishing to employ solid ground must inquire permission of the hamlet primary or the elders of the lineage owning the land. Formerly, rights receive got extended only to job of land; at that spot was no absolute correct to the solid ground itself. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, solid ground was past times Definition the belongings of the king. In most Ewe regions, solid ground is inherited in addition to administrated past times elders of each patriline; whatever lineage fellow member may create or farm on lineage solid ground every bit long every bit she or he respects the rights of others nearby who are already established on the land. Widows of patriline members or other persons non members of the lineage may rest on the solid ground in addition to farm it, but it cannot go past times definitively into some other lineage.
Only inwards the lastly few generations has solid ground come upward to live alienable from lineage tenure past times existence mortgaged or sold. Land non already belonging to a lineage (of which at that spot is scarcely whatever now) may live acquired personally through simply clearing the land, or buying it non-Fon owners; the possessor may dispose of such solid ground without consulting lineage elders. Both women in addition to men receive got rights to lineage land, frequently at nowadays called "inheritance of land," but, inwards areas where solid ground is scarce, women receive got difficulty claiming such rights.
Kinship
Kin Groups in addition to Descent. Descent is primarily patrilineal. Fon receive got exogamous patrisibs composed of lineages, but inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey the purplish sib had exceptional rules. Princesses married commoners in addition to their children belonged to the purplish sib, every bit did the offspring of purplish princes. Cross-cousin matrimony is preferred alongside most Fon groups, peculiarly with mother's brother's daughter.
Holywood Actor djimon Hounsou is a Fon from Benin
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. Most Fon marriages are patrilocal, although neolocal residence has go pop inwards the belatedly twentieth century. Polygyny is the dominion if a human has way to espouse to a greater extent than than ane wife. It is frequently said that an abuse of polygyny leads wives to go out their husbands for other men, frequently younger in addition to every bit yet unmarried, so that women also tend to receive got to a greater extent than than ane married adult man inwards their lifetimes. Fon marriages are of 2 full general types, ane to a greater extent than prestigious than the other. Prestigious matrimony includes payments past times the groom to the bride's begetter or premarital farm labor performed past times a human for his futurity father-in-law. Such bride-wealth or function gives a human command over his children. When this is non performed, the woman parent in addition to her solid unit of measurement receive got all rights over the children; thus, this sort of matrimony is less desirable or prestigious for a husband. Herskovits (1938) outlines xiii dissimilar variations of these 2 major matrimony categories. H5N1 human must never decline a married adult woman offered him, in addition to divorce may live initiated only past times the wife's family. In many Ewe groups, matrimony is less marked past times bride-wealth or bride-service, in addition to fifty-fifty if a human offers only the required drinks in addition to cloths to his bride in addition to her family, he may claim the children every bit members of his ain patriline. In representative of separation, a begetter may maintain his children with him, although inwards many cases wives are allowed to heighten the children. Pregnancy makes a matrimony complete. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, virginity was demanded of brides inwards prestigious marriages. Christian Fon proceed according to the arrangements prescribed inwards their churches.
Domestic Unit. Patrilineal three- or four-generational extended solid unit of measurement compounds, every bit good every bit agnatic extended solid unit of measurement compounds, are common. Another model is a nuclear-family household (often with children from previous marriages) that eventually is joined past times other relatives, such every bit the couple's younger siblings, cousins, nieces, nephews, in addition to foster children.
Fon Kid from Benin
If the married adult man has non vowed monogamy, inwards time, other wives in addition to their children may come upward to expand the chemical compound (each married adult woman with her ain hut or fiddling house). In many cases, other wives in addition to their children shape separate households. Adolescent boys may receive got collective sleeping quarters separate from their mothers in addition to sisters.
Fon kids at Ouidah,benin
Inheritance. Most Fon property, including land, is inherited patrilineally, although some lineage solid ground remains. Cloth wealth in addition to jewelry sometimes go lineage belongings too, along with ancestral stools. Individual property, which may include rights to solid ground in addition to fields, may live inherited patrilineally. In some areas the eldest boy inherits solid ground rights, but livestock in addition to other private belongings go to a man's sister's son. In Lome inheritance is mixed.
Socialization. Virtually everyone, but especially older siblings, takes tending of the children. Grandparents, both woman mortal in addition to male, also pass considerable fourth dimension with children. Fishermen inwards from the ocean frequently sit down some inwards groups during the afternoon, playing boardgames in addition to watching over immature children at the same time.
Angelique Kidjo is a fon
Toddlers are passed from mortal to person, including adolescent boys, who appear to relish taking their turns. Mothers in addition to all woman mortal relatives ship babies on their backs for much of the day; sometimes doting fathers or other virile mortal relatives also wrap babies in addition to toddlers on their backs. Fon adolescents experiment with sexuality early on inwards their teen years, in addition to nowadays pregnancy at a immature age, fifty-fifty if the woman parent is unmarried, is non especially discouraged inwards many communities. Thus virginity is non every bit highly valued every bit it ane time was.
Young Fon worshippers of a mermaid deity gear upward for the Voodoo Festival, inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Young girls aid their mothers, frequently caring for smaller children or carrying loads to market, boys every bit immature every bit 10 may go to ocean with the men in addition to go over the side of the pirogue to drive a schoolhouse of fish into the nets. Inland, immature boys in addition to girls aid perform agricultural tasks in addition to tending for animals. Children are acquaint at all of import social in addition to religious events in addition to may, at a really early on age, go "spouses" of of import spirits or gods, hence inheriting sizable responsibilities in addition to the special, frequently prestigious, identity, that goes with them. Children every bit immature every bit 10 may go into trance during Vodu (Fon) possession ceremonies. They also relish such events every bit recreation in addition to convey payoff of opportunities for drumming, singing, in addition to dancing performances; teenagers in addition to immature adults may courtroom during in addition to after such religious rituals.
Fon missy braiding her sisters pilus at Ouidah,Benin
Political Organization.
Although the Fon kingdom had a centralized province with a powerful ahosu (King), since its collapse that construction is no longer available. Fon villages had hamlet autonomy before they were consolidated into a kingdom inwards the seventeenth century, in addition to hence each hamlet primary was a "king" (toxosu ) to whom the heads of each chemical compound answered. The Kingdom of Dahomey forced these chiefs to swear loyalty to the ruler or live sacrificed (some were sold into slavery). Sibs inwards Fon villages receive got considerable political influence, but the primary is hardly all-powerful.
His Majesty Agboli Agbo Dedjani, Last King of the Dan-Home Dynasty, Abomey, Republic of Benin (Dahomey), Africa
Social Control. Although during the colonial menstruum chiefs had considerable command (and soundless do every bit far every bit administrative decisions are concerned), potency is widely distributed inwards villages in addition to regions. Whereas Fon are nominally nether the jurisdiction of French-inspired legal systems, the laws of the ancestors in addition to the moral frameworks of Vodu worship tend to receive got exactly every bit much, if non more, potency than official law inwards many communities. Even inwards colonial in addition to precolonial periods, the component division of primary in addition to the ranks of the elders were ordinarily filled with men (and some women) who were linked to religious orders.
Fon women at Ouidah
Individual conduct for many is constantly interpreted in addition to adjusted through the lenses of Afa (or Fa) divination, which includes the "laws of destiny," or the "law-deity who brought me here" (esesidomeda ). Thus, supernatural sanctions are to a greater extent than powerful than province legal systems for numerous Fon. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, kings were tyrannical according to numerous sources; hamlet chiefs, inwards keeping with before practices, were not. Decisions of hamlet chiefs had to live reported to the king, however, so that concluding command was inwards his hands. The king's tribunal of chiefs was expected to gauge harshly so that the Rex himself could demonstrate clemency past times lightening the sentence. During the colonial period, at that spot was bang-up tension betwixt sure as shooting Ewe Vodu orders in addition to colonial administrators who claimed the Vodu "courts" were presuming to convey the identify of official courts. Numerous shrines were hence destroyed past times High German in addition to French authorities. Vodu worshipers frequently did non consider the powers of the colonial governments to live legitimate,
Fon people.
Conflict
Conflict inwards villages is typically brought to a grouping of "judges," including the chief, Vodu priests, in addition to both virile mortal in addition to woman mortal elders. The entire hamlet has the correct to attend, in addition to whoever wishes to speak may do so. Often divorce cases, theft, assault, in addition to instances of injury through witchcraft do non go before official courts of law. Even cases that do go before official courts of law, including murder, may live rejudged past times Vodu priests in addition to communities because the conflict at the source of the law-breaking is non idea to live only personal. All conflict is a reflection of the social trunk inwards its human relationship to the relaxation of the cosmos.
Fon
Religion in addition to Expressive Culture
Religious Beliefs. Various Vodu (Fon) orders are at the foundation of Fon religion. H5N1 High God exists, according to numerous informants. Among Fon, Mawu in addition to Lisa are a couple, twins, or a woman mortal (Mawu) in addition to virile mortal (Lisa) hermaphrodite divinity. Fon may say the world was created past times Nana-Buluku, who gave nascence to Mawu in addition to Lisa. For others, Nana-Buluku, Mawu, in addition to Lisa are all Vodus, in addition to at that spot is no all-powerful separate creator.
Gu or Egu, the warrior in addition to hunter god of iron, is cardinal alongside all Fon groups. There are a issue of other Vodu orders, including Gorovodu, which is pop across Fon populations inwards Benin. Mama Tchamba, a related order, involves the worship of the spirits of slaves from the northward that Ewe ane time owned in addition to married. The selfhood of each private is involved with these major deities in addition to spirit personalities. They are also protectors, healers, judges, in addition to consummate performers.
Vodoun practitioners at Ouidah voodoo festival inwards Benin
All Vodu orders function manus inwards manus with Afa (or Fa) divination, a complex interpretive framework within which each mortal has a life sign (kpoli ), of which at that spot are a total of 256. Each sign is connected to a laid of plants in addition to animals, stories in addition to songs, dietary taboos, Vodus, in addition to dangers in addition to strengths, all associated with each other, every bit though clan-related. Events, projects, activities, in addition to relationships also receive got their ain Afa signs. Everything inwards the universe is related to Afa texts in addition to themes, every bit though nature itself were divided into exogamous clans.
Some Fon receive got go Christians; given their proximity to the coast, these ethnic groups were alongside the initiative of all to convey Christianity inwards the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries. Certain Christian groups originating inwards West Africa, such every bit Aladura in addition to Celeste, receive got a considerable next on the coast.
Fon christian Celestial believers
Religious Practitioners. Vodu priests are ordinarily men, but postmenopausal women may go priestesses. The bang-up bulk of spirit hosts or "wives" of the Vodus are women. Priests, priestesses, in addition to "wives" of the Yehve deities (Sosi, Avlesi, Dasi, etc.) do non ordinarily practise trance. Afa diviners are almost ever men, although it is said that a adult woman tin go a diviner if she wishes.
vodoun devotees
Ceremonies. Vodu ceremonies are compelling performances for both insiders in addition to outsiders. Worshipers who laid out dancing to the drum music may go into trance. Spirits who possess their "wives" may receive got messages for the community, may convey component division inwards judging sure as shooting cases of conflict, in addition to may heal the sick. Above all, they are dancing gods, in addition to at that spot are aesthetic conventions that receive got long traditions.
Fon people of benin performing their Vodoun rituals
In Vodu orders where possession is non usual, ceremonies are all the to a greater extent than dazzling because of the perfection of their collective execution. Rows of dancers, all clothed inwards ceremonial attire, displace across a ritual infinite every bit ane person, performing specific movements. Drums ever provide a sort of text or context for movement, including narrative associations in addition to instruction. Ceremonies are events during which symbolic associations are reinforced, private in addition to collective identity is stated, sure as shooting aspects of identity in addition to ability are recalled in addition to redistributed, healing in addition to admonishment convey place, and, inwards a higher identify all, collective exhilaration, ecstasy, in addition to awe are produced. Ceremonies are ever gifts to the gods.
A human slaughters a caprine animal at the Temple of Pythons during the annual Voodoo Festival inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Dahomey tribes people photographed for Hubert Howe Bancroft's The Book of the Fair, published inwards Chicago inwards 1893
Kingdom of Dahomey (c.1600–1900)
Dahomey was an African kingdom inwards the present-day Republic of Republic of Benin which lasted from 1600 until 1900. Dahomey developed on the Abomey Plateau inwards the early on 1600s in addition to became a regional ability inwards the 1700s past times conquering key cities on the Atlantic coast. For much of the 18th in addition to 19th centuries, the Kingdom of Dahomey was a key regional state, eventually ending tributary condition to the Oyo empire in addition to existence a major location for the Atlantic slave trade, maybe supplying upward to 20% of the slaves to Europe in addition to the Americas.
Vodoun women inwards trance trying to grasp the the ungraspable
Royal Ancestor Worship
Early kings established clear worship of purplish ancestors in addition to centralized their ceremonies inwards the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted spot inwards the solid ground of the dead in addition to it was necessary to larn their permission for many activities on earth.
Dance of the chiefs (circa 1908). Celebration at Abomey, By Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
Ancestor worship pre-existed the kingdom of Dahomey; however, nether King Agaja, a wheel of ritual was created centered some initiative of all celebrating the ancestors of the Rex in addition to and so celebrating a solid unit of measurement lineage.
The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved multiple elaborate components in addition to some aspects may receive got been added inwards the 19th century. In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, armed services parades, in addition to political councils. Its main religious aspect was to offering thank you lot in addition to gain the approving for ancestors of the purplish lineage. However, the custom also included armed services parades, populace discussions, gift giving (the distribution of coin to in addition to from the king), in addition to human sacrifice in addition to the spilling of blood.
Vodoun adult woman inwards trance
Most of the victims were captives from slave raids in addition to were sacrificed through decapitation, a tradition widely used past times Dahomean kings, in addition to the literal translation for the Fon call for the ceremony Xwetanu is "yearly caput business".
Dahomey Cosmology
Dahomey had a unique shape of West African vodun or voodoo which linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a married adult woman of Agaja brought the vodun to the kingdom in addition to ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having woman mortal characteristics in addition to Lisa having virile mortal characteristics) in addition to it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created past times their woman parent Nana-Buluku. Mawu-Lisa governs the heaven in addition to is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods be inwards the ground in addition to inwards thunder.
Fon vodoun practitioners
Religious practise organized dissimilar priesthoods in addition to shrines for each dissimilar god in addition to each different
pantheon (sky, ground or thunder). Women made upward a important amount of the priest shape in addition to the primary priest was ever a descendant of Dakodonou.
Kings of Dahomey
Gangnihessou, unknown – 1620
According to tradition, Gangnihessou came from a dynasty that originated inwards the sixteenth century. Based inwards Tado, a metropolis on the banks of the Moro River (in modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo), the dynasty rose to eminence on the footing of ane of his 4 brothers, who became the Rex of Great Ardra. After the expiry of the king, his territories were divided alongside the iii remaining brothers, ane of which was Gangnihessou.
Gangnihessou came to dominion some 1620 but was shortly dethroned past times his brother, Dakodonou, piece traveling through the kingdom. His symbols were the virile mortal Gangnihessou-bird (a rebus for his name), a drum, a hunting stick in addition to a throwing stick.
Dakodonou, 1620-1645
Dakodonou was the minute King of Dahomey, who ruled from 1620 to 1645. Dakodonou is portrayed every bit a fell in addition to trigger-happy man. His symbols were an indigo scandalize (a reference to his murder of a sure as shooting indigo planter named Donou, whose trunk he made sport of past times rolling it some inwards his indigo jar, in addition to whose call he appended to his ain original name, ‘Dako’), a tinder box, in addition to a state of war club. Before dying, Dakodonou named his nephew, Aho Houegbadja, every bit his successor.
Houegbadja (or Webaja) 1645-1685
The tertiary King of Dahomey was Aho Houegbadja, who succeeded his uncle, Dakodonou. He ruled from the fourth dimension of his uncle’s expiry inwards 1645 until 1685.
Houegbadja established the political potency in addition to boundaries of Abomey proper past times naming the metropolis every bit his capital. By edifice his palace (named “Agbome,” important “in the midst of the ramparts”) nigh Guedevi, an surface area located a few kilometers to the northwest of Bohicon, he established the surface area every bit the spot of political authority. He was responsible for forming the political civilization that would proceed to characterize Dahomey, with a reign that was marked past times autocratic rule. Houegbadja’s symbols were a fish (houe), fish trap (adja), in addition to state of war monastic tell hoe (kpota).
Akaba, 1685-1708
Houegbadja’s successor was his son, Houessou Akabawas, who became the 4th King of Dahomey. He ruled from 1685 to 1708.
Houessou Akaba’s reign was characterized past times state of war in addition to armed services expansion. His enemies, the Nago (Western Yoruba) kings, attacked Abomey in addition to burned the town. But the warriors of Abomey ultimately defeated the Nago armies in addition to the kingdom extended to include the banks of the Oueme River. Akaba failed, however, to capture Porto-Novo. Akaba’s symbols were the warthog in addition to a saber.
Akaba died of smallpox inwards 1708. Because his only son, Agbo Sassa, was only x years old, Akaba was succeeded instead past times his brother, Dossou Agadja.
Agadja, 1708-1732
Ruling from 1708 to 1740, Dossou Agadja was the 5th King of Dahomey. Despite the fact that Agadja had gained the throne due to the youth of Agbo Sassa, the rightful heir, he refused to give upward ability when the man child came of historic menstruum in addition to forced Agbo Sassa into exile.
Agadja’s reign was characterized past times continual warfare. The Yoruba soldiers of the kingdom of Oyo defeated the regular army of Abomey. The peace price required Agadja to pay tribute to the Oyo Empire, a scheme that continued for the side past times side hundred years. The Tribute of the Kingdom of Abomey to the King of Oyo took the shape of an annual tribute inwards immature men in addition to women destined for slavery or expiry inwards ceremonies, every bit good every bit cloth, guns, animals in addition to pearls.
The kingdom of Abomey grew during Agadja’s reign, in addition to conquered Allada inwards 1724. In 1727 it conquered the kingdom of Savi, in addition to gained command of its major city, Ouidah. When Abomey conquered Savi in addition to Ouidah, it gained direct access to the trading ports along the southern coast in addition to took over the lucrative slave merchandise with the Europeans. As a result, Agadja’s symbol is a European caravel boat. Agadja’s victory over Ouidah came, inwards part, every bit a resultant of his job of a corps of women shock-troopers, called Dahomey Amazons past times the Europeans after the women warriors of Greek myth, inwards his army. The Amazons became a dynastic tradition.
Agadja was succeeded past times Tegbessou.
Tegbessou, 1732-1774
Tegbessou was the 6th King of Dahomey, ruling from 1740 to 1774. His reign was characterized past times internal corruption in addition to failed unusual policy. He killed many coup-plotters in addition to political enemies, refused to pay tribute to the Yoruba, in addition to lost many battles inwards the punitive raids that followed.
His main symbol is a buffalo wearing a tunic. His other symbols are the blunderbuss, a weapon he gave his warriors (his reign marked the initiative of all fourth dimension the Dahomey Royal Army had ready access to firearms) in addition to a door decorated with iii noseless heads, a reference to his victory over a rebellious tributary people, the Republic of Benin Zou, whose corpses he mutilated.
During Tegbessou’s reign, the Dahomey enlarged the slave trade, waging a bitter state of war on their neighbors. It is said 10,000 people were captured in addition to sold into slavery, including some other of import slave trader, the King of Whydah. King Tegbessou made £250,000 a yr selling people into slavery inwards 1750.
Tegbessou was succeeded past times Kpengla.
Kpengla, 1774-1789
The 7th Rex of Dahomey, Kpengla, ruled from 1774 to 1789. His reign focused on expansion, in addition to dramatically increased the size of the kingdom. In monastic tell to expand westward, he killed the primary of the Popo people, Agbamou, in addition to spread his empire into modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo. He destroyed the villages of Ekpe in addition to Badagry (in what is at nowadays Nigeria), that were interfering with Dahomey’s regional monopoly on the slave trade.
King Kpengla (right, nether parasol in addition to carrying sword), leads a troop of Dahomey Amazons. Subjects tin live seen kowtowing (left, foreground)
His main symbol is the akpan bird, a merchandise gun (flintlock), in addition to an Amazon warrior striking her caput against a tree. Kpengla was succeeded past times Agonglo.
Agonglo, 1789-1797
Kpengla was succeeded past times his son, Agonglo. The 8th King of Dahomey, he ruled from 1789 to 1797.
Agonglo instituted several reforms which pleased his subjects: taxes were lowered, in addition to a greater distribution of gifts was made during the annual customs. He reformed the shape of the asen, or sacrificial altar, in addition to supported the surface past times ribs rather than a metallic cone, typical of the before Allada trend altars.
After the menstruum of aggressive armed services expansion of his father, Agonglo consolidated the dominion of the dynasty, his few armed services battles, however, were successful. His symbol is the pineapple.
Agonglo is notable inwards existence the initiative of all of the Dahomean kings to espouse a European woman. One of his wives was Sophie, a Dutch adult woman of mixed ancestry. Agonglo was succeeded past times his eldest son, Adandozan.
Adandozan, 1797-1818
Technically the 9th King of Dahomey, Adandozan is non counted every bit ane of the 12 kings. His call has largely been erased from the history of Abomey in addition to to this twenty-four hr menstruum is to a greater extent than frequently than non not spoken out loud inwards the city. He became Rex when, inwards 1797, the previous Rex died, leaving the throne to his eldest son.
Adandozan’s symbols were a baboon with a swollen stomach, total mouth, in addition to ear of corn inwards manus (an unflattering reference to his enemy, the King of Oyo), in addition to a large parasol (‘the Rex overshadows his enemies’). These symbols are non included inwards Abomey appliques, for the same reasons that Adandozan is non included inwards Abomey’s history.
The traditional stories of Adandozan’s dominion portray him every bit extremely cruel: he is said to receive got raised hyenas to which he would throw alive subjects for amusement. He has been portrayed every bit hopelessly mad, struggling foolishly with the European powers.
The commonly told even is that he refused to pay Francisco Felix da Souza, a Brazilian merchant in addition to trader who had go a major middle-man inwards the Ouidah slave market. Instead, he imprisoned in addition to tortured de Souza, in addition to and so attempted to receive got his ain ministers sell the slaves directly. According to legend, de Souza escaped with the aid of Gakpe, Adandozan’s brother, who returned from exile for that purpose. In return, de Souza helped Gakpe marshall a armed services strength in addition to convey the throne with the assistance of the terrified council of ministers. Gakpe in addition to so position Adandozan inwards prison.
This traditional portrayal may live wrong: similar Richard II of England inwards the Wars of the Roses, Adandozan may receive got been the object of a propagandistic rewriting of history after he lost the throne, turned into a monster past times his successor every bit a way of excusing the coup d’état in addition to legitimizing the novel regime. All stories handgrip that Adandozan tried to strength to a greater extent than favorable price of merchandise with the Europeans involved inwards the export of slaves, in addition to seriously undermined the ability of the extended purplish solid unit of measurement in addition to Vodun cult practitioners at courtroom through administrative reforms.
It may live that these policies themselves provoked Adandozan’s powerful opponents to back upward a coup against him. In monastic tell to justify the coup, Gakpe may in addition to so receive got been obliged to receive got oral historians tell of the monstrous in addition to mad Adandozan.
Ghezo (Gakpe) 1818-1856
Ghezo was the 9th King of Dahomey in addition to is considered ane of the greatest of the 12 historical kings. He ruled from 1818 to 1858. His call before ascending to the throne was Gakpe.
Ghezo’s symbols are 2 birds on a tree, a buffalo, in addition to a clay scandalize sieve with holes inwards it held past times 2 hands, a symbol of unity. Ghezo is said to receive got used the sieve every bit a metaphor for the sort of unity needed for the province to defeat its enemies in addition to overcome its problems; it takes everyone’s manus to block the sieve’s holes in addition to handgrip water. The pierced clay scandalize upheld past times multiple hands has go a national symbol inwards Benin, a large portrayal of it is the backdrop of the speaker’s podium inwards Benin’s National Assembly.
Ghezo ascended to the throne after he overthrew his brother, Adandozan, inwards a coup d’état. The traditional stories province that Adandozan was a cruel ruler, but it is possible these stories may receive got been invented past times Ghezo’s historians to justify the coup.
Throughout his reign, Ghezo waged a armed services displace every yr during the dry out season. His prisoners-of-war were sold into slavery, hence fattening the purplish treasury, increasing the annual budget, in addition to making state of war a really efficient way of raising revenue. Due to the increased strength of his regular army in addition to capital, Ghezo position an terminate to the Oyo tribute paying. He formalized his army, gave his 4,000 Dahomey Amazon woman mortal warriors uniforms, required soldiers to drill with guns in addition to sabres regularly, in addition to was able to repulse Oyo’s onslaught when it came.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo onward, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic, with Ghezo placing bang-up importance on the army, its budget in addition to its structures. An intrinsic component division of the regular army of Dahomey, which increased inwards importance every bit the province became to a greater extent than militaristic, was the elite fighting strength known every bit the Amazons.
Ghezo was also seen every bit an extremely sharp administrator. Because of his slave revenues, he could afford to lower taxes, hence stimulating the agricultural in addition to mercantile economy: agriculture expanded, every bit did merchandise inwards a multifariousness of goods with France. He instituted novel judicial procedures, in addition to was considered to live a exactly gauge of his subjects. He was much loved, in addition to his abrupt expiry inwards a battle against the Yoruba was considered a tragedy.
However loved past times his ain people, Ghezo’s legacy includes his making a major contribution to the slave trade. He said inwards the 1840s that he would do anything the British wanted him to do apart from giving upward slave trade: “The slave merchandise is the ruling regulation of my people. It is the source in addition to the glory of their wealth…the woman parent lulls the kid to slumber with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…”
Ghezo was succeeded past times Glele.
Glele, 1856-1889
Badohou, who took the throne call Glele, is considered (if Adandozan is non counted) to live the 10th King of Dahomey. He succeeded his father, Ghezo, in addition to ruled from 1858 to 1889.
King Glele of Dahomey (1858-1889) left, in addition to Ghezo (right)
Glele continued his father’s successful state of war campaigns, inwards component division to avenge his father’s death, inwards component division to capture slaves. Glele also signed treaties with the French, who had previously acquired a concession inwards Porto-Novo from its king. The French were successful inwards negotiating with Glele in addition to receiving a grant for a customs in addition to commerce concession inwards Cotonou during his reign. Glele resisted English linguistic communication diplomatic overtures, however, distrusting their manners in addition to noting that they were much to a greater extent than activist inwards their opposition to the slave trade: though French Republic itself had outlawed slavery at the terminate of the 1700s, it allowed the merchandise to proceed elsewhere; Great Britain outlawed slavery inwards the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland in addition to inwards its overseas possessions inwards 1833, in addition to had its navy brand raids against slavers along the West African coast get-go inwards 1840.
Glele, despite the formal terminate of the slave merchandise in addition to its interdiction past times the Europeans in addition to New World powers, continued slavery every bit a domestic institution: his fields were primarily cared for past times slaves, in addition to slaves became a major source of ‘messengers to the ancestors’, inwards other words, sacrificial victims inwards ceremonies.
Near the terminate of Glele’s reign, relations with French Republic deteriorated due to Cotonou’s growing commercial influence in addition to differences of interpretation betwixt Dahomey in addition to French Republic regarding the extent in addition to price of the Cotonou concession grant. Glele, already on his expiry bed, had his boy Prince Kondo convey accuse of negotiations with the French.
Glele’s symbols are the king of beasts in addition to the ritual knife of the adepts of Gu; of fire, iron, war, in addition to cutting edges.
Glele died on Dec 29, 1889, to live succeeded past times Kondo, who took the call Behanzin.
Behanzin, 1889-1894
Behanzin, though the twelfth, is considered the eleventh (if Adandozan is non counted) King of Dahomey. Upon taking the throne, he changed his call from Kondo to Behanzin, every bit it was traditional for Dahomey kings to assume a throne name. He succeeded his father, Glele, in addition to ruled from 1889 to 1894. Behanzin was Abomey’s lastly independent ruler established through traditional ability structures, in addition to was considered to live a bang-up ruler.
Behanzin was seen past times his people every bit intelligent in addition to courageous. He saw that the Europeans were gradually encroaching on his kingdom, in addition to every bit a resultant attempted a unusual policy of isolating the Europeans in addition to rebuffing them. Just before Glele’s death, Behanzin declined to run into French envoy Jean Bayol, claiming conflicts inwards his schedule due to ritual in addition to ceremonial obligations. As a result, Bayol returned to Cotonou to gear upward to go to state of war against Behanzin, named Rex upon Glele’s death. Seeing the preparations, the Dahomeans attacked Bayol’s forces exterior Cotonou inwards 1890; the French regular army stood fast due to superior weaponry in addition to a strategically advantageous position. Eventually Behanzin’s forces were forced to withdraw. Behanzin returned to Abomey, in addition to Bayol to French Republic for a time.
Peace lasted 2 years, during which fourth dimension the French continued to occupy Cotonou. Both sides continued to purchase arms inwards training for some other battle. In 1892, the soldiers of Abomey attacked villages nigh Grand Popo in addition to Porto-Novo inwards an sweat to reassert the older boundaries of Dahomey. This was seen every bit an deed of state of war past times the French, who claimed interests inwards both areas. Bayol, past times at nowadays named Colonial Governor past times the French, declared state of war on Behanzin. The French justified the activity past times characterizing the Dahomeans every bit savages inwards demand of civilizing. Evidence of this savagery, they stated, was the practise of human sacrifice during the annual customs celebrations in addition to at the fourth dimension of a king’s death, in addition to the continued practise of slavery.
The French were victorious inwards attaining the give upward of Behanzin inwards 1894, though they did non procur his signature of national give upward or treaty. He lived out the residue of his life inwards exile inwards Martinique in addition to Algeria. After his death, his remains were returned to Abomey.
His symbols are the shark, the egg, in addition to a captive hanging from a flagpole (a reference to a boastful in addition to rebellious Nago practitioner of harmful magic from Ketou whom the Rex hanged from a flagpole every bit penalisation for his pride). But, his most famous symbol is the smoking pipe.
Behanzin was succeeded past times Agoli-agbo, his distant relative in addition to one-time Army Chief of Staff, the only potential ruler which the French were willing to instate.
Agoli-agbo
Agoli-agbo is considered to receive got been the twelfth, in addition to last, King of Dahomey. He took the throne after the previous king, Behanzin, went into exile after a failed state of war with France. He was inwards ability from 1894 to 1900.
The exile of Behanzin did non legalize the French colonization. The French full general Alfred Dodds offered the throne to every ane of the immediate purplish family, inwards homecoming for a signature on a treaty establishing a French protectorate over the Kingdom; all refused. Finally, Behanzin’s Army Chief of Staff (and distant relative), Prince Agoli-agbo was appointed to the throne, every bit a ‘traditional chief’ rather than caput of province of a sovereign nation, past times the French when he agreed to sign the musical instrument of surrender. He ‘reigned’ for only vi years, assisted past times a French Viceroy. The French prepared for direct administration, which they achieved on Feb 12, 1900. Agoli-agbo went into exile inwards Gabon, in addition to the Save River. He returned to alive inwards Abomey every bit a private citizen inwards 1918.
Agoli-agbo’s symbols are a leg kicking a rock, an archer’s bow (a symbol of the homecoming to traditional weapons nether the novel rules established past times the colonial administrators), in addition to a broom.
Agbo. AGBOLI-AGBO DEDJLANI
King of Abomey
Benin
Dedjlani, a old policeman, waited vi years to retire, in addition to and so proceeded with his clandestine coronation ceremonies.“Officially”, at that spot is no longer a Rex inwards Benin. But on september 30, 1989, Dedjlani position on his purplish shoes, in addition to at the historic menstruum of 50 4 became King of Abomey.
Being monogamous, he was obliged to espouse 2 to a greater extent than wives to convey tending of his purplish household. When he goes out, tradition requires that he live sheltered nether an umbrella with his emblem. One of wives must ever live side past times side to him, carrying the purplish spitting bowl. The King also has to wearable his scepter inwards permanence. Holding it inwards his manus or hanging on his shoulder, to a greater extent than than a symbol, the scepter is the King. The silvery dust protector worn on the nose, dates from the nineteenth century, in addition to was inherited from the King Gbehanzin. It protected the King’s olfactory organ from the dust, during the purplish processions inwards Abomey.
Dahomey Amazons
The Dahomey Amazons were a Fon all-female armed services regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey. They were so named past times Western observers in addition to historians due to their similarity to the legendary Amazons described past times the Ancient Greeks.
King Houegbadja, the tertiary king, is said to receive got originally began the grouping which would go the Amazons every bit a corps of purplish bodyguards after edifice a novel palace at Abomey. Houegbadja’s boy King Agadja developed these bodyguards into a militia in addition to successfully used them inwards Dahomey’s defeat of the neighboring kingdom of Savi inwards 1727. European merchants recorded their presence, every bit good every bit similar woman mortal warriors alongside the Ashanti. For the side past times side hundred years or so, they gained a reputation every bit fearless warriors. Though they fought rarely, they ordinarily acquitted themselves good inwards battle.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic. Ghezo placed bang-up importance on the regular army in addition to increased its budget in addition to formalized its structures. The Amazons were rigorously trained, given uniforms, in addition to equipped with Danish guns obtained via the slave trade. By this fourth dimension the Amazons consisted of betwixt 4,000 in addition to 6,000 women, nigh a tertiary of the entire Dahomey army.
European encroachment into West Africa gained measurement during the latter one-half of the nineteenth century, in addition to inwards 1890 the Dahomey King Behanzin began fighting French forces (mainly made upward of Yoruba, who the Dahomeans had been fighting for centuries). It is said that many of the French soldiers fighting inwards Dahomey hesitated before shooting or bayoneting the Amazons. The resulting delay led to many of the French casualties. Ultimately, bolstered past times the French Foreign Legion, in addition to armed with superior weaponry including machine guns, the French inflicted casualties that were x times worse on the Dahomey side. After several battles, the French prevailed. The Legionnaires afterwards wrote nigh the “incredible courage in addition to audacity” of the Amazons. The lastly surviving Amazon died inwards 1979.
Economy
Subsistence in addition to Commercial Activities. Fon are farmers, fishermen, in addition to marketplace women. Nowadays they occupy all the positions in addition to jobs to live found inwards government, civil service, business, in addition to production. Staple crops are yams, maize, in addition to manioc. (Millet was ane time important.) Beans, peas, peanuts, sorghum, sweetness potatoes, onions, okra, peppers, gourds, papayas, bananas, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, crude oil palms, in addition to some rice in addition to cocoa are also grown. Animals raised include pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, guinea fowl, ducks, in addition to pigeons. Fishing is of primary importance along the coast in addition to inwards the Volta region. Cash crops include palm kernels, peanuts, copra, castor beans, kapok, and, past times far the most important, java in addition to cocoa.
Fon in addition to Ewe marketplace women—both wholesalers in addition to retailers—have a nigh monopoly on the internal economy. Even inwards small-scale villages, many women are traders in addition to retailers, selling anything from homemade fermented corn porridge to Coca Cola, frequently specializing inwards a single item such every bit fresh or home-smoked fish, imported Dutch wax cloth, fresh fruits in addition to vegetables, or merchandise beads.
Industrial Arts. Fon engage inwards pottery making, forest sculpting (mostly for religious use), in addition to basketwork; inwards the past, every hamlet had a blacksmith.
Fon people carrying pots at Abomey,Benin
Trade
Fon receive got traded with Yoruba in addition to Hausa for every bit long every bit they receive got had their acquaint identity. The slave merchandise in addition to the common salt merchandise brought other traders from the northward of acquaint Ewe in addition to Fon regions, including every bit far northward every bit Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in addition to perhaps Republic of Mali in addition to Niger. Portuguese traders reached the coast inwards the fifteenth century, fifty-fifty before the Ewe in addition to Fon had migrated that far. By the seventeenth century, when the Volta share had go dwelling to an Ewe polity in addition to the Kingdom of Dahomey had regular relations with Ouidah, European commercial envoys were no longer a novelty on what was in addition to so called the Slave Coast. The Atlantic commerce inwards slaves was a important aspect of Fon life for 2 centuries.
Market activities are cardinal inwards all Fon regions. Women almost ever receive got something to sell on marketplace days, including foodstuffs they brand themselves. They frequently purchase their husband's or brothers' grab of fish fresh from the ocean or river in addition to convey it straight to diverse markets. Or they fume the fish in addition to convey them to markets further inland. Today European, U.S., in addition to Chinese goods are available fifty-fifty inwards small-scale Fon hamlet markets to a greater extent than than 150 kilometers from the coast, frequently taken at that spot past times local women who purchase the goods inwards coastal cities.
Abomey-Calavi
Division of Labor
. Apart from the special condition of kings inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey who did non perform manual labor, the main partition of labor is along gender lines. Men do heavy agricultural labor such every bit clearing the solid ground in addition to staking yam vines; they fish, hunt, in addition to create houses. Women participate inwards the inwards a higher identify activities also, such every bit preparing the palm-frond walling or fencing necessary to hut building, taking accuse of butchered animals in addition to fish, in addition to carrying out almost all agricultural tasks except the really heaviest.
Dance of warrior women,Abomey.
Women also ship headloads every bit heavy every bit whatever charge men tin carry. Although it is frequently said that only women headload, this is obviously untrue. Women are inwards accuse of most marketplace activities, although they may hire men to aid them. One of the few items ordinarily sold past times men inwards the marketplace is beef, frequently brought past times Hausa or other Muslim traders. Most other kinds of work, including cooking, may live done past times women in addition to men, in addition to fifty-fifty the above-mentioned divisions of labor are non absolute. Women in addition to children may bring together with men inwards pulling inwards the enormous in addition to heavy line-fishing nets from the surf after a catch. Gender-specific cash savings in addition to function collectives abound, enabling members to receive got their ain banking every bit good every bit back upward inwards solid building, clearing land, harvesting, fishing, marketing, in addition to all other labors. Especially notable are the Fon dokpwe , or cooperative, or tontine (French). Both women in addition to men engage inwards kid care, although women are considered to receive got greater responsibleness inwards this regard. Groups of men in addition to groups of women may convey tending of whatever in addition to all hamlet children inwards their vicinity at whatever given time.
Fon woman,Sessimé’s, a Beninese Afropoprock musician
Land Tenure
Anyone from a particular share tin farm on solid ground that is non occupied past times anyone else. Inside a settlement, a mortal wishing to employ solid ground must inquire permission of the hamlet primary or the elders of the lineage owning the land. Formerly, rights receive got extended only to job of land; at that spot was no absolute correct to the solid ground itself. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, solid ground was past times Definition the belongings of the king. In most Ewe regions, solid ground is inherited in addition to administrated past times elders of each patriline; whatever lineage fellow member may create or farm on lineage solid ground every bit long every bit she or he respects the rights of others nearby who are already established on the land. Widows of patriline members or other persons non members of the lineage may rest on the solid ground in addition to farm it, but it cannot go past times definitively into some other lineage.
Only inwards the lastly few generations has solid ground come upward to live alienable from lineage tenure past times existence mortgaged or sold. Land non already belonging to a lineage (of which at that spot is scarcely whatever now) may live acquired personally through simply clearing the land, or buying it non-Fon owners; the possessor may dispose of such solid ground without consulting lineage elders. Both women in addition to men receive got rights to lineage land, frequently at nowadays called "inheritance of land," but, inwards areas where solid ground is scarce, women receive got difficulty claiming such rights.
Kinship
Kin Groups in addition to Descent. Descent is primarily patrilineal. Fon receive got exogamous patrisibs composed of lineages, but inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey the purplish sib had exceptional rules. Princesses married commoners in addition to their children belonged to the purplish sib, every bit did the offspring of purplish princes. Cross-cousin matrimony is preferred alongside most Fon groups, peculiarly with mother's brother's daughter.
Holywood Actor djimon Hounsou is a Fon from Benin
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. Most Fon marriages are patrilocal, although neolocal residence has go pop inwards the belatedly twentieth century. Polygyny is the dominion if a human has way to espouse to a greater extent than than ane wife. It is frequently said that an abuse of polygyny leads wives to go out their husbands for other men, frequently younger in addition to every bit yet unmarried, so that women also tend to receive got to a greater extent than than ane married adult man inwards their lifetimes. Fon marriages are of 2 full general types, ane to a greater extent than prestigious than the other. Prestigious matrimony includes payments past times the groom to the bride's begetter or premarital farm labor performed past times a human for his futurity father-in-law. Such bride-wealth or function gives a human command over his children. When this is non performed, the woman parent in addition to her solid unit of measurement receive got all rights over the children; thus, this sort of matrimony is less desirable or prestigious for a husband. Herskovits (1938) outlines xiii dissimilar variations of these 2 major matrimony categories. H5N1 human must never decline a married adult woman offered him, in addition to divorce may live initiated only past times the wife's family. In many Ewe groups, matrimony is less marked past times bride-wealth or bride-service, in addition to fifty-fifty if a human offers only the required drinks in addition to cloths to his bride in addition to her family, he may claim the children every bit members of his ain patriline. In representative of separation, a begetter may maintain his children with him, although inwards many cases wives are allowed to heighten the children. Pregnancy makes a matrimony complete. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, virginity was demanded of brides inwards prestigious marriages. Christian Fon proceed according to the arrangements prescribed inwards their churches.
Domestic Unit. Patrilineal three- or four-generational extended solid unit of measurement compounds, every bit good every bit agnatic extended solid unit of measurement compounds, are common. Another model is a nuclear-family household (often with children from previous marriages) that eventually is joined past times other relatives, such every bit the couple's younger siblings, cousins, nieces, nephews, in addition to foster children.
Fon Kid from Benin
If the married adult man has non vowed monogamy, inwards time, other wives in addition to their children may come upward to expand the chemical compound (each married adult woman with her ain hut or fiddling house). In many cases, other wives in addition to their children shape separate households. Adolescent boys may receive got collective sleeping quarters separate from their mothers in addition to sisters.
Fon kids at Ouidah,benin
Inheritance. Most Fon property, including land, is inherited patrilineally, although some lineage solid ground remains. Cloth wealth in addition to jewelry sometimes go lineage belongings too, along with ancestral stools. Individual property, which may include rights to solid ground in addition to fields, may live inherited patrilineally. In some areas the eldest boy inherits solid ground rights, but livestock in addition to other private belongings go to a man's sister's son. In Lome inheritance is mixed.
Socialization. Virtually everyone, but especially older siblings, takes tending of the children. Grandparents, both woman mortal in addition to male, also pass considerable fourth dimension with children. Fishermen inwards from the ocean frequently sit down some inwards groups during the afternoon, playing boardgames in addition to watching over immature children at the same time.
Angelique Kidjo is a fon
Toddlers are passed from mortal to person, including adolescent boys, who appear to relish taking their turns. Mothers in addition to all woman mortal relatives ship babies on their backs for much of the day; sometimes doting fathers or other virile mortal relatives also wrap babies in addition to toddlers on their backs. Fon adolescents experiment with sexuality early on inwards their teen years, in addition to nowadays pregnancy at a immature age, fifty-fifty if the woman parent is unmarried, is non especially discouraged inwards many communities. Thus virginity is non every bit highly valued every bit it ane time was.
Young Fon worshippers of a mermaid deity gear upward for the Voodoo Festival, inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Young girls aid their mothers, frequently caring for smaller children or carrying loads to market, boys every bit immature every bit 10 may go to ocean with the men in addition to go over the side of the pirogue to drive a schoolhouse of fish into the nets. Inland, immature boys in addition to girls aid perform agricultural tasks in addition to tending for animals. Children are acquaint at all of import social in addition to religious events in addition to may, at a really early on age, go "spouses" of of import spirits or gods, hence inheriting sizable responsibilities in addition to the special, frequently prestigious, identity, that goes with them. Children every bit immature every bit 10 may go into trance during Vodu (Fon) possession ceremonies. They also relish such events every bit recreation in addition to convey payoff of opportunities for drumming, singing, in addition to dancing performances; teenagers in addition to immature adults may courtroom during in addition to after such religious rituals.
Fon missy braiding her sisters pilus at Ouidah,Benin
Political Organization.
Although the Fon kingdom had a centralized province with a powerful ahosu (King), since its collapse that construction is no longer available. Fon villages had hamlet autonomy before they were consolidated into a kingdom inwards the seventeenth century, in addition to hence each hamlet primary was a "king" (toxosu ) to whom the heads of each chemical compound answered. The Kingdom of Dahomey forced these chiefs to swear loyalty to the ruler or live sacrificed (some were sold into slavery). Sibs inwards Fon villages receive got considerable political influence, but the primary is hardly all-powerful.
His Majesty Agboli Agbo Dedjani, Last King of the Dan-Home Dynasty, Abomey, Republic of Benin (Dahomey), Africa
Social Control. Although during the colonial menstruum chiefs had considerable command (and soundless do every bit far every bit administrative decisions are concerned), potency is widely distributed inwards villages in addition to regions. Whereas Fon are nominally nether the jurisdiction of French-inspired legal systems, the laws of the ancestors in addition to the moral frameworks of Vodu worship tend to receive got exactly every bit much, if non more, potency than official law inwards many communities. Even inwards colonial in addition to precolonial periods, the component division of primary in addition to the ranks of the elders were ordinarily filled with men (and some women) who were linked to religious orders.
Fon women at Ouidah
Individual conduct for many is constantly interpreted in addition to adjusted through the lenses of Afa (or Fa) divination, which includes the "laws of destiny," or the "law-deity who brought me here" (esesidomeda ). Thus, supernatural sanctions are to a greater extent than powerful than province legal systems for numerous Fon. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, kings were tyrannical according to numerous sources; hamlet chiefs, inwards keeping with before practices, were not. Decisions of hamlet chiefs had to live reported to the king, however, so that concluding command was inwards his hands. The king's tribunal of chiefs was expected to gauge harshly so that the Rex himself could demonstrate clemency past times lightening the sentence. During the colonial period, at that spot was bang-up tension betwixt sure as shooting Ewe Vodu orders in addition to colonial administrators who claimed the Vodu "courts" were presuming to convey the identify of official courts. Numerous shrines were hence destroyed past times High German in addition to French authorities. Vodu worshipers frequently did non consider the powers of the colonial governments to live legitimate,
Fon people.
Conflict
Conflict inwards villages is typically brought to a grouping of "judges," including the chief, Vodu priests, in addition to both virile mortal in addition to woman mortal elders. The entire hamlet has the correct to attend, in addition to whoever wishes to speak may do so. Often divorce cases, theft, assault, in addition to instances of injury through witchcraft do non go before official courts of law. Even cases that do go before official courts of law, including murder, may live rejudged past times Vodu priests in addition to communities because the conflict at the source of the law-breaking is non idea to live only personal. All conflict is a reflection of the social trunk inwards its human relationship to the relaxation of the cosmos.
Fon
Religion in addition to Expressive Culture
Religious Beliefs. Various Vodu (Fon) orders are at the foundation of Fon religion. H5N1 High God exists, according to numerous informants. Among Fon, Mawu in addition to Lisa are a couple, twins, or a woman mortal (Mawu) in addition to virile mortal (Lisa) hermaphrodite divinity. Fon may say the world was created past times Nana-Buluku, who gave nascence to Mawu in addition to Lisa. For others, Nana-Buluku, Mawu, in addition to Lisa are all Vodus, in addition to at that spot is no all-powerful separate creator.
Gu or Egu, the warrior in addition to hunter god of iron, is cardinal alongside all Fon groups. There are a issue of other Vodu orders, including Gorovodu, which is pop across Fon populations inwards Benin. Mama Tchamba, a related order, involves the worship of the spirits of slaves from the northward that Ewe ane time owned in addition to married. The selfhood of each private is involved with these major deities in addition to spirit personalities. They are also protectors, healers, judges, in addition to consummate performers.
Vodoun practitioners at Ouidah voodoo festival inwards Benin
All Vodu orders function manus inwards manus with Afa (or Fa) divination, a complex interpretive framework within which each mortal has a life sign (kpoli ), of which at that spot are a total of 256. Each sign is connected to a laid of plants in addition to animals, stories in addition to songs, dietary taboos, Vodus, in addition to dangers in addition to strengths, all associated with each other, every bit though clan-related. Events, projects, activities, in addition to relationships also receive got their ain Afa signs. Everything inwards the universe is related to Afa texts in addition to themes, every bit though nature itself were divided into exogamous clans.
Some Fon receive got go Christians; given their proximity to the coast, these ethnic groups were alongside the initiative of all to convey Christianity inwards the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries. Certain Christian groups originating inwards West Africa, such every bit Aladura in addition to Celeste, receive got a considerable next on the coast.
Fon christian Celestial believers
Religious Practitioners. Vodu priests are ordinarily men, but postmenopausal women may go priestesses. The bang-up bulk of spirit hosts or "wives" of the Vodus are women. Priests, priestesses, in addition to "wives" of the Yehve deities (Sosi, Avlesi, Dasi, etc.) do non ordinarily practise trance. Afa diviners are almost ever men, although it is said that a adult woman tin go a diviner if she wishes.
vodoun devotees
Ceremonies. Vodu ceremonies are compelling performances for both insiders in addition to outsiders. Worshipers who laid out dancing to the drum music may go into trance. Spirits who possess their "wives" may receive got messages for the community, may convey component division inwards judging sure as shooting cases of conflict, in addition to may heal the sick. Above all, they are dancing gods, in addition to at that spot are aesthetic conventions that receive got long traditions.
Fon people of benin performing their Vodoun rituals
In Vodu orders where possession is non usual, ceremonies are all the to a greater extent than dazzling because of the perfection of their collective execution. Rows of dancers, all clothed inwards ceremonial attire, displace across a ritual infinite every bit ane person, performing specific movements. Drums ever provide a sort of text or context for movement, including narrative associations in addition to instruction. Ceremonies are events during which symbolic associations are reinforced, private in addition to collective identity is stated, sure as shooting aspects of identity in addition to ability are recalled in addition to redistributed, healing in addition to admonishment convey place, and, inwards a higher identify all, collective exhilaration, ecstasy, in addition to awe are produced. Ceremonies are ever gifts to the gods.
A human slaughters a caprine animal at the Temple of Pythons during the annual Voodoo Festival inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Afa divination involves numerous complicated rituals based on a binary scheme of questions in addition to responses, in addition to permutations of the 256 life signs associated with collections of oral texts.
vodounsi
Arts.
Fon artists are widely known for their appliqué hangings with legendary motifs from the Kingdom of Dahomey in addition to Vodu culture. Elaborate engraving or carving of calabashes is some other Fon art. Brass casting (using the cireperdue, or lost-wax method) has been practiced past times the Fon since early on times. Brass workers belonged to special guilds inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey; they created some of the to a greater extent than striking objects constituting the king's wealth. Silverwork was also mastered. Fon soundless carve wooden bocio figures for spiritual practices, every bit good every bit Legba statues (guardian deities) in addition to other Vodu god-objects. Earthen Legbas are also common. Some god-objects, solely abstract inwards form, are confected every bit a collage-sculpture, with numerous ingredients including cowry shells, caprine animal horns, cows' tails, birds' claws, Fe bells, in addition to tree roots, all united with cherry-red clay in addition to glazed with the blood of sacrificial animals. Drums of many dissimilar kinds are produced for specific ceremonies. Vodu costumes for spirit possession may live richly adorned with cowries sewn on inwards patterns. All of the objects necessary for Fa (Fon) divination are also created with bang-up tending in addition to elaboration; hence they are sometimes bought past times Europeans every bit objects of art. Stools are of import to Fon lineages. They are frequently carved with narrative particular so that their symbolic significance is inscribed for futurity generations to see.
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Festivals
GeledeTraditional Festival of the Fon people inwards South Benin
Gelede is a cult dedicated to Mother Earth. It is celebrated past times the whole community to promote fertility of both the people in addition to the soil. Each mask is sculpted in addition to represents a dissimilar grapheme but only the initiates know the truthful nature in addition to secrets of those symbolic characters.
The masks are brightly painted in addition to displace similar puppets linking myths in addition to moral stories through mime. It is both educational in addition to quite hilarious. The delighted crowd express joy in addition to clap their hands every bit they sentry inwards appreciation. It is a fascinating mix of street theater in addition to magical theatre.
Gelede Mask festival
Egun, traditional Celebration
Egun masks stand upward for the spirits of the deceased in addition to according to the locals; they "are" the deceased.
Vodoun women inwards trance trying to grasp the the ungraspable
Royal Ancestor Worship
Early kings established clear worship of purplish ancestors in addition to centralized their ceremonies inwards the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted spot inwards the solid ground of the dead in addition to it was necessary to larn their permission for many activities on earth.
Dance of the chiefs (circa 1908). Celebration at Abomey, By Edmond Fortier (1862-1918)
Ancestor worship pre-existed the kingdom of Dahomey; however, nether King Agaja, a wheel of ritual was created centered some initiative of all celebrating the ancestors of the Rex in addition to and so celebrating a solid unit of measurement lineage.
The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved multiple elaborate components in addition to some aspects may receive got been added inwards the 19th century. In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, armed services parades, in addition to political councils. Its main religious aspect was to offering thank you lot in addition to gain the approving for ancestors of the purplish lineage. However, the custom also included armed services parades, populace discussions, gift giving (the distribution of coin to in addition to from the king), in addition to human sacrifice in addition to the spilling of blood.
Vodoun adult woman inwards trance
Most of the victims were captives from slave raids in addition to were sacrificed through decapitation, a tradition widely used past times Dahomean kings, in addition to the literal translation for the Fon call for the ceremony Xwetanu is "yearly caput business".
Dahomey Cosmology
Dahomey had a unique shape of West African vodun or voodoo which linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a married adult woman of Agaja brought the vodun to the kingdom in addition to ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having woman mortal characteristics in addition to Lisa having virile mortal characteristics) in addition to it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created past times their woman parent Nana-Buluku. Mawu-Lisa governs the heaven in addition to is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods be inwards the ground in addition to inwards thunder.
Fon vodoun practitioners
Religious practise organized dissimilar priesthoods in addition to shrines for each dissimilar god in addition to each different
pantheon (sky, ground or thunder). Women made upward a important amount of the priest shape in addition to the primary priest was ever a descendant of Dakodonou.
Kings of Dahomey
Gangnihessou, unknown – 1620
According to tradition, Gangnihessou came from a dynasty that originated inwards the sixteenth century. Based inwards Tado, a metropolis on the banks of the Moro River (in modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo), the dynasty rose to eminence on the footing of ane of his 4 brothers, who became the Rex of Great Ardra. After the expiry of the king, his territories were divided alongside the iii remaining brothers, ane of which was Gangnihessou.
Gangnihessou came to dominion some 1620 but was shortly dethroned past times his brother, Dakodonou, piece traveling through the kingdom. His symbols were the virile mortal Gangnihessou-bird (a rebus for his name), a drum, a hunting stick in addition to a throwing stick.
Dakodonou, 1620-1645
Dakodonou was the minute King of Dahomey, who ruled from 1620 to 1645. Dakodonou is portrayed every bit a fell in addition to trigger-happy man. His symbols were an indigo scandalize (a reference to his murder of a sure as shooting indigo planter named Donou, whose trunk he made sport of past times rolling it some inwards his indigo jar, in addition to whose call he appended to his ain original name, ‘Dako’), a tinder box, in addition to a state of war club. Before dying, Dakodonou named his nephew, Aho Houegbadja, every bit his successor.
Houegbadja (or Webaja) 1645-1685
The tertiary King of Dahomey was Aho Houegbadja, who succeeded his uncle, Dakodonou. He ruled from the fourth dimension of his uncle’s expiry inwards 1645 until 1685.
Houegbadja established the political potency in addition to boundaries of Abomey proper past times naming the metropolis every bit his capital. By edifice his palace (named “Agbome,” important “in the midst of the ramparts”) nigh Guedevi, an surface area located a few kilometers to the northwest of Bohicon, he established the surface area every bit the spot of political authority. He was responsible for forming the political civilization that would proceed to characterize Dahomey, with a reign that was marked past times autocratic rule. Houegbadja’s symbols were a fish (houe), fish trap (adja), in addition to state of war monastic tell hoe (kpota).
Akaba, 1685-1708
Houegbadja’s successor was his son, Houessou Akabawas, who became the 4th King of Dahomey. He ruled from 1685 to 1708.
Houessou Akaba’s reign was characterized past times state of war in addition to armed services expansion. His enemies, the Nago (Western Yoruba) kings, attacked Abomey in addition to burned the town. But the warriors of Abomey ultimately defeated the Nago armies in addition to the kingdom extended to include the banks of the Oueme River. Akaba failed, however, to capture Porto-Novo. Akaba’s symbols were the warthog in addition to a saber.
Akaba died of smallpox inwards 1708. Because his only son, Agbo Sassa, was only x years old, Akaba was succeeded instead past times his brother, Dossou Agadja.
Agadja, 1708-1732
Ruling from 1708 to 1740, Dossou Agadja was the 5th King of Dahomey. Despite the fact that Agadja had gained the throne due to the youth of Agbo Sassa, the rightful heir, he refused to give upward ability when the man child came of historic menstruum in addition to forced Agbo Sassa into exile.
Agadja’s reign was characterized past times continual warfare. The Yoruba soldiers of the kingdom of Oyo defeated the regular army of Abomey. The peace price required Agadja to pay tribute to the Oyo Empire, a scheme that continued for the side past times side hundred years. The Tribute of the Kingdom of Abomey to the King of Oyo took the shape of an annual tribute inwards immature men in addition to women destined for slavery or expiry inwards ceremonies, every bit good every bit cloth, guns, animals in addition to pearls.
The kingdom of Abomey grew during Agadja’s reign, in addition to conquered Allada inwards 1724. In 1727 it conquered the kingdom of Savi, in addition to gained command of its major city, Ouidah. When Abomey conquered Savi in addition to Ouidah, it gained direct access to the trading ports along the southern coast in addition to took over the lucrative slave merchandise with the Europeans. As a result, Agadja’s symbol is a European caravel boat. Agadja’s victory over Ouidah came, inwards part, every bit a resultant of his job of a corps of women shock-troopers, called Dahomey Amazons past times the Europeans after the women warriors of Greek myth, inwards his army. The Amazons became a dynastic tradition.
Agadja was succeeded past times Tegbessou.
Tegbessou, 1732-1774
Tegbessou was the 6th King of Dahomey, ruling from 1740 to 1774. His reign was characterized past times internal corruption in addition to failed unusual policy. He killed many coup-plotters in addition to political enemies, refused to pay tribute to the Yoruba, in addition to lost many battles inwards the punitive raids that followed.
His main symbol is a buffalo wearing a tunic. His other symbols are the blunderbuss, a weapon he gave his warriors (his reign marked the initiative of all fourth dimension the Dahomey Royal Army had ready access to firearms) in addition to a door decorated with iii noseless heads, a reference to his victory over a rebellious tributary people, the Republic of Benin Zou, whose corpses he mutilated.
During Tegbessou’s reign, the Dahomey enlarged the slave trade, waging a bitter state of war on their neighbors. It is said 10,000 people were captured in addition to sold into slavery, including some other of import slave trader, the King of Whydah. King Tegbessou made £250,000 a yr selling people into slavery inwards 1750.
Tegbessou was succeeded past times Kpengla.
Kpengla, 1774-1789
The 7th Rex of Dahomey, Kpengla, ruled from 1774 to 1789. His reign focused on expansion, in addition to dramatically increased the size of the kingdom. In monastic tell to expand westward, he killed the primary of the Popo people, Agbamou, in addition to spread his empire into modern twenty-four hr menstruum Togo. He destroyed the villages of Ekpe in addition to Badagry (in what is at nowadays Nigeria), that were interfering with Dahomey’s regional monopoly on the slave trade.
King Kpengla (right, nether parasol in addition to carrying sword), leads a troop of Dahomey Amazons. Subjects tin live seen kowtowing (left, foreground)
His main symbol is the akpan bird, a merchandise gun (flintlock), in addition to an Amazon warrior striking her caput against a tree. Kpengla was succeeded past times Agonglo.
Agonglo, 1789-1797
Kpengla was succeeded past times his son, Agonglo. The 8th King of Dahomey, he ruled from 1789 to 1797.
Agonglo instituted several reforms which pleased his subjects: taxes were lowered, in addition to a greater distribution of gifts was made during the annual customs. He reformed the shape of the asen, or sacrificial altar, in addition to supported the surface past times ribs rather than a metallic cone, typical of the before Allada trend altars.
After the menstruum of aggressive armed services expansion of his father, Agonglo consolidated the dominion of the dynasty, his few armed services battles, however, were successful. His symbol is the pineapple.
Agonglo is notable inwards existence the initiative of all of the Dahomean kings to espouse a European woman. One of his wives was Sophie, a Dutch adult woman of mixed ancestry. Agonglo was succeeded past times his eldest son, Adandozan.
Adandozan, 1797-1818
Technically the 9th King of Dahomey, Adandozan is non counted every bit ane of the 12 kings. His call has largely been erased from the history of Abomey in addition to to this twenty-four hr menstruum is to a greater extent than frequently than non not spoken out loud inwards the city. He became Rex when, inwards 1797, the previous Rex died, leaving the throne to his eldest son.
Adandozan’s symbols were a baboon with a swollen stomach, total mouth, in addition to ear of corn inwards manus (an unflattering reference to his enemy, the King of Oyo), in addition to a large parasol (‘the Rex overshadows his enemies’). These symbols are non included inwards Abomey appliques, for the same reasons that Adandozan is non included inwards Abomey’s history.
The traditional stories of Adandozan’s dominion portray him every bit extremely cruel: he is said to receive got raised hyenas to which he would throw alive subjects for amusement. He has been portrayed every bit hopelessly mad, struggling foolishly with the European powers.
The commonly told even is that he refused to pay Francisco Felix da Souza, a Brazilian merchant in addition to trader who had go a major middle-man inwards the Ouidah slave market. Instead, he imprisoned in addition to tortured de Souza, in addition to and so attempted to receive got his ain ministers sell the slaves directly. According to legend, de Souza escaped with the aid of Gakpe, Adandozan’s brother, who returned from exile for that purpose. In return, de Souza helped Gakpe marshall a armed services strength in addition to convey the throne with the assistance of the terrified council of ministers. Gakpe in addition to so position Adandozan inwards prison.
This traditional portrayal may live wrong: similar Richard II of England inwards the Wars of the Roses, Adandozan may receive got been the object of a propagandistic rewriting of history after he lost the throne, turned into a monster past times his successor every bit a way of excusing the coup d’état in addition to legitimizing the novel regime. All stories handgrip that Adandozan tried to strength to a greater extent than favorable price of merchandise with the Europeans involved inwards the export of slaves, in addition to seriously undermined the ability of the extended purplish solid unit of measurement in addition to Vodun cult practitioners at courtroom through administrative reforms.
It may live that these policies themselves provoked Adandozan’s powerful opponents to back upward a coup against him. In monastic tell to justify the coup, Gakpe may in addition to so receive got been obliged to receive got oral historians tell of the monstrous in addition to mad Adandozan.
Ghezo (Gakpe) 1818-1856
Ghezo was the 9th King of Dahomey in addition to is considered ane of the greatest of the 12 historical kings. He ruled from 1818 to 1858. His call before ascending to the throne was Gakpe.
Ghezo’s symbols are 2 birds on a tree, a buffalo, in addition to a clay scandalize sieve with holes inwards it held past times 2 hands, a symbol of unity. Ghezo is said to receive got used the sieve every bit a metaphor for the sort of unity needed for the province to defeat its enemies in addition to overcome its problems; it takes everyone’s manus to block the sieve’s holes in addition to handgrip water. The pierced clay scandalize upheld past times multiple hands has go a national symbol inwards Benin, a large portrayal of it is the backdrop of the speaker’s podium inwards Benin’s National Assembly.
Ghezo ascended to the throne after he overthrew his brother, Adandozan, inwards a coup d’état. The traditional stories province that Adandozan was a cruel ruler, but it is possible these stories may receive got been invented past times Ghezo’s historians to justify the coup.
Throughout his reign, Ghezo waged a armed services displace every yr during the dry out season. His prisoners-of-war were sold into slavery, hence fattening the purplish treasury, increasing the annual budget, in addition to making state of war a really efficient way of raising revenue. Due to the increased strength of his regular army in addition to capital, Ghezo position an terminate to the Oyo tribute paying. He formalized his army, gave his 4,000 Dahomey Amazon woman mortal warriors uniforms, required soldiers to drill with guns in addition to sabres regularly, in addition to was able to repulse Oyo’s onslaught when it came.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo onward, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic, with Ghezo placing bang-up importance on the army, its budget in addition to its structures. An intrinsic component division of the regular army of Dahomey, which increased inwards importance every bit the province became to a greater extent than militaristic, was the elite fighting strength known every bit the Amazons.
Ghezo was also seen every bit an extremely sharp administrator. Because of his slave revenues, he could afford to lower taxes, hence stimulating the agricultural in addition to mercantile economy: agriculture expanded, every bit did merchandise inwards a multifariousness of goods with France. He instituted novel judicial procedures, in addition to was considered to live a exactly gauge of his subjects. He was much loved, in addition to his abrupt expiry inwards a battle against the Yoruba was considered a tragedy.
However loved past times his ain people, Ghezo’s legacy includes his making a major contribution to the slave trade. He said inwards the 1840s that he would do anything the British wanted him to do apart from giving upward slave trade: “The slave merchandise is the ruling regulation of my people. It is the source in addition to the glory of their wealth…the woman parent lulls the kid to slumber with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…”
Ghezo was succeeded past times Glele.
Glele, 1856-1889
Badohou, who took the throne call Glele, is considered (if Adandozan is non counted) to live the 10th King of Dahomey. He succeeded his father, Ghezo, in addition to ruled from 1858 to 1889.
King Glele of Dahomey (1858-1889) left, in addition to Ghezo (right)
Glele continued his father’s successful state of war campaigns, inwards component division to avenge his father’s death, inwards component division to capture slaves. Glele also signed treaties with the French, who had previously acquired a concession inwards Porto-Novo from its king. The French were successful inwards negotiating with Glele in addition to receiving a grant for a customs in addition to commerce concession inwards Cotonou during his reign. Glele resisted English linguistic communication diplomatic overtures, however, distrusting their manners in addition to noting that they were much to a greater extent than activist inwards their opposition to the slave trade: though French Republic itself had outlawed slavery at the terminate of the 1700s, it allowed the merchandise to proceed elsewhere; Great Britain outlawed slavery inwards the United Kingdom of Great Britain in addition to Northern Ireland in addition to inwards its overseas possessions inwards 1833, in addition to had its navy brand raids against slavers along the West African coast get-go inwards 1840.
Glele, despite the formal terminate of the slave merchandise in addition to its interdiction past times the Europeans in addition to New World powers, continued slavery every bit a domestic institution: his fields were primarily cared for past times slaves, in addition to slaves became a major source of ‘messengers to the ancestors’, inwards other words, sacrificial victims inwards ceremonies.
Near the terminate of Glele’s reign, relations with French Republic deteriorated due to Cotonou’s growing commercial influence in addition to differences of interpretation betwixt Dahomey in addition to French Republic regarding the extent in addition to price of the Cotonou concession grant. Glele, already on his expiry bed, had his boy Prince Kondo convey accuse of negotiations with the French.
Glele’s symbols are the king of beasts in addition to the ritual knife of the adepts of Gu; of fire, iron, war, in addition to cutting edges.
Glele died on Dec 29, 1889, to live succeeded past times Kondo, who took the call Behanzin.
Behanzin, 1889-1894
Behanzin, though the twelfth, is considered the eleventh (if Adandozan is non counted) King of Dahomey. Upon taking the throne, he changed his call from Kondo to Behanzin, every bit it was traditional for Dahomey kings to assume a throne name. He succeeded his father, Glele, in addition to ruled from 1889 to 1894. Behanzin was Abomey’s lastly independent ruler established through traditional ability structures, in addition to was considered to live a bang-up ruler.
Behanzin was seen past times his people every bit intelligent in addition to courageous. He saw that the Europeans were gradually encroaching on his kingdom, in addition to every bit a resultant attempted a unusual policy of isolating the Europeans in addition to rebuffing them. Just before Glele’s death, Behanzin declined to run into French envoy Jean Bayol, claiming conflicts inwards his schedule due to ritual in addition to ceremonial obligations. As a result, Bayol returned to Cotonou to gear upward to go to state of war against Behanzin, named Rex upon Glele’s death. Seeing the preparations, the Dahomeans attacked Bayol’s forces exterior Cotonou inwards 1890; the French regular army stood fast due to superior weaponry in addition to a strategically advantageous position. Eventually Behanzin’s forces were forced to withdraw. Behanzin returned to Abomey, in addition to Bayol to French Republic for a time.
Peace lasted 2 years, during which fourth dimension the French continued to occupy Cotonou. Both sides continued to purchase arms inwards training for some other battle. In 1892, the soldiers of Abomey attacked villages nigh Grand Popo in addition to Porto-Novo inwards an sweat to reassert the older boundaries of Dahomey. This was seen every bit an deed of state of war past times the French, who claimed interests inwards both areas. Bayol, past times at nowadays named Colonial Governor past times the French, declared state of war on Behanzin. The French justified the activity past times characterizing the Dahomeans every bit savages inwards demand of civilizing. Evidence of this savagery, they stated, was the practise of human sacrifice during the annual customs celebrations in addition to at the fourth dimension of a king’s death, in addition to the continued practise of slavery.
The French were victorious inwards attaining the give upward of Behanzin inwards 1894, though they did non procur his signature of national give upward or treaty. He lived out the residue of his life inwards exile inwards Martinique in addition to Algeria. After his death, his remains were returned to Abomey.
His symbols are the shark, the egg, in addition to a captive hanging from a flagpole (a reference to a boastful in addition to rebellious Nago practitioner of harmful magic from Ketou whom the Rex hanged from a flagpole every bit penalisation for his pride). But, his most famous symbol is the smoking pipe.
Behanzin was succeeded past times Agoli-agbo, his distant relative in addition to one-time Army Chief of Staff, the only potential ruler which the French were willing to instate.
Agoli-agbo
Agoli-agbo is considered to receive got been the twelfth, in addition to last, King of Dahomey. He took the throne after the previous king, Behanzin, went into exile after a failed state of war with France. He was inwards ability from 1894 to 1900.
The exile of Behanzin did non legalize the French colonization. The French full general Alfred Dodds offered the throne to every ane of the immediate purplish family, inwards homecoming for a signature on a treaty establishing a French protectorate over the Kingdom; all refused. Finally, Behanzin’s Army Chief of Staff (and distant relative), Prince Agoli-agbo was appointed to the throne, every bit a ‘traditional chief’ rather than caput of province of a sovereign nation, past times the French when he agreed to sign the musical instrument of surrender. He ‘reigned’ for only vi years, assisted past times a French Viceroy. The French prepared for direct administration, which they achieved on Feb 12, 1900. Agoli-agbo went into exile inwards Gabon, in addition to the Save River. He returned to alive inwards Abomey every bit a private citizen inwards 1918.
Agoli-agbo’s symbols are a leg kicking a rock, an archer’s bow (a symbol of the homecoming to traditional weapons nether the novel rules established past times the colonial administrators), in addition to a broom.
Agbo. AGBOLI-AGBO DEDJLANI
King of Abomey
Benin
Dedjlani, a old policeman, waited vi years to retire, in addition to and so proceeded with his clandestine coronation ceremonies.“Officially”, at that spot is no longer a Rex inwards Benin. But on september 30, 1989, Dedjlani position on his purplish shoes, in addition to at the historic menstruum of 50 4 became King of Abomey.
Being monogamous, he was obliged to espouse 2 to a greater extent than wives to convey tending of his purplish household. When he goes out, tradition requires that he live sheltered nether an umbrella with his emblem. One of wives must ever live side past times side to him, carrying the purplish spitting bowl. The King also has to wearable his scepter inwards permanence. Holding it inwards his manus or hanging on his shoulder, to a greater extent than than a symbol, the scepter is the King. The silvery dust protector worn on the nose, dates from the nineteenth century, in addition to was inherited from the King Gbehanzin. It protected the King’s olfactory organ from the dust, during the purplish processions inwards Abomey.
Dahomey Amazons
The Dahomey Amazons were a Fon all-female armed services regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey. They were so named past times Western observers in addition to historians due to their similarity to the legendary Amazons described past times the Ancient Greeks.
King Houegbadja, the tertiary king, is said to receive got originally began the grouping which would go the Amazons every bit a corps of purplish bodyguards after edifice a novel palace at Abomey. Houegbadja’s boy King Agadja developed these bodyguards into a militia in addition to successfully used them inwards Dahomey’s defeat of the neighboring kingdom of Savi inwards 1727. European merchants recorded their presence, every bit good every bit similar woman mortal warriors alongside the Ashanti. For the side past times side hundred years or so, they gained a reputation every bit fearless warriors. Though they fought rarely, they ordinarily acquitted themselves good inwards battle.
From the fourth dimension of King Ghezo, Dahomey became increasingly militaristic. Ghezo placed bang-up importance on the regular army in addition to increased its budget in addition to formalized its structures. The Amazons were rigorously trained, given uniforms, in addition to equipped with Danish guns obtained via the slave trade. By this fourth dimension the Amazons consisted of betwixt 4,000 in addition to 6,000 women, nigh a tertiary of the entire Dahomey army.
European encroachment into West Africa gained measurement during the latter one-half of the nineteenth century, in addition to inwards 1890 the Dahomey King Behanzin began fighting French forces (mainly made upward of Yoruba, who the Dahomeans had been fighting for centuries). It is said that many of the French soldiers fighting inwards Dahomey hesitated before shooting or bayoneting the Amazons. The resulting delay led to many of the French casualties. Ultimately, bolstered past times the French Foreign Legion, in addition to armed with superior weaponry including machine guns, the French inflicted casualties that were x times worse on the Dahomey side. After several battles, the French prevailed. The Legionnaires afterwards wrote nigh the “incredible courage in addition to audacity” of the Amazons. The lastly surviving Amazon died inwards 1979.
Economy
Subsistence in addition to Commercial Activities. Fon are farmers, fishermen, in addition to marketplace women. Nowadays they occupy all the positions in addition to jobs to live found inwards government, civil service, business, in addition to production. Staple crops are yams, maize, in addition to manioc. (Millet was ane time important.) Beans, peas, peanuts, sorghum, sweetness potatoes, onions, okra, peppers, gourds, papayas, bananas, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, crude oil palms, in addition to some rice in addition to cocoa are also grown. Animals raised include pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, guinea fowl, ducks, in addition to pigeons. Fishing is of primary importance along the coast in addition to inwards the Volta region. Cash crops include palm kernels, peanuts, copra, castor beans, kapok, and, past times far the most important, java in addition to cocoa.
Fon in addition to Ewe marketplace women—both wholesalers in addition to retailers—have a nigh monopoly on the internal economy. Even inwards small-scale villages, many women are traders in addition to retailers, selling anything from homemade fermented corn porridge to Coca Cola, frequently specializing inwards a single item such every bit fresh or home-smoked fish, imported Dutch wax cloth, fresh fruits in addition to vegetables, or merchandise beads.
Industrial Arts. Fon engage inwards pottery making, forest sculpting (mostly for religious use), in addition to basketwork; inwards the past, every hamlet had a blacksmith.
Fon people carrying pots at Abomey,Benin
Trade
Fon receive got traded with Yoruba in addition to Hausa for every bit long every bit they receive got had their acquaint identity. The slave merchandise in addition to the common salt merchandise brought other traders from the northward of acquaint Ewe in addition to Fon regions, including every bit far northward every bit Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in addition to perhaps Republic of Mali in addition to Niger. Portuguese traders reached the coast inwards the fifteenth century, fifty-fifty before the Ewe in addition to Fon had migrated that far. By the seventeenth century, when the Volta share had go dwelling to an Ewe polity in addition to the Kingdom of Dahomey had regular relations with Ouidah, European commercial envoys were no longer a novelty on what was in addition to so called the Slave Coast. The Atlantic commerce inwards slaves was a important aspect of Fon life for 2 centuries.
Market activities are cardinal inwards all Fon regions. Women almost ever receive got something to sell on marketplace days, including foodstuffs they brand themselves. They frequently purchase their husband's or brothers' grab of fish fresh from the ocean or river in addition to convey it straight to diverse markets. Or they fume the fish in addition to convey them to markets further inland. Today European, U.S., in addition to Chinese goods are available fifty-fifty inwards small-scale Fon hamlet markets to a greater extent than than 150 kilometers from the coast, frequently taken at that spot past times local women who purchase the goods inwards coastal cities.
Abomey-Calavi
Division of Labor
. Apart from the special condition of kings inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey who did non perform manual labor, the main partition of labor is along gender lines. Men do heavy agricultural labor such every bit clearing the solid ground in addition to staking yam vines; they fish, hunt, in addition to create houses. Women participate inwards the inwards a higher identify activities also, such every bit preparing the palm-frond walling or fencing necessary to hut building, taking accuse of butchered animals in addition to fish, in addition to carrying out almost all agricultural tasks except the really heaviest.
Dance of warrior women,Abomey.
Women also ship headloads every bit heavy every bit whatever charge men tin carry. Although it is frequently said that only women headload, this is obviously untrue. Women are inwards accuse of most marketplace activities, although they may hire men to aid them. One of the few items ordinarily sold past times men inwards the marketplace is beef, frequently brought past times Hausa or other Muslim traders. Most other kinds of work, including cooking, may live done past times women in addition to men, in addition to fifty-fifty the above-mentioned divisions of labor are non absolute. Women in addition to children may bring together with men inwards pulling inwards the enormous in addition to heavy line-fishing nets from the surf after a catch. Gender-specific cash savings in addition to function collectives abound, enabling members to receive got their ain banking every bit good every bit back upward inwards solid building, clearing land, harvesting, fishing, marketing, in addition to all other labors. Especially notable are the Fon dokpwe , or cooperative, or tontine (French). Both women in addition to men engage inwards kid care, although women are considered to receive got greater responsibleness inwards this regard. Groups of men in addition to groups of women may convey tending of whatever in addition to all hamlet children inwards their vicinity at whatever given time.
Fon woman,Sessimé’s, a Beninese Afropoprock musician
Land Tenure
Anyone from a particular share tin farm on solid ground that is non occupied past times anyone else. Inside a settlement, a mortal wishing to employ solid ground must inquire permission of the hamlet primary or the elders of the lineage owning the land. Formerly, rights receive got extended only to job of land; at that spot was no absolute correct to the solid ground itself. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, solid ground was past times Definition the belongings of the king. In most Ewe regions, solid ground is inherited in addition to administrated past times elders of each patriline; whatever lineage fellow member may create or farm on lineage solid ground every bit long every bit she or he respects the rights of others nearby who are already established on the land. Widows of patriline members or other persons non members of the lineage may rest on the solid ground in addition to farm it, but it cannot go past times definitively into some other lineage.
Only inwards the lastly few generations has solid ground come upward to live alienable from lineage tenure past times existence mortgaged or sold. Land non already belonging to a lineage (of which at that spot is scarcely whatever now) may live acquired personally through simply clearing the land, or buying it non-Fon owners; the possessor may dispose of such solid ground without consulting lineage elders. Both women in addition to men receive got rights to lineage land, frequently at nowadays called "inheritance of land," but, inwards areas where solid ground is scarce, women receive got difficulty claiming such rights.
Kinship
Kin Groups in addition to Descent. Descent is primarily patrilineal. Fon receive got exogamous patrisibs composed of lineages, but inwards the Kingdom of Dahomey the purplish sib had exceptional rules. Princesses married commoners in addition to their children belonged to the purplish sib, every bit did the offspring of purplish princes. Cross-cousin matrimony is preferred alongside most Fon groups, peculiarly with mother's brother's daughter.
Holywood Actor djimon Hounsou is a Fon from Benin
Marriage in addition to Family
Marriage. Most Fon marriages are patrilocal, although neolocal residence has go pop inwards the belatedly twentieth century. Polygyny is the dominion if a human has way to espouse to a greater extent than than ane wife. It is frequently said that an abuse of polygyny leads wives to go out their husbands for other men, frequently younger in addition to every bit yet unmarried, so that women also tend to receive got to a greater extent than than ane married adult man inwards their lifetimes. Fon marriages are of 2 full general types, ane to a greater extent than prestigious than the other. Prestigious matrimony includes payments past times the groom to the bride's begetter or premarital farm labor performed past times a human for his futurity father-in-law. Such bride-wealth or function gives a human command over his children. When this is non performed, the woman parent in addition to her solid unit of measurement receive got all rights over the children; thus, this sort of matrimony is less desirable or prestigious for a husband. Herskovits (1938) outlines xiii dissimilar variations of these 2 major matrimony categories. H5N1 human must never decline a married adult woman offered him, in addition to divorce may live initiated only past times the wife's family. In many Ewe groups, matrimony is less marked past times bride-wealth or bride-service, in addition to fifty-fifty if a human offers only the required drinks in addition to cloths to his bride in addition to her family, he may claim the children every bit members of his ain patriline. In representative of separation, a begetter may maintain his children with him, although inwards many cases wives are allowed to heighten the children. Pregnancy makes a matrimony complete. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, virginity was demanded of brides inwards prestigious marriages. Christian Fon proceed according to the arrangements prescribed inwards their churches.
Domestic Unit. Patrilineal three- or four-generational extended solid unit of measurement compounds, every bit good every bit agnatic extended solid unit of measurement compounds, are common. Another model is a nuclear-family household (often with children from previous marriages) that eventually is joined past times other relatives, such every bit the couple's younger siblings, cousins, nieces, nephews, in addition to foster children.
Fon Kid from Benin
If the married adult man has non vowed monogamy, inwards time, other wives in addition to their children may come upward to expand the chemical compound (each married adult woman with her ain hut or fiddling house). In many cases, other wives in addition to their children shape separate households. Adolescent boys may receive got collective sleeping quarters separate from their mothers in addition to sisters.
Fon kids at Ouidah,benin
Inheritance. Most Fon property, including land, is inherited patrilineally, although some lineage solid ground remains. Cloth wealth in addition to jewelry sometimes go lineage belongings too, along with ancestral stools. Individual property, which may include rights to solid ground in addition to fields, may live inherited patrilineally. In some areas the eldest boy inherits solid ground rights, but livestock in addition to other private belongings go to a man's sister's son. In Lome inheritance is mixed.
Socialization. Virtually everyone, but especially older siblings, takes tending of the children. Grandparents, both woman mortal in addition to male, also pass considerable fourth dimension with children. Fishermen inwards from the ocean frequently sit down some inwards groups during the afternoon, playing boardgames in addition to watching over immature children at the same time.
Angelique Kidjo is a fon
Toddlers are passed from mortal to person, including adolescent boys, who appear to relish taking their turns. Mothers in addition to all woman mortal relatives ship babies on their backs for much of the day; sometimes doting fathers or other virile mortal relatives also wrap babies in addition to toddlers on their backs. Fon adolescents experiment with sexuality early on inwards their teen years, in addition to nowadays pregnancy at a immature age, fifty-fifty if the woman parent is unmarried, is non especially discouraged inwards many communities. Thus virginity is non every bit highly valued every bit it ane time was.
Young Fon worshippers of a mermaid deity gear upward for the Voodoo Festival, inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
Young girls aid their mothers, frequently caring for smaller children or carrying loads to market, boys every bit immature every bit 10 may go to ocean with the men in addition to go over the side of the pirogue to drive a schoolhouse of fish into the nets. Inland, immature boys in addition to girls aid perform agricultural tasks in addition to tending for animals. Children are acquaint at all of import social in addition to religious events in addition to may, at a really early on age, go "spouses" of of import spirits or gods, hence inheriting sizable responsibilities in addition to the special, frequently prestigious, identity, that goes with them. Children every bit immature every bit 10 may go into trance during Vodu (Fon) possession ceremonies. They also relish such events every bit recreation in addition to convey payoff of opportunities for drumming, singing, in addition to dancing performances; teenagers in addition to immature adults may courtroom during in addition to after such religious rituals.
Fon missy braiding her sisters pilus at Ouidah,Benin
Political Organization.
Although the Fon kingdom had a centralized province with a powerful ahosu (King), since its collapse that construction is no longer available. Fon villages had hamlet autonomy before they were consolidated into a kingdom inwards the seventeenth century, in addition to hence each hamlet primary was a "king" (toxosu ) to whom the heads of each chemical compound answered. The Kingdom of Dahomey forced these chiefs to swear loyalty to the ruler or live sacrificed (some were sold into slavery). Sibs inwards Fon villages receive got considerable political influence, but the primary is hardly all-powerful.
His Majesty Agboli Agbo Dedjani, Last King of the Dan-Home Dynasty, Abomey, Republic of Benin (Dahomey), Africa
Social Control. Although during the colonial menstruum chiefs had considerable command (and soundless do every bit far every bit administrative decisions are concerned), potency is widely distributed inwards villages in addition to regions. Whereas Fon are nominally nether the jurisdiction of French-inspired legal systems, the laws of the ancestors in addition to the moral frameworks of Vodu worship tend to receive got exactly every bit much, if non more, potency than official law inwards many communities. Even inwards colonial in addition to precolonial periods, the component division of primary in addition to the ranks of the elders were ordinarily filled with men (and some women) who were linked to religious orders.
Fon women at Ouidah
Individual conduct for many is constantly interpreted in addition to adjusted through the lenses of Afa (or Fa) divination, which includes the "laws of destiny," or the "law-deity who brought me here" (esesidomeda ). Thus, supernatural sanctions are to a greater extent than powerful than province legal systems for numerous Fon. In the Kingdom of Dahomey, kings were tyrannical according to numerous sources; hamlet chiefs, inwards keeping with before practices, were not. Decisions of hamlet chiefs had to live reported to the king, however, so that concluding command was inwards his hands. The king's tribunal of chiefs was expected to gauge harshly so that the Rex himself could demonstrate clemency past times lightening the sentence. During the colonial period, at that spot was bang-up tension betwixt sure as shooting Ewe Vodu orders in addition to colonial administrators who claimed the Vodu "courts" were presuming to convey the identify of official courts. Numerous shrines were hence destroyed past times High German in addition to French authorities. Vodu worshipers frequently did non consider the powers of the colonial governments to live legitimate,
Fon people.
Conflict
Conflict inwards villages is typically brought to a grouping of "judges," including the chief, Vodu priests, in addition to both virile mortal in addition to woman mortal elders. The entire hamlet has the correct to attend, in addition to whoever wishes to speak may do so. Often divorce cases, theft, assault, in addition to instances of injury through witchcraft do non go before official courts of law. Even cases that do go before official courts of law, including murder, may live rejudged past times Vodu priests in addition to communities because the conflict at the source of the law-breaking is non idea to live only personal. All conflict is a reflection of the social trunk inwards its human relationship to the relaxation of the cosmos.
Fon
Religion in addition to Expressive Culture
Religious Beliefs. Various Vodu (Fon) orders are at the foundation of Fon religion. H5N1 High God exists, according to numerous informants. Among Fon, Mawu in addition to Lisa are a couple, twins, or a woman mortal (Mawu) in addition to virile mortal (Lisa) hermaphrodite divinity. Fon may say the world was created past times Nana-Buluku, who gave nascence to Mawu in addition to Lisa. For others, Nana-Buluku, Mawu, in addition to Lisa are all Vodus, in addition to at that spot is no all-powerful separate creator.
Gu or Egu, the warrior in addition to hunter god of iron, is cardinal alongside all Fon groups. There are a issue of other Vodu orders, including Gorovodu, which is pop across Fon populations inwards Benin. Mama Tchamba, a related order, involves the worship of the spirits of slaves from the northward that Ewe ane time owned in addition to married. The selfhood of each private is involved with these major deities in addition to spirit personalities. They are also protectors, healers, judges, in addition to consummate performers.
Vodoun practitioners at Ouidah voodoo festival inwards Benin
All Vodu orders function manus inwards manus with Afa (or Fa) divination, a complex interpretive framework within which each mortal has a life sign (kpoli ), of which at that spot are a total of 256. Each sign is connected to a laid of plants in addition to animals, stories in addition to songs, dietary taboos, Vodus, in addition to dangers in addition to strengths, all associated with each other, every bit though clan-related. Events, projects, activities, in addition to relationships also receive got their ain Afa signs. Everything inwards the universe is related to Afa texts in addition to themes, every bit though nature itself were divided into exogamous clans.
Some Fon receive got go Christians; given their proximity to the coast, these ethnic groups were alongside the initiative of all to convey Christianity inwards the eighteenth in addition to nineteenth centuries. Certain Christian groups originating inwards West Africa, such every bit Aladura in addition to Celeste, receive got a considerable next on the coast.
Fon christian Celestial believers
Religious Practitioners. Vodu priests are ordinarily men, but postmenopausal women may go priestesses. The bang-up bulk of spirit hosts or "wives" of the Vodus are women. Priests, priestesses, in addition to "wives" of the Yehve deities (Sosi, Avlesi, Dasi, etc.) do non ordinarily practise trance. Afa diviners are almost ever men, although it is said that a adult woman tin go a diviner if she wishes.
vodoun devotees
Ceremonies. Vodu ceremonies are compelling performances for both insiders in addition to outsiders. Worshipers who laid out dancing to the drum music may go into trance. Spirits who possess their "wives" may receive got messages for the community, may convey component division inwards judging sure as shooting cases of conflict, in addition to may heal the sick. Above all, they are dancing gods, in addition to at that spot are aesthetic conventions that receive got long traditions.
Fon people of benin performing their Vodoun rituals
In Vodu orders where possession is non usual, ceremonies are all the to a greater extent than dazzling because of the perfection of their collective execution. Rows of dancers, all clothed inwards ceremonial attire, displace across a ritual infinite every bit ane person, performing specific movements. Drums ever provide a sort of text or context for movement, including narrative associations in addition to instruction. Ceremonies are events during which symbolic associations are reinforced, private in addition to collective identity is stated, sure as shooting aspects of identity in addition to ability are recalled in addition to redistributed, healing in addition to admonishment convey place, and, inwards a higher identify all, collective exhilaration, ecstasy, in addition to awe are produced. Ceremonies are ever gifts to the gods.
A human slaughters a caprine animal at the Temple of Pythons during the annual Voodoo Festival inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Thursday, Jan. 10, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
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Medicine. Today many Fon seek medical assistance inwards modern clinics in addition to hospitals in addition to go to Westerntrained doctors. They may also frequent local healers in addition to Vodu priests who employ plants in addition to carbonized ingredients, every bit good every bit rituals to address affliction in addition to conflicts playing themselves out inwards a person's trunk in addition to soul.
Vodu medicine is non hostile to modern biomedicine. Upon call for Afa, though divination, what to do nigh illness, a sufferer may live told past times Fa to go to a doc inwards town. Vodu medicine is peculiarly effective inwards cases of madness. Ingestion of roots in addition to plants, every bit good every bit "speaking hurting in addition to desire" to the Vodus larn inwards possible for the alienated to mourn losses in addition to go on with life ane time again.
Fon mystic healer/voodoun practitioner in addition to a guide,Jean Zossounjbo, a guide, shows a python at the Temple of Pythons inwards Ouidah, Benin, on Wednesday, Jan. 9, 2013. AP / Jon Gambrell
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