Info For You Lot Oromo People: The Powerful Kushitic Africans Who Were Practicing Authentic Democratic Classify Of Regime (Gadaa System) Earlier The Arrival Of Europeans Inward Africa
The Oromo (Oromo: Oromoo, "The Powerful"; Ge'ez: ኦሮሞ, ’Oromo) people are indigenous in addition to 1 of the largest Cushitic-speaking ethnic grouping inwards Africa, occupying the Eastern in addition to North Eastern Africa. Oromo as 1 of the Cushitic speakers take hold occupied parts of north-eastern in addition to eastern Africa (Horn of Africa) for as long as recorded history.
Beautiful Oromo women celebrating celebrating their Ayyaanna Irreecha inwards Sheffield in addition to Leeds City Regions, England. Source: gadaa.com
They are found in:
• Northern Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (southern Tigray Region)
• Republic of Kenya (mainly northern), fifty-fifty as far due south as Lamu Island and
• Somalia
The Oromo people is the single largest national grouping inwards Ethiopia, accounting for virtually 35 1 chiliad one thousand (40%) of 75 1 chiliad one thousand population. Tilahun (1992), however, posits that "in Ethiopia, Oromo business concern human relationship for 50%-60% of the population of the Ethiopian Empire State (Tilahun, 1992). They are "a real ancient race, the indigenous stock, perhaps, on which most other peoples inwards this constituent of Eastern Africa (the Horn of Africa) had been grafted" (Bates, 1979). The Oromo people primarily reside over a vast part of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia predominately inwards Wallaggaa, Iluabbaabooraa, Jimmaa, Shewa, Arsii, Baalee, Harargee, Walloo, Boranaa, in addition to Southwestern constituent of Gojjam .
Oromo adult woman smiling,Harar area,Ethiopia. By Eric Lafforgue
The Oromo people are the majority, but inwards a minority similar situation. Oromia part is the richest part inwards the Horn of Africa. Livestock products, coffee, stone oil seeds, spices, mineral resources in addition to wild life are all various in addition to abundant. Their political, economical, social in addition to cultural life inwards the Ethiopian empire assert , discrimination in addition to marginalisation due to colonization of their country, Oromia ,by the Abyssinians at the destination of 19th century. Millions decimated inwards the state of war against colonization inwards betwixt 1868-1900 through different means. Their egalitarian democratic establishment of governance the Gada system; their cultural traditions in addition to linguistic communication were banned; their agency of subsistence, the world was confiscated in addition to as a resultant forced to slavery in addition to servitude.
Oromo (Borana) man
The Oromo are also known past times some other name, Galla. The people neither telephone phone themselves or similar to live called past times this name. They ever called themselves Oromoo or Oromoota (plural). It is non known for sure when the call Galla was given to them. It has been said that it was given to them past times neighboring peoples, specially Amhara, in addition to various origins of the give-and-take take hold been suggested. Some say it originated from the Oromo give-and-take 'gaiaana' important river inwards Oromiffa. Others signal that it came from an Standard Arabic give-and-take 'qaala laa'. There are other similar suggestions as to the beginning of the word. The Abyssinians attach a derogatory connotation to the Galla, namely 'pagan, savage, uncivilized, uncultured, enemy, slave or inherently inferior". The term seems to live aimed at generating an inferiority complex inwards the Oromo.
Oromo adult woman on the road,Ethiopia. Eric Lafforgue
The Land
The the world of the Oromo is called Biyya-Oromo (Oromo country) or Oromia (Oromiya). Oromia is a call given past times the Oromo Liberation Front to Oromoland, at nowadays constituent of the Ethiopian Empire. Krapf (1860) proposed the term Ormania to designate the nationality or the the world of the Oromo people. This, most probably, originated from his reference to the people as Orma or Oroma. Oromia was 1 of the complimentary nations inwards the Horn of Africa until its colonization in addition to business past times Abyssinia at the destination of the nineteenth century.
It is around located betwixt 2 grade in addition to 12 grade N in addition to betwixt 34 grade in addition to 44 grade E. It is bordered inwards the East past times somali in addition to Afar lands in addition to Djibouti, inwards the West past times the Sudan, inwards the South past times Somalia, Republic of Kenya in addition to others in addition to inwards the North past times Amhara in addition to Tigre the world or Abyssinia proper. The the world expanse is virtually 600 000 foursquare kilometres. Out of the 50 or so African countries it is exceeded inwards size past times only 17 countries. It is larger than France, in addition to if Cuba, Republic of Bulgaria in addition to Britain were position together, they would live around equal to Oromia inwards size.
The physical geography of Oromia is quite varied. It varies from rugged mount ranges inwards the centre in addition to northward to apartment grassland inwards most of the lowlands of the west, eastward in addition to south. Among the many mount ranges are the Karra inwards Arsi (4340 m), Baatu inwards Baaie (4307 m), Enkelo inwards Arsi (4300 m), Mui'ataa inwards Hararge (3392m) in addition to Baddaa Roggee inwards Shawa (3350 m).
Hardworking Oromo adult woman carrying jars on her back, Tulugulu Village,Ethiopia. By Eric Lafforgue
Similarly, at that spot are many rivers in addition to lakes inwards Oromia. Many of the rivers flow westwards into either the Blue Nile or the White Nile, in addition to others flow eastwards to Somalia in addition to Afar land. Among the large rivers are the Abbaya (the Nile), Hawas (Awash), Gannaaiee, Waabee, Dhidheessa, Gibe in addition to Baaroo.
For the peoples of Egypt, the Sudan in addition to Somalia, life would live impossible without these rivers. They carry millions of tons of rich soil to Egypt, the Sudan in addition to Somalia every year. Somalia depends heavily on the Gannaaiee (Juba) in addition to Waabee (Shaballe) rivers which come upward from Oromia. In fact Oromia supplies almost 100 per cent of the fresh H2O for Somalia, Republic of Djibouti in addition to Afars. At nowadays the Ethiopian authorities depends heavily on Hawas (Awash) H2O as a source of electrical powerfulness for its industries in addition to irrigation H2O to grow saccharide cane, cotton wool in addition to fruits. The Wanji in addition to Matahara saccharide estates are goodness examples. There is a swell potential inwards all these rivers for the production of electrical powerfulness in addition to for irrigation. Qoqaa, Fincha, Malkaa Waakkenne, Gibee Tiqqaa dams are examples of where hydro-electric powerfulness is already existence produced or inwards the physical care for of existence harnessed.
Oromo village
Among the Oromo lakes are Abbaya, Hora, Bishofitu, Qoqaa, Langanno in addition to Shaalaa. Many of these lakes possess a swell variety of fish in addition to birds on their islands in addition to shores.
The climate is as varied as the physical geography, although unopen to the equator (to the northward of it), because of the mount ranges, high altitudes in addition to vegetation, the climate is real mild in addition to favourable for habitation. Snow tin can live found on the mountains such as Baatu in addition to Karra. In the medium altitudes (1800-2500 m) the climate is real mild throughout the twelvemonth in addition to 1 of the best. Up to lxxx per cent of the population lives at this height in addition to agriculture flourishes.
Oromo men on horseback
The depression height areas (below 1500 m) inwards west, due south in addition to key constituent are relatively warm in addition to humid with lush tropical vegetation, in addition to although few live at that spot permanently most graze their cattle in addition to tend their beehives there. Although at that spot is piffling agriculture at this height at present, it has swell potential for the future. As the highland areas are already eroded in addition to over populated, people are gradually moving to the lowlands. The depression height areas inwards the eastward in addition to south-east are mostly semi-arid in addition to used past times pastoralists seasonally.
The vegetation of Oromia ranges from savanna grassland in addition to tropical wood to alpine vegetation on the mountaintops. The forests contain a variety of fantabulous in addition to valuable timbers. Oromia is known for its unique native vegetation as good as for being, the centre of multifariousness for many different species. For instance, crops similar coffee, anchote (root crop), okra, etc. are indigenous to this area.
Language
The Oromo land has a single mutual woman parent natural language in addition to basic mutual culture. The Oromo language, afaan Oromoo or Oromiffa, belongs to the eastern Kushitic grouping of languages in addition to is the most extensive of the xl or so Kushitic languages. The Oromo linguistic communication is real closely related to Konso, with to a greater extent than than 50 percent of the words inwards common, closely related to somali in addition to distantly related to Afar in addition to Saho.
Oromo family
Oromiffa is considered 1 of the 5 most widely spoken languages from amid the around 1000 languages of Africa, (Gragg, 1982). Taking into consideration the number of speakers in addition to the geographic expanse it covers, Oromiffa, most in all probability rates 2nd amid the African indigenous languages. It is the 3rd most widely spoken linguistic communication inwards Africa, after Standard Arabic in addition to Hausa. It is the woman parent natural language of virtually 30 1 chiliad one thousand Oromo people living inwards the Ethiopian Empire in addition to neighbouring countries. Perhaps non less than 2 1 chiliad one thousand non-Oromo speak Oromiffa as a 2nd language.
Oromo people
In fact Oromiffa is a glossa franca inwards the whole of Ethiopian Empire except for the northern part. It is a linguistic communication spoken inwards mutual past times several members of many of the nationalities similar Harari, Anuak, Barta, Sidama, Gurage, etc., who are neighbours to Oromo.
Before colonization, the Oromo people had their ain social, political in addition to legal system. Trade in addition to various kinds of skills such as wood in addition to metallic works, weaving, pottery in addition to tannery flourished. Pastoralism in addition to agriculture were good developed. Oromo take hold an extraordinarily rich heritage of proverbs, stories, songs in addition to riddles. They take hold real comprehensive works life in addition to brute names. The various customs pertaining to marriage, paternity, dress, etc. take hold elaborate descriptions. All these activities in addition to experiences take hold enriched Oromiffa.
Much has been written virtually Oromiffa past times foreigners who visited or lived inwards Oromia, specially European missionaries. Several works take hold been written inwards Oromiffa using Roman, Sabean in addition to Standard Arabic scripts. Printed stuff inwards Oromiffa include the Bible, religious in addition to non-religious songs, dictionaries, small stories, proverbs, poems, schoolhouse books, grammar, etc. The Bible itself was translated into Oromiffa inwards Sabean script virtually a century agone past times an Oromo slave called Onesimos Nasib, alias Hiikaa, (Gustave, 1978).
Roman, Standard Arabic in addition to Sabean scripts are all unusual to Oromiffa. None of them correspond good the peculiar features of the sounds (phonology), inwards Oromiffa. The main deficiency of the Standard Arabic script is the job of vowel differentiation. The Sabean script does non differentiate gemination of consonants in addition to glottal stops. Moreover, it has 7 vowels against x for Oromiffa. Hence, the Roman script is relatively best suited for transcription of Ororniffa. An Italian scholar, Cerulli (1922), who attempted to write inwards Oromiffa using both Sabean in addition to Roman, expressed the small comings of the Sabean script as follows: to limited the sounds of Galla linguistic communication with letters of the Ethiopic (Sabean) alphabet, which limited real imperfectly fifty-fifty the sounds of the Ethiopian language, is real close impossible ... reading Galla linguistic communication written inwards Ethiopic alphabet is real similar deciphering a underground writing." As a resultant several Oromo political, cultural groups in addition to linguists take hold strongly advocated the work of the Roman script with the necessary modifications. It has thus been adopted past times the Oromo Liberation Front some years ago.
Oromo people
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of Oromo scholars inwards the past times attempted to regain scripts suited for writing Oromiffa. The piece of work of Sheikh Bakri Saphalo is 1 such attempt. His scripts were different inwards cast but followed the symbol-sounds forming patterns of the Sabean system. Ever. though his scripts had serious shortcomings in addition to could non live considered for writing Oromiffa now, it had gained popularity inwards some parts of eastern Oromia inwards the 1950s, before it was discovered past times the colonial authorities in addition to suppressed.
Oromiffa has been non only completely neglected but ruthlessly suppressed past times the Ethiopian authorities. a determined travail for almost a century to destroy in addition to supplant it with the Amharic linguistic communication has been mostly ineffectual. Thus, the Amharization in addition to the devastation of the Oromo national identity has partially failed.
Oromo people
History
The the world of Cush, Nubia or the ancient Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards middle in addition to lower Nile is the spot of the Cushitic speakers. It was most in all probability from at that spot that they later dispersed in addition to became differentiated into separate linguistic in addition to cultural groups. The various Cushitic nations inhabiting north-east in addition to eastward Africa today are the resultant of this dispersion in addition to differentiation.
Oromo people
The Oromo cast 1 of those groups which spread southwards in addition to and so eastward in addition to due west occupying large constituent of the Horn of Africa. Their physical features, culture, linguistic communication in addition to other evidences unequivocally dot to the fact that they are indigenous to this constituent of Africa. Available information clearly indicates that the Oromo existed as a community of people for thousands of years inwards East Africa (Prouty at al, 1981). Bates (1979) contends, "The Gallas (Oromo) were a real ancient race, the indigenous stock, perhaps, on which most other peoples inwards this constituent of eastern Africa take hold been grafted".
In spite of the fact that at that spot are several indications in addition to evidences that Oromo are indigenous to this constituent of Africa, Abyssinian rulers, courtroom historians in addition to monks combat that Oromo were novel corners to the part in addition to did non belong here. For instance the Abyssinian courtroom historian, Alaqa Taye (1955), alleged that inwards the fourteenth in addition to sixteenth centuries the Oromo migrated from Asia in addition to Madagascar, entered Africa via Mombasa in addition to spread northward in addition to eastwards.
Oromo distance running championKenenisa Bekele.
Others take hold advocated that during the same time period the Oromo crossed the Red Sea via Bab el Mandab in addition to spread westwards. Abyssinian clergies fifty-fifty contended that Oromo emerged from water. On this issue, based on the points made inwards The Oromo's Voice Against Tyranny, Baxter (1985) remarked, ". . . the contention that the firstly Oromo had truly emerged from H2O in addition to therefore, had non evolved to the same storey of humanity as the Amhara (i.e. treating a myth of beginning as a historical fact); or, to a greater extent than seriously, that Oromo were belatedly corners to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to hence, past times implication, intruders in addition to non so entitled to live at that spot as the Amhara."
Oromo people
The history of the arrival of the Oromo people inwards the sixteenth century inwards East Africa from exterior is a fabrication in addition to denial of historical facts. It is a myth created past times Abyssinian courtroom historians in addition to monks, sustained past times their European supporters in addition to which the Ethiopian rulers used to lay claim on Oromo territory in addition to justify their colonization of the Oromo people. Several authorities take hold indicated that the Oromo were inwards fact inwards the North-eastern constituent of the continent fifty-fifty before the arrival of the Habasha. According to Perham (1948): "the emigrant Semites landed inwards a continent of which the North-East appears to take hold been inhabited past times the eastern groups of Hamites, often called Kushites, who also include the Gallas." Paulitschke (1889) indicated that Oromo were inwards East Africa during the Aksumite period. As recorded past times Greenfield (1965), Oromo reject the take in that they were belatedly arrivals, ". . . old men with the Azebu in addition to Rayya Galia dismiss beak of their existence comparative newcomers. . . . . Their ain (Abyssinians) oral history in addition to legends attest to the fact that Oromo take hold been living inwards Rayya for a long time. Beke (cited past times Pankurst, 1985-86) quoted the next Lasta legend: "Meniiek, the boy of Solomon, . . . entered Abyssinia from the East, beyond the the world of the Rayya or Azebo Gallas. There are also evidence (Greenfield et al, 1980) that at to the lowest degree past times the 9th in addition to 10th centuries that at that spot were Oromo communities around Shawa in addition to past times virtually the fourteenth century settlements were reported around Lake Tana. The recent discovery, (Lynch in addition to Robbins, 1978), inwards northern Republic of Kenya of the pillars that Oromo used inwards the innovation of their calendar system, dated around 300 B.C., is some other indication that Oromo take hold a long history of presence as a community of people, inwards this constituent of Africa.
Oromo elders
The so called "Galla invasion of Ethiopia" is also a tale. It was firstly written around 1590 past times a monk called Bahrey in addition to henceforth European historians in addition to others almost invariably accepted this story as a fact. From his writing, it is evident that he was biased against Oromo. The next quotation from Bahrey, (in Beckingham et al, 1954), vividly illustrates typical Abyssinian cultural, religious in addition to racial biases against Oromo. He began his volume "The History of the Galla": "I take hold begun to write the history of the Galla inwards monastic enjoin to brand known the number of their tribes, their readiness to kill people, in addition to the brutality of their manners. If anyone should say of my subject, 'Why has he written a history of a bad people, just as 1 would write a history of goodness people', I would respond past times saying 'Search inwards the books, in addition to y'all volition regain that the history of Mohamed in addition to the Moslem kings has been written, in addition to they are our enemies inwards religion".
Oromo people
In fact it appears that the main purpose of his writing was to encourage Abyssinians against Oromo. Bahrey, Atseme, Harris, Haberiand in addition to others description of what they called the 'Galla invasion of Ethiopia' as an avalanche, a abrupt overwhelming human moving ridge which could live likened to a alluvion or swarms of migratory locust is unrealistic in addition to hard to imagine to say the least.
Bahrey, writing inwards 1593, credited the Oromo achievement to the existence of too many non-fighting classes inwards the ruling Ethiopian hierarchy, as opposed to the Oromos, whom he illustrated as having a homogeneous warrior class.
Oromo Karrayyu man
He also affirmed their spread (as resultant of their inhospitable homeland) into northwestern areas such as:
• Arsi
• Shewa
• Welega
• Gojjam
• Hararghe
• Wollo
The Oromo's Voice Against Tyranny argued that: ". . . the so-called Galla invasion of the sixteenth century was neither an invasion nor a migration. It was rather a national motion of the Oromo people . . . with the specific goal of liberating themselves in addition to their territories from colonial occupation. It was nada to a greater extent than or less than a state of war of national liberation." In fact the finally 2000 years were occupied with a gradual expansion of Abyssinians from northward to south. This expansion had been checked throughout past times Oromo. It was only with the arrival of Europeans in addition to their firearms that Abyssinians succeeded inwards their southward expansion mainly inwards the middle of finally century.
Abyssinian in addition to European historians alleged that at that spot was a abrupt population explosion inwards the Oromo community inwards the sixteenth century that enabled it to invade Ethiopia. The claim lacks a scientific base. During that fourth dimension no significant, if at all any, technological evolution such as discoveries or introductions of medicines, novel in addition to improved tools for nutrient production, etc. took spot inwards the Oromo community that could take hold been the cause for the abrupt population explosion. The Oromo community had no advantages of these sort over neighboring communities.
Different areas take hold been indicated as spot where the Oromo developed or differentiated into its ain unique community of people or ethnic grouping (Braukamper, 1980). According to some ethnologists in addition to historians, the Oromo the world of beginning was the south-eastern constituent of Oromia, inwards the fertile valley of Madda Walaabu inwards the nowadays Baale region. This conclusion was reached mainly on the footing of Oromo oral tradition. Based on scanty anthropological evidence, others take hold also pointed to the coastal expanse of the Horn of Africa, specially the eastern constituent of the somali peninsula, as the most likely spot of Oromo origin. Bruce, an English linguistic communication traveller, indicated that Sennar inwards Sudan was the Oromo the world of beginning in addition to that they expanded from there. It should live noted hither that many European travellers take hold suggested the beginning of peoples, including Oromo, to live where they met some for the firstly time, which inwards most cases happened to live peripheral areas.
During the era of Zemene Mesafint (which lasted until 1855), the Oromo dynasty of chiefs of Yejju were the most of import uninterrupted line of warlords to dominate the figurehead emperors of Ethiopia.
They turn out to live sub-kings of Begemder, Regents of the empire, as good as violet father-in-laws. Ras Ali I of Yejju attained this control inwards 1779, in addition to it continued, although contested past times other warlords, until the 1855 defeat of Ras Ali II of Yejju past times the upstart Kassa Hailu (who became Emperor Tewodros II).
Photograph taken past times 10th Field Company Royal Engineers during the Magdala Campaign of 1867-68. Queen of the "Gallas"and Son
Due to the powerlessness of the Emperor of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia during the Zemene Mesafint, the Yejju Oromo were successfully the rulers of Ethiopia. Other tribes in addition to chiefs of the Oromo people were also famous, such as:
• Lady Menen of Wollo who became Empress inwards 1800s
• Ras Mohammad of Wollo who became Ras Mikael, later Negus of Siyon in addition to manlike individual parent of Emperor Iyasu V
• Menen, of Ambassel, who became Empress Consort of Haile Selassie
In the firstly decades of the 19th century, 3 Oromo monarchies, Enarya, Goma in addition to Guma, rose to prominence. In the full general take in of Oromo people's role inwards Ethiopia, Ras Gobana Dacche is a famous Oromo figure who led the evolution of modern Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to the political in addition to miliatary incorporation of to a greater extent than territories into Ethiopian borders. Gobana nether the control of Menelik II incorporated several Oromo territories into a centralized Ethiopian state. Some contemporary ethno-nationalist Oromo political groups refer to Gobana inwards a negative light. Though, before armed services integration; nowadays twenty-four sixty minutes time period Ethiopia, Eritrea, in addition to parts of Somalia were previously in addition to extensively linked commercially past times local, long-distance in addition to trans-frontier merchandise routes. These commercial routes connected Bonga, Jimma, Seqa, Assandabo, Gojjam, Begemder, Maramma, Massawa, Soddo, Shewa, Harar, Zeila in addition to Berbera. Some Oromo writers believe that the Oromo Gobana Dacche and the Amhara Menelik II were the firstly 2 people inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia with the concept of national boundary that brought various different ethno-linguistic communities nether a politically in addition to militarily centralized rule.
"The 2 most of import historical figures who signify the introduction of the concepts of national boundary in addition to sovereignty inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are Emperor Menelik II in addition to Ras Gobana Dachi, who used guns manufactured inwards Europe to convey a large swath of Biyas (regions/nations) nether a centralized rule."
Ethnically mixed Ethiopians with Oromo background made upward a piffling percent of Ethiopian generals in addition to leaders. The Wollo Oromo (particularly the Raya Oromo in addition to Yejju Oromo) were early on Oromo holders of powerfulness amid the increasingly mixed Ethiopian state. The later north-to-south motion of key powerfulness inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia led to Oromos inwards Shewa holding powerfulness inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with the Shewan Amhara.
"In terms of descent, the grouping that became politically dominant inwards Shewa – in addition to Subsequently inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia – was a mixture of Amhara in addition to Oromo; inwards terms of language, faith in addition to cultural practices, it was Amhara."
Nonetheless, inwards many cases Oromo became constituent of the Ethiopian nobility without losing their identity. Both ethnically mixed Oromos in addition to those with total Oromo descent held high leadership positions inwards Ethiopia. Notably Iyasu V was the designated but uncrowned Emperor of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1913–1916), piece Haile Selassie I was the crowned in addition to to a greater extent than often than non acknowledged Emperor of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. Both these Ethiopian Emperors are ethnically mixed, with Oromo parents in addition to lineages. Haile Selassie's woman parent was paternally of Oromo descent in addition to maternally of Gurage heritage, piece his manlike individual parent was paternally Oromo in addition to maternally Amhara. He consequently would take hold been considered Oromo inwards a patrilineal society, in addition to would take hold been viewed as Gurage inwards a matrilineal one. However, inwards the main, Haile Selassie was regarded as Amhara: his paternal grandmother's royal lineage, through which he was able to ascend to the Imperial throne.
By the 1880s, Sahle Selassie, manlike individual monarch of Shewa (the later Emperor Menelik II) allied with Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia to expand his kingdom to the South in addition to East, expanding into areas that hadn't been held together since the invasion of Ahmed Gragn. Another famous leader of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia with Oromo descent was Ras Makonnen Woldemikael Gudessa, the governor of Harar who served as the top full general inwards the First Italo–Ethiopian War, playing a key role at the Battle of Adwa. He is the manlike individual parent of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I.
In 1973, Oromo discontent with their spot led to the formation of the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), which began political agitation inwards the Oromo areas. Also inwards 1973 at that spot was a catastrophic famine inwards which over 1 quarter of a 1 chiliad one thousand people died from starvation before the authorities recognised the disaster in addition to permitted relief measures. The bulk who died were Oromos from Wollo, Afars in addition to Tigrayans. There were strikes in addition to demonstrations inwards Addis Ababa inwards 1974; in addition to inwards Feb of that year, Haile Selassie’s authorities was replaced past times the Derg, a armed services junta led past times Mengistu Hailemariam; but the Council was still Amhara-dominated, with only 25 non-Amhara members out of 125. In 1975 the authorities declared all rural the world State-owned, in addition to announced the destination of the tenancy system. However, much of the do goodness of this reform was counteracted past times compulsive collectivization, State farms in addition to forced resettlement programmes.
In Dec 2009, a 96-page study titled Human Rights inwards Ethiopia: Through the Eyes of the Oromo Diaspora, compiled past times the Advocates for Human Rights, documented human rights violations against the Oromo inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia nether 3 successive regimes: the Abyssinian Empire nether Haile Selassie, the Marxist Derg in addition to the electrical flow Ethiopian authorities of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), dominated past times members of the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) in addition to which was defendant to take hold arrested around 20,000 suspected OLF members, to take hold driven most OLF leadership into exile, in addition to to take hold effectively neutralized the OLF as a political forcefulness inwards Ethiopia.
According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the Oromia Support Group (OSG) recorded 594 extra-judicial killings of Oromos past times Ethiopian authorities safety forces in addition to 43 disappearances inwards custody betwixt 2005 in addition to August 2008.
There are several groups of people inwards East Africa real closely related to the Oromo. For instance, the Somalis are real similar inwards appearance in addition to culture. The fact that the somali in addition to Oromo languages part betwixt 30 percent in addition to 40 percent of their vocabulary could live an indication that these 2 groups of people became differentiated real recently. Other Cushitic-speaking groups living inwards the same neighborhood who are closely related to the Oromo are Konso, Afar, Sidama, Kambata, Darassa, Agaw, Saho, Baja in addition to other groups.
Oromo take hold several clans (gosa, qomoo). The Oromo are said to live of 2 major groups or moieties descended from the 2 'houses' (wives) of the individual Oromo represented past times Borana in addition to Barentu (Barenttuma). Borana was senior (angafa) in addition to Barentu junior (qutisu). Such a dichotomy is quite mutual inwards Oromo gild in addition to serves some aspects of their political in addition to social life.
The descendants of Borana in addition to Barentu cast the major Oromo clans in addition to sub-clans. They include Borana, Macha, Tuuiiama, Wallo, Garrii, Gurraa, Arsi, Karrayyu, ltu, Ala, Qaiioo, Anniyya, Tummugga or Marawa, Orma, Akkichuu, Liban, Jile, Gofa, Sidamo, Sooddo, Galaan, Gujii in addition to many others. However, inwards reality at that spot is extensive overlap inwards the expanse they occupy in addition to their community groups. And since union amid Oromo occurs only betwixt different clans at that spot was high grade of homogeneity.
The vegetation of Oromia ranges from savanna grassland in addition to tropical wood to alpine vegetation on the mountaintops. The forests contain a variety of fantabulous in addition to valuable timbers. Oromia is known for its unique native vegetation as good as for being, the middle of multifariousness for many different species. For instance, crops similar coffee, anchote (root crop), okra, etc. are indigenous to this area.
The Economy
Potentially, Oromia is 1 of the richest countries inwards Africa. Agriculture is the backbone of its economy. Still employing archaic methods, subsistence agriculture is the agency of livelihood for to a greater extent than than xc per cent of the population. There are a variety of farm animals in addition to crop plants. Farm animals include cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, mules, horses, camels in addition to chicken. The Cushitic speaking communities of this part perchance Nubians, are credited with the domestication of ass in addition to were the firstly to breed mules, (a resultant of a cross betwixt a ass in addition to a mare). The Oromo are proficient inwards brute husbandry through their long tradition as herdsmen. For some, cattle-rearing (pastoralism) is still the main occupation.
Oromo Shepherds next a donkey
Because of Oromia's favorable climate in addition to rich soil, many types of crops are cultivated in addition to unremarkably at that spot is piffling demand for irrigation. Normally 1 in addition to sometimes 2 crops tin can live harvested annually from the same field. Among the major nutrient crops are cereals (wheat, barley, tef, sorghum, corn, millet, etc.), fibre crops (cotton), root crops (potato, sweetness potato, yam, inset, anchote, etc.), pulses (peas, beans, chick-peas, lentils, etc.), stone oil crops (nugi, flax, etc.), fruit trees (orange, mango, avocado, banana, lemon, pineapple, peach, etc.), spices (onion, garlic, coriander, ginger, etc. - coriander in addition to ginger also grow wild) in addition to a variety of vegetables similar okra which is indigenous to Oromia.
Salt collector with his ass carrying salt
Many varieties of these of import crops occur naturally inwards Oromia. These various crop plants are real valuable natural resources. Oromo farmers take hold contributed to world agriculture past times cultivating in addition to developing some of the world's crop plants in addition to inwards this way take hold discovered novel domesticated varieties. The main cash crops are java in addition to chat (a stimulant shrub). Coffee, a major cash earner for many countries, has its beginning inwards the forests of Oromia in addition to neighboring areas. Specifically, Kafa in addition to Limmu are considered centers of beginning for coffee. It is from hither that java spread to other parts of the globe. Coffee was 1 of the export items of the Gibe states. Wallagga in addition to llubbabor regions of Oromia exported java to the Sudan through the inland port of Gambelia on the Baro river in addition to border towns of Kurmuk, Gissan, etc. Hararge, because of its favorable location for communication with the exterior markets through the Red Sea, has been producing 1 of the finest coffees for export. Coffee has remained the master copy export item, representing to a greater extent than than sixty per cent of the unusual earnings of successive Ethiopian colonial regimes.
Oromo adult woman holding java from Oromo Coffee Company
The the world is also rich inwards wild animals in addition to plants. Many different species are found inwards the waters in addition to forests of Oromia: different kinds of fish, hippopotami, in addition to crocodiles. Land animals include lion, leopard, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, wild ass, zebra, columbus monkey in addition to elephant. There are a number of wild animals that are found solely inwards Oromia, such as nyaaia, bush-buck (special type), play tricks (from Baale), etc.
Various types of birds, many of them unique, are found around lakes in addition to elsewhere. These creatures are a source of attraction for tourists in addition to natural scientists alike.
The forests of Oromia are a source of fantabulous timber. Although the major portion of the forests has been destroyed since its occupation, some still remain inwards the due south in addition to west. However, this is threatened past times mismanagement, specially through the fast the expanding province farms in addition to resettlement programs. At the fourth dimension of colonization a large constituent of Oromia was covered with forest. This has been reduced to the nowadays 5-7 per cent. In add-on to timber trees, medicinal plants in addition to trees producing different kinds of gums, grow inwards abundance. Myrrh, frankincense in addition to paste Standard Arabic are gathered from the wild trees. Forests, also existence a source of timber, medicine in addition to gum, are useful inwards the conservation of H2O in addition to soil, in addition to as shelter for wildlife. They also take hold an of import aesthetic value.
Oromia has of import mineral deposits. The gilt mines at Adola in addition to Laga Dambi inwards the Sidamo in addition to around Nejjo, Asosa in addition to Birbir river valley inwards Wallagga regions which were the major sources of revenue for Meniiek in addition to Haile Selassie are existence exploited using modern machinery. Other of import minerals found inwards Oromia are platinum, sulphur, iron-ore, silverish in addition to salt.
The Oromo of Harerghe.
As early on as 1900 Meniiek granted concessions to a Swiss fellowship to mine gold, silverish in addition to other minerals inwards Nejjo, Wallagga region. Later the Germans took over. English, Russian in addition to Italian companies extracted gilt in addition to platinum at Yubdo in addition to neighboring areas inwards the same region. After some sixty years, the Soviet Union is continuing this business concern today inwards the same areas. It is known that large deposits of natural gas in addition to stone oil be inwards Baafe in addition to Hararge regions. The Ethiopian authorities announced as 1986 the regain of a novel deposit of natural gas inwards Baale.
Oromo Equus caballus men
The hundreds of hot springs scattered over Oromia are also of economical importance. Thousands of people, including foreigners, see these springs for their medicinal in addition to recreational value. They are a swell potential source of thermal energy. Rivers, streams in addition to springs are plentiful. The rivers take hold many fails that could live used to generate electrical powerfulness with piffling effort. The extent of this electrical powerfulness could easily satisfy the powerfulness needs of Oromia in addition to several neighboring countries.
Oromo (Borana tribe) women
Culture
Oromo take hold a real rich culture, fostered past times the size of the population in addition to large the world areas with various climatic conditions. One highly developed self-sufficient scheme which has influenced every aspect of Oromo life is the Gadaa system. It is a scheme that organizes the Oromo gild into groups or sets (about 7-11 ) that assume different responsibilities inwards the gild every viii years. It has guided the religious, social, political in addition to economical life of Oromo for many years, in addition to also their philosophy, art, history in addition to method of time-keeping.
Oromo (Karrayyu tribe) man,Ethiopia.
The activities in addition to life of each in addition to every fellow member of the gild are guided past times Gadaa. It is the law of the society, a scheme past times which Oromo administer, defend their territory in addition to rights, maintain in addition to guard their economic scheme in addition to through which all their aspirations are fulfilled.
The Gadaa scheme has served as the footing of democratic in addition to egalitarian political system. Under it the powerfulness to administer the affairs of the land in addition to the powerfulness to brand laws belong to the people. Every manlike individual fellow member of the gild who is of historic time period in addition to of Gadaa grade has total rights to elect in addition to to live elected. All the people take hold the right to air their views inwards whatever populace gathering without fear.
There follows a brief description of how the Gadaa scheme works: at that spot are 2 well-defined ways of classifying manlike individual members of the society, that is the hiriyya (members of an age-set all born within the time period of 1 Gadaa dominion of viii years) in addition to Gadaa grade. The Gadaa grades (stages of evolution through which a Gadaa grade passes) differ inwards number (7-1 1) in addition to call inwards different parts of Oromia although the functions are the same. The next are the Gadaa grades:-
1.Dabballee (0-8 years of age)
2.Folle or Gamme Titiqaa (8-16 years of age)
3.Qondaaia or Gamme Gurgudaa (1 6-24 years of age)
4.Kuusa (24-32 years of age)
5.Raaba Doorii (32-40 years of age)
6.Gadaa (40-48 years of age)
7.Yuba I (48-56 years of age)
8.Yuba II (56-64 years of age)
9.Yuba III (64-72 years of age)
10.Gadamojjii (72-80 years of age)
11.Jaarsa (80 in addition to inwards a higher spot years of age)
We volition briefly depict the duties of a Gadaa grade as it passes through the inwards a higher spot grades.
Oromo Woman, Bati, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
The Dabballee are sons of the Gadaa grade who are inwards power, the Luba. They are boys upward to 8 years of age. Thus this is a stage of childhood. Upon reaching their 8th year, they come inwards the Folle grade. At this historic time period they are allowed to go farther away from their villages in addition to to perform lite work.
At 16 years old, they come inwards the Qondaala. They may at nowadays go long distances to hunt in addition to perform heavy work. Three years before the Qondaaia ends, those of the Gadaa grade come upward together in addition to nominate the futurity grouping leaders (hayyu council) who eventually volition constitute its presidium in addition to thereby the executive, judicial in addition to ritual authorities. The terminal election is preceded past times an often lengthy cause of negotiations. After nomination, the candidates tour the part accompanied past times their supporters to win the backing of the people before election, The individuals volition live elected on the footing of wisdom, bravery, wellness in addition to physical fitness.
Oromo Guji boy
In the Kuusa grade, the previously elected leaders are formally installed inwards office, although they do non yet assume total control except inwards their ain group. This is 1 of the most of import events inwards the life of the private in addition to the Gadaa scheme over all.
In the adjacent grade, Raaba Doorii, members are allowed to marry. This in addition to the Kuusa grade constitute a time period of preparation for the supposition of total authority. At the destination of this time period the grade members come inwards Luba or Gadaa, the most of import grade of the whole system, attain total status, in addition to take upward their spot as the ruling Gadaa class. At this stage the scheme comes to a halt momentarily in addition to all men displace to the proceeding grade vacating the finally grade which is the directly occupied past times a novel grade of youth who thus set out their ascent of the system's ladder.
Oromo karrayyu warrior with Oromo flag at Gadaa ceremony
The erstwhile ruling class, the Luba, at nowadays becomes Yuba. The Yubas, after passing through 3 separate eight-year periods, are transferred to the Gadamojjii class. Then they come inwards the terminal grade called Jaarsa in addition to retire completely.
As described briefly above, when the Oromo adult man passes from 1 stage to the next, his duties in addition to way of life inwards gild change. For instance, during the grades of Qondaala, Kuusa in addition to Raaba Doorii, the individuals acquire state of war tactics , Oromo history, politics, ritual, law in addition to direction over a time period of 24 years. When they come inwards the Gadaa grade or Luba at the historic time period of virtually 40 years, they take hold already acquired all the necessary cognition to take hold the responsibleness of administering the the world in addition to the celebration of rituals. It ends with partial retirement of the whole, grouping of elders to an advisory in addition to judiciary capacity.
The next are the Gadaa officials in addition to their duties according to the Tuuilama Gadaa practice:
1. Abbaa Bokku - President
2. Abbaa Bokku - First Vice-President
3. Abbaa Bokku - Second Vice-President
4. Abbaa Chaffe - Chairman of the Assembly (Chaffe)
5. Abbaa Dubbi - Speaker who presents the conclusion of the presidium to the Assembly
6. Abbaa Seera - Memoriser of the laws in addition to the results of the Assembly's deliberations.
7. Abbaa Alanga - Judge who executes the decision
8. Abbaa Duula - In accuse of the army
9. Abbaa Sa'a - In accuse of the economy
Thus, the entire presidium consists of ix members, called "Saigan Yaa'ii Borana" (nine of the Borana assembly). The Abbaa Bokkus are the master copy officials. (Bokku is a wooden or metallic sceptre, a sign of control kept past times the Abbaa Bokku, the president). The Abbaa Bokkus take hold counsellors in addition to assistants called Hayyus who are delegated from the lower assemblies.
Oromo on the move
There are 3 storey of assembly - intercian, clan in addition to local chaffes, chaffe existence the Oromo version of parliament. The chaffe assembly was held inwards the opened upward air inwards a meadow nether the odaa (sycamore) tree. The chaffe made in addition to declared mutual laws in addition to was source of the accumulated legal cognition in addition to customs. In the hierarchy of Gadaa chaffes, the assembly of the entire presidium of the ruling- Gadaa Class is the highest trunk whose conclusion is final. It, is the assembly at which'reipresentatives of the entire population come upward together, at predetermined times, to evaluate amid other things, the piece of work of those inwards power. If those inwards powerfulness take hold failed to accomplish what is expected of them the assembly has the powerfulness to supplant them past times some other grouping elected from amid the same Gadaa grade or Luba. And this was 1 of the methods of checking in addition to balancing political powerfulness inwards the Oromo society. The 2nd highest Gadaa assembly is the clan chaffe. It is from these assemblies that special delegates to the higher assembly are elected. The lowest Gadaa chaffe is the local chaffe. This is made upward of local members of the Luba from amid whom representatives to clan chaffes are elected.
Oromo people
The holders of these responsible posts tin can remain inwards business office for viii years only, inwards normal times, in addition to are in addition to so replaced past times a novel grouping of officers. The powerfulness is handed over at a special ceremony at a special spot in addition to time. The office-holders conduct authorities - political, economic, social, ritual in addition to armed services - affairs of the entire land for this period. During state of war fourth dimension all capable men combat nether the leadership of the grouping inwards office. During the viii twelvemonth time period the officials live together inwards a hamlet (yaa'aa village) in addition to when necessary go together.
There are 5 Gadaas inwards a wheel of 40 years. If a adult man enters business office (becomes Luba) now, his sons volition go Luba 40 years from now. The 5 Gadaa (some times called Buttaa) inwards the wheel take hold names, which vary slightly from part to region. Among some Oromo communities the sets of 5 Gadaa names used past times the sons are different from those of the fathers. Whereas amid other communities the same set of Gadaa names are used for both fathers in addition to sons. For instance the Gadaa practised inwards the Borana community uses the next different sets of names for the 5 Gadaa. (Could live likened to 5 parties who take powerfulness inwards turns).
Oromo adult man carrying spear
Fathers Sons
1. Birmajii Aldada
2. Melba Horota
3. Muudana Bifoole
4. Roobale Sabaqa
5. Duuioo Kiloolee
In this mode a given call repeats itself every lxxx years. This is inwards fact the consummate Gadaa wheel divided into 2 semi-cycles of 40 years each. The firstly 40 years is the Gadaa of the fathers in addition to the 2nd is the Gadaa of the sons.
Although it is non known with whatever grade of certainty where in addition to when the Gadaa scheme started, it is known in addition to documented that the Oromo take hold been practising it for good over 500 years. However, according to oral Oromo historians, the Gadaa scheme has been inwards do for several centuries. "Their (Borana Oromo) noted historian, Arero Rammata, was able to recount, inwards 1969, an oral history roofing 4 chiliad years", (Prouty et al, 1981). Today Gadaa experts easily recall fifty-seven Abbaa Gadaas with of import events. Of course, this highly sophisticated scheme cannot take hold appeared without having been based on something earlier. Therefore farther study in addition to analysis is required to know to a greater extent than virtually its beginning in addition to development.
Social scientists of various backgrounds at different times take hold studied the Gadaa system. Many of them take hold testified that it is uniquely democratic. Among those authorities, Plowden (1868), stated, "among republican systems, Gadaa is superior". Asmarom Legesse (1973) described the Gadaa system: "one of the most astonishing in addition to instructive turns the evolution of human gild has taken". Indeed it is 1 of the most fascinating sociopolitical construction of Africa that fifty-fifty influenced the lives of other peoples. Several neighbouring peoples take hold practised a sort of the Gadaa. Among these are Sidama, Walayita, Konso, Darasa, Nyika, Nabdi, Maasai, etc., (Beckingham et al, 1954).
Like living organism, cultures undergo evolution inwards monastic enjoin to adapt to changing conditions. The Gadaa scheme has thus been undergoing evolutionary changes since its inception so as to serve meliorate a continually developing society. However, the fundamental that occurred inwards the Gadaa system, starting around the destination of the eighteenth century, were brought virtually mainly past times events set inwards motility from exterior the Oromo society. Therefore it was non fully a normal or natural development.
In most communities all of a abrupt in addition to inwards a few cases gradually, the usefulness of the Gadaa scheme declined. Among the factors that had contributed to this decline were firstly, the protracted wars that preceded the onset of colonization. The destination of the eighteenth century was marked past times constant wars in addition to skirmishes, specially inwards the northward in addition to north-eastern Oromia against the encroachment of the Abyssinians. Because of the insecurity imposed past times such wars coupled with the distances involved to go to the Gadaa ceremonies to modify the leadership, the Abbaa Duuias (fathers of war) stayed on their post service for much longer time period than required past times the Gadaa rules. This gave these state of war leaders a mandatory power, because they were forced or encouraged past times the gild in addition to existing circumstances, such as the continuous wars, to hang on to power. This weakened 1 of the outstanding features of the Gadaa system, the built inwards checks in addition to balances mechanism of political power. This inwards turn weakened the ideology past times which the Oromo land was successfully led for several centuries.
In add-on to the protracted wars, the passing of major merchandise routes through the expanse in addition to the subsequent expansion of merchandise gained the state of war leaders to a greater extent than wealth. Thus the wealth, fame in addition to powerfulness they gradually gained enabled them to command a larger number of followers inwards the expanse they were defending. Thus they usurped the political powerfulness that belonged to the Gadaa officials in addition to the people in addition to finally some of them declared themselves "mootii" (kings).
The 2nd of import factor that contributed to this decline was the coming of novel beliefs in addition to religions. The politico-religious aggression that took spot inwards the expansion of 1siam in addition to Christianity take hold affected the civilization of the Oromo people real much. The invasion of Oromo the world past times Muslims inwards the eastward in addition to due south in addition to past times Christians inwards the northward take hold left their score on the Oromo culture.
Thirdly, the changes inwards the mode of living of several Oromo communities was in all probability 1 of the of import factors that led to the decline of Gadaa. As the Oromo gild developed at that spot was a gradual modify inwards the social, economical in addition to political life of the people. For instance, inwards many parts of Oromia a settled agrarian mode of life developed fast in addition to the people practised both mixed agriculture - raised crops in addition to animals - in addition to nomadic pastoralism. The latter was the dominant mode of life before this time, although Oromo take hold practised tillage for a long fourth dimension in addition to take hold made important contribution to agriculture past times domesticating plants in addition to rearing rare varieties of crop plants. The introduction in addition to expansion of merchandise had important contribution also. These in addition to other related factors led to the emergence of a novel social system, which created a important pressure level on the Gadaa scheme in addition to brought virtually a modification or modify inwards the Gadaa practices.
Oromo (Arsi tribe) people
Finally, the onset of colonization had tremendously reduced the political in addition to usefulness of Gadaa scheme as the administrative affairs in addition to direction of the national economic scheme were taken over past times the colonisers except inwards remote regions. Atseme noted, "Menilek outlawed the major chaffe meetings inwards the Oromo areas he conquered". Bartels (1983) also noted, "Gadaa ... was gradually deprived past times Amharas of most of its political in addition to judicial powers in addition to reduced to simply ritual institution". Even the social aspects, that is the ritual in addition to ceremonial aspects, take hold non been left to the people. The observance of Gadaa ceremonies has been prohibited past times proclamation.
The Oromo people also take hold a rich folklore, oral tradition, music in addition to art. For representative it is believed that the Oromo are responsible for the innovation in addition to work of phallic stones (Wainwright, 1949 in addition to Greenfield, 1965). Decorations of stone bowls from Republic of Zimbabwe include pictures of cattle with long "lyre-shaped" horns such as raised past times Oromo. According to these scholars, this in addition to the phallic stones found inwards Republic of Zimbabwe are traced straight to Oromo in addition to linked to their early on settlements at that spot in addition to to the Republic of Zimbabwe civilization. Wainwright (1949) argued that these were founded past times the Oromo. He wrote: "Waqlimi in addition to his people came from Galia the world in addition to its neighbourhood, in addition to were already installed inwards southern Rhodesia before A.D. 900". (Waqiimi is an Oromo name). This appointment coincides with the appointment of the erection of some of the famous buildings at that spot which Wainwright says were built past times "Galia". This appears to live constituent of the spread of Kushitic civilization.
Although much of this civilization in addition to these traditions take hold survived harsh suppression, much has been forgotten in addition to lost, artifacts take hold been destroyed in addition to Oromo are discouraged from developing their civilization in addition to art.
Religion
There are 3 main religions inwards Oromia: traditional Oromo religion, Islam in addition to Christianity. Before the introduction of Christianity in addition to Islam, the Oromo people practised their ain religion. They believed inwards 1 Waaqayoo which approximates to the English linguistic communication give-and-take God. They never worshipped faux gods or carved statues as substitutes. M. de Aimeida (1628-46) had the next to say: "the Gallas (Oromo) are neither Christians, moors nor heathens, for they take hold no idols to worship." The Oromo Waaqa is 1 in addition to the same for all. He is the creator of everything, source of all life, omnipresent, infinite, incomprehensible, he tin can do in addition to undo anything, he is pure, intolerant of injustice, crime, sin in addition to all falsehood. Waaqayoo is often called Waaqa for short.
Oromo woman, Ethiopia
There are many saint-like divinities called ayyaana, each seen as manifestation of the 1 Waaqa or of the same divine reality. An effective human relationship is often maintained betwixt ayyaana in addition to Oromo past times Qaaifu (male) and/or Qaafitti (female). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Qaaiiu is similar a Bishop inwards the Christian world in addition to an lmam inwards the Muslim world. He is a religious in addition to ritual proficient who has a special human relationship with 1 of the ayyaana, which possesses him at regular intervals.
Although the business office of Qaaiiu is hereditary, inwards regulation it is opened upward to anyone who tin can supply sufficient proof of the special direct personal contact with an ayyaaria. In the Oromo gild a Qaaiiu is regarded as the most senior individual inwards his lineage in addition to clan in addition to the most respected inwards the society. He is considered pure in addition to clean. He must observe traditional taboos (safuu) in addition to ritual observances inwards all situations in addition to inwards all his dealings in addition to must follow the truth in addition to avoid sin.
The Qaaliu establishment is 1 of the most of import inwards the Oromo civilization in addition to gild in addition to is believed to take hold existed since mythical times. It is a real of import preserver in addition to protector of Oromo culture, to a greater extent than or less inwards the same way the Abyssinian Orthodox Church is the preserver of Abyssinian culture.
The Qaaiiu establishment has political importance, fifty-fifty though the Qaaiiu himself does non possess political powerfulness as such in addition to faith is distinctly separated from politics. The Qaailu hamlet is the spiritual centre, where political debates are organized for the candidates for the Gadaa offices. Thus he plays both a spiritual in addition to political role inwards the Gadaa system. For instance, during the 5th twelvemonth of the Gadaa period, the Gadaa grade inwards powerfulness honours the Qaaliu past times taking gifts in addition to making their pledges of reverence. This is the Muuda or annointment ceremony. As the caput of the council of electors, the Qaaliu organizes in addition to oversees the election of Gadaa leaders.
The Qaallu establishment was 1 time a repository of of import ceremonial articles (collective symbols) inwards the Buttaa (Gadaa) ceremony, such as the bokku (sceptre), the national flag, etc. The national flag is made inwards the colours of the Qaallu turban (surri ruufa). The national flag had 3 colours - dark at the top, reddish inwards the centre in addition to white at the bottom. In the Gadaa, the 3 colours, black, reddish in addition to white, represented those yet to come inwards active life, those inwards active life (Luba) in addition to those who had passed through active live, respectively. The work of these symbols is prohibited past times the colonial government.
The Oromo Qaallu must non live confused with the Amhara Qaailicha, who has a real different, much lower, social status. He is a vagabond who resorts to conjuring in addition to dark magic for his ain benefit, (Knutsson, 1967). He is notorious for extracting remuneration past times threats or other means. On the other hand, it is beneath the dignity of an Oromo Qaallu to enquire his ritual clients for gifts or payment. The Abyssinian ruling grade has confused the terms, thus disparaging the Qaallu socially in addition to religiously past times using the term depreciatingly.
The spot of worship of Qaaliu ritual house is called the Galma. Each ayyaana has its ain Galma in addition to its ain special ceremonies. The Galma is usually located on a loma top, loma side or inwards a grove of large trees. Many of these sites are at nowadays taken upward past times Abyssinian Orthodox Church buildings or Mosques. Places of worship also include nether trees, beside large bodies of water, past times the side of large mountains, hills, stones, etc. This has been misrepresented past times outsiders claiming that the Oromo worship trees, rivers, etc.
The believers see the Galma for worship 1 time or twice a week, usually on Th in addition to Sat nights. At this fourth dimension the followers dance, sing in addition to trounce drums to perform a ritual called dalaga inwards monastic enjoin to make a province of ecstasy, which often culminates inwards possession. It is at the tiptop of this that the possessing ayyaana speaks through the Qaallu's oral fissure in addition to tin can respond prayers in addition to predict the future.
Religious Oromo often made Muuda-piigrimages to some of the swell Qaaiius in addition to religious centres such as Arsi's Abbaa Muuda (father of anointment). Among the Borana Oromo Muuda pilgrimages are still common. Muuda pilgrimage is real holy in addition to the pilgrims walk to the spot of Abbaa Muuda with a stick inwards 1 manus in addition to carrying myrrh (qumbii). All Oromo through whose hamlet the pilgrims turn over are obliged to give them hospitality. As the Mecca pilgrims are called Haj amid Muslims, these Muuda pilgrims are ca!ied Jiia.
The Qaaiiu establishment was weakened with the advent of colonialism to Oromia, which reduced contacts betwixt various Oromo groups. The pilgrimage was prohibited. It became the policy to discourage in addition to destroy Oromo cultural institutions in addition to values. The Qaaiiu establishment has suffered to a greater extent than during the finally 14 years than it suffered during the previous 100 years. At this stage it faces consummate eradication in addition to Orthodox Church buildings are fast replacing Gaimas.
Oromo women,Harar, Ethiopia
Just before the firstly of the harvest flavor every year, the Oromo take hold a prayer ceremony (thanksgiving festival) called irreessa. It 1 time took spot inwards river meadows where at nowadays the Abyssinian Orthodox Church takes its holy Tabot (tablets) for special yearly festivals, the 'timqat'. The lrreessa has go illegal in addition to anybody who attempts to practise it is at nowadays likely to live imprisoned.
The Oromo believe that after expiry individuals be inwards the cast of a spirit called the 'ekeraa'. They do non believe inwards suffering after expiry as inwards Christianity in addition to Islam. If 1 commits sin he/she is punished piece still alive. The ekeraa is believed to rest close the spot where the individual 1 time lived. One is obliged to pray to in addition to to give offering past times slaughtering an brute every so often to ones parents' ekeraa. The offerings take spot close the house unit of measurement or clan cemetery, which is usually inwards a village.
Oromo people take hold been inwards constant contact with other religions similar Islam in addition to Christianity for almost the finally 1000 years. For instance, the Islamic faith was reported to take hold been inwards eastern Shawa virtually 900 A.D. in addition to Christianity fifty-fifty before that. However, inwards favour in addition to defence of their ain traditional religion, the Oromo take hold resisted these religions for quite a long time.
However, today the bulk of the Oromo people are followers of Islam in addition to Christianity, piece the remaining few are still followers of the original Oromo religion. It is said that the Islamic faith spread inwards Oromia as a reaction to the Ethiopian colonization. The Oromo accepted Islam in addition to non-Orthodox Christianity en-masse because they identified Abyssinian Orthodox Christianity with the oppressor in addition to also to assert their identity visaa-vis Abyssinians. The Amhara spy monk, Atseme wrote: "The Galia became Muslim for his hatred of Amhara priests." Bereket (1980) also noted, "... Oromos inwards Arsi province accepted Islam inwards large number as a demonstration of anti-Amhara persuasion in addition to a rejection of all values associated with violet conquerors." Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 somewhat similar province of affairs inwards the due west was the credence of Islam past times many Afro-Americans inwards 1950s in addition to 1960s, as a reaction to the racial discrimination in addition to oppression they faced from the white community in addition to inwards search of an identity different from that of the oppressor group.
There are many Oromo who are followers of Islam or Christianity in addition to yet still practise the original Oromo religion. Bartels (1983) expressed this reality as follows: 'Whether they (Oromo) became Christians or Muslims, the Oromo's traditional modes of experiencing the divine take hold continued almost unaffected, inwards spite of the fact that several rituals in addition to social institutions inwards which it was expressed, take hold been real diminished or obviously submerged inwards novel ritual cloaks." Many used to visit, until real recently, the Galma in addition to pay due observe to their clan Qaaiiu. This is to a greater extent than truthful inwards regions where Abyssinian Orthodox Christianity prevails.
Oromo Calendar
Time is a real of import concept inwards Gadaa in addition to thus inwards Oromo life. Gadaa itself tin can live narrowly defined as a given set of fourth dimension (period) which groups of individuals perform specific duties inwards a society. Gadaa could also hateful age. The lives of individuals, rituals, ceremonies, political in addition to economical activities are scheduled rather precisely. For this purpose, the Oromo take hold a calendar. The calendar is also used for weather condition forecasting in addition to divination purposes.
The Oromo calendar is based on astronomical observations of the Luna inwards conjunction with 7 or viii particular stars or star groups (Legesse, 1973 in addition to Bassi, 1988) called Urji Dhaha (guiding stars). According to this calendar system, at that spot are around 30 days inwards a calendar month in addition to 12 months inwards a year. The firstly twenty-four sixty minutes time period of a calendar month is the twenty-four sixty minutes time period the novel Luna appears. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 twenty-four sixty minutes time period (24 hours) starts in addition to ends at sunrise.
In the Oromo calendar each twenty-four sixty minutes time period of the calendar month in addition to each calendar month of the twelvemonth has a name. Instead of the expected 29 or 30 names for days of a month, at that spot are only 27 names. These 27 days of the calendar month are permutated through the twelve months, inwards such a way that the firstly of each calendar month moves forrad past times 2 or 3 days. The loss per calendar month is in addition to so the difference betwixt the 27-day calendar month in addition to the 30-day month, (Legesse, 1973). One interesting observation is that, as illustrated inwards the computing of fourth dimension similar inwards the Oromo calendar, Oromos visualization of events is cyclical just as many events inwards nature are cyclical.
Since each twenty-four sixty minutes time period (called ayyaana) of a calendar month has a name, the Oromo traditionally had no work for names of the days of a week. Perhaps it is because of this that today inwards different parts of Oromia different names are inwards work for the days of a week.
Each of the 27 days (ayyaana) of the calendar month take hold special important in addition to connotation to the Oromo time-keeping experts, called ayyaantu. Ayyaantu tin can tell the day, the month, the twelvemonth in addition to the Gadaa time period past times keeping runway of fourth dimension astronomically. They are experts, inwards astronomy in addition to supplement their retention of things past times examining the relative spot of viii stars or star groups, (Bassi, 1988) in addition to the Luna to determine the twenty-four sixty minutes time period (ayyaana) in addition to the month. On the footing of astronomical observations, they brand an adjustment inwards the twenty-four sixty minutes time period call every 2 or 3 months.
The pillars found a few years agone inwards north-western Republic of Kenya past times Lynch in addition to Robbins (1978) has been suggested to stand upward for a site used to develop the Oromo calendar system. According to these researchers, it is the firstly archaeo-astronomical evidence inwards subSaharan Africa. Doyle (1986) has suggested 300 B.C. as the gauge appointment of its invention.
According to Asmarom Legesse (1973), "The Oromo calendar is a swell in addition to unique innovation in addition to has been recorded only inwards a real few cultures inwards history of mankind." The only other known cultures with this type of time-keeping are the Chinese, Mayans in addition to Hindus. Legesse states that the Oromo are unusual inwards that they seem to live the only people with a reasonably accurate calendar which ignore the sun.
Source:http://www.oromia.org/OromiaBriefs/Oromo&Oromia.htm#Greenfield1980
Oromo kids Australia
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES OF OROMO
The Oromos take hold a traditional union ceremony which descended from before times (antiquities). The swell social significance is attached to the nuptials ceremony. The nuptials twenty-four sixty minutes time period is a real of import twenty-four sixty minutes time period inwards the life of both the bride in addition to the groom. It is of import for the bride whose nuptials celebrated 1 time inwards her life. As for the man, he tin can celebrates his nuptials if he marries a 2nd or 3rd wives either because of the expiry of his firstly married adult woman or when ever he wants to take hold to a greater extent than than 1 wife.
However, fifty-fifty for the man, it is the firstly nuptials ceremony which is to a greater extent than of import than the 2nd or the 3rd one. These ceremonies do non take spot as inwards all forms of acquiring married adult woman (marriage).The most typical is Naqataa (betrothal) cast of union where the ceremony starts at the minute when union is firstly thought of in addition to fifty-fifty continues after the union is concluded inwards such representative as Ilillee, Mana Aseennaa, Minje Deebii in addition to Torban Taa’umsa.
Bethortal is a cast union mostly arranged past times the parents of the bride in addition to groom with a swell deal of negotiation. Traditionally the groom's parents search for a bride for their son. Before they brand whatever contact with the bride's parents, the groom's parents enquiry dorsum 7 generations to brand sure that the families are non related past times blood. Once this has been done, the boy's parents hen brand contact with the girl’s parents through a mediator. The mediator goes to the spot of the girl’s parents in addition to asks if their miss volition get hitched with the boy of the other parents. The girls's parents often impose conditions in addition to the mediator volition take the message to the boy's parents, in addition to so adapt a appointment for both parents to take in at a mutually convenient location. When the parents take hold reached an agreement, the adult man in addition to adult woman acquire engaged (betrothed). The parents in addition to so set a nuptials appointment in addition to they take in all the nuptials expenses.
Oromo miss dancing
After the betrothal is conducted, both parents prepare nutrient in addition to potable for the nuptials in addition to invite guests. The families relish the nuptials ceremonies of their children in addition to say that yeroo cidha dhala keenyaa itti arginudha (it the fourth dimension to seethe nuptials of our children). Both families set out to brand nuptials feast including Farsoo1, Daadhii2, Araqee3 in addition to food. These preparations set out a twain of weeks before the appointment of wedding. Fifteen or 20 days before marriage, the immature miss friends of the bride-to-be are invited to come upward to her
house after dark to do singing in addition to dancing. This is called Jaala Bultii (Dancing in addition to singing, which takes, spot around the boy’s in addition to girl’s house inwards the even 2 or 3 weeks prior to the nuptials in addition to terminates on the nuptials date.) The boys in addition to girls of the community gather in addition to sing past times the house of the bride in addition to the bridegroom. The singers on the side of the bridegroom praise him in addition to his relatives piece degrading the bride in addition to her relatives past times their songs. The same is truthful of the singers on the bride’s side.
One calendar month before the nuptials date, the groom requests his companion (hamaamota) in addition to historic time period mates (Hiriyya) to go with him to take his bride. It is also his responsibleness to take the miinjee (miinjota, plural)-the best man. Usually these people come upward with mule. If most of the bride’s friends in addition to best men come upward with their ain mules it is assumed to live an indication of groom’s wealth. The manlike individual parent of the man child also tells 1 of his age-mates to go with his man child as waa’ela abbaa (father’s stand-in). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 calendar week before the nuptials appointment the bride volition start washing her clothes, arranging her pilus in addition to destination her unfinished works similar traditional clothes in addition to other household furniture. Her friends volition non depart from her thereafter. Women inwards the neighborhoods of the bride would assist the woman parent of the bride inwards grinding, roasting grains which are used for making nutrient in addition to local drinks. They also fetch water, collect firewood in addition to carryout some other similar works. The men on their constituent assist past times fetching objects, which are necessary for the feast, past times constructing temporary staying rooms called Daassii for the attendants of the feast in addition to decorating the compound.
The bride in addition to her friends often beak over virtually the divergence which is inevitable. During this fourth dimension they are sorrowful in addition to often sing breath-taking melodies, the bride makes prose inwards poetical vogue in addition to weep in addition to her friends follow after her inwards singing the prose in addition to weeping. In the early on morning time of the nuptials date, the relatives of the bridegroom gather. After a piece bride’s companions gather piece girls close the house of the bridegroom sing in addition to dance. After wards, companions volition live provided with nutrient in addition to drinks. The bridegroom in addition to so volition live dressed with the clothes especially prepared for that appointment in addition to volition live seated a midst of his relatives. The parents of the bridegroom, elders in addition to relatives volition bless the bridegroom. When the bridegroom leaves his houses with his companions, the miss volition accompany him past times beating drums, singing in addition to resounding (Ilillee). If the bridegroom is from the wealthy family, bullets volition live shot as a pride to the family.
The companions volition proceed to the bride’s house singing songs. When they brand it at the house of the bride’s family, a sure physical care for should meet. That is, the bride with her friend volition come upward to the gate of the spot reserved for the companions in addition to beating drums. By doing this, she bars the bridegroom in addition to the companions from entering the house of her family. Such activity is known as Balbal qaba. She volition do this until she gets a sure total of money from the bridegroom as an entrance fee.
Sometimes the bridegroom tries to come inwards the house of the bride’s house unit of measurement without giving a sure total of money to the bride. During this time, a dispute may arise betwixt the bride in addition to her age-mates on the 1 manus in addition to the bridegroom in addition to his companions on the other manus on whether or non the fellowship of the bridegroom should live permit come inwards the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement without paying some amount of money to the bride. Sometimes the disputes may Pb to serious debate in addition to fifty-fifty to exchange of blows. In such occurrences, some individuals from bride’s house unit of measurement essay to cool the nuisance in addition to brand the girls leave of absence the entrance. This is almost carried out past times making the entrance fee negotiable past times both sides.
That agency these individuals advice the miss to cut back the total in addition to the fellowship of the boys to pay a sure sum. After the total fixed is paid the bridegroom in addition to his companions volition sit down on the spot reserved for them inwards the temporary staying rooms (daassii). After they acquire inwards the dassii hosts from the bride’s house unit of measurement supply food, distributes waancaa (A vessel made of horn of animals which is used foe drinking purposes) or drinking spectacles to them in addition to fills it with goodness lineament Farsoo. After the nutrient is eaten, the groom puts gatii caabii (Caabii: earthen dish or plate used for dinning. Gatii caabii - money paid past times the groom after the nutrient is served. The girl’s woman parent takes this money in addition to it is usually betwixt 20 to xxx Ethiopian Birr.) The feast goes on inwards the cast of eating in addition to drinking.
The companions together with girl’s parties sing in addition to dance. Following this, the groom in addition to bride have approving from the girl’s parents. In that approving spot the manlike individual parent in addition to the woman parent of the bride as good as unopen relatives of her willassemble in addition to the bride in addition to the bridegroom volition live seated side past times side inwards front end of the individuals who bless them. The woman parent of the bride volition supply wancaafull of farsoo or milk. The bride in addition to the groom volition take take hold of the drinking glass past times putting their hands together on the drinking glass at the same time. While the bride in addition to groom holding the drinking glass together, the manlike individual parent in addition to woman parent of the bride volition bless them past times saying walitti horaa bulaa, which agency take hold children, wealth in addition to all necessity of life in addition to live together. Graan keessanii fi afaan keessan tokko haata’u, which agency live 1 heed in addition to heart. Then the bride in addition to groom volition take a sip of the potable of blessing. At this minute older men take out all items or materials made ready to live given as a gonfa (gifts) to count, necktie in addition to pack them. These are prepared past times the bride in addition to her parents, in addition to are also contributed by close relatives in addition to the bride’s age-mates. The gifts contributed past times the invited people inwards the cast of money or kinds are called gumaata.
After the competition of the approving process, the elders from the bride’s side demand a miinjee (the firstly best man) to live named in addition to becomes forrad when the proxy for the groom’s manlike individual parent (dura adeemaa) calls his name. Then the best adult man is asked whether he has a sis or non in addition to his willingness to live a blood brother of this miss (miinjee). If he names his sister, he volition take an oath inwards her call to take attention of the bride as his ain sister. He receives an oath to counsel in addition to protect her ways, to assist her whenever she is inwards job in addition to asks him for help. The best adult man says, “If I neglect to assist her, permit my sister’s best adult man care for her similar that”. In the representative that the best adult man has no sister, he swears saying that the same sort of handling should come upward to himself. After that the groom in addition to his companion, through the elderberry representing them then, province at nowadays nosotros ate in addition to drunkard in addition to finished what is required of us. So, nosotros appeal to your volition to permit us go because nosotros on our constituent take hold guests at our home. The groom rises lonely piece the best man helps the bride in addition to leads her out. The bride walks with her best adult man nether the newly bought umbrella in addition to mounts her mule past times the assist of the best man.
Oromo wedding, Ethiopia
The companion take all the stuff given as dowry in addition to mount their ain mules. After this, the bridegroom in addition to his fellowship volition leave of absence for their spot with his bride. On their way to bride’s house if they come upward across a river, the bride halts her mule because she wants the groom to hope her one-half claim over a cow.
The miss does non do this whenever she comes across a river. Rather, this is done only inwards the cases of rivers which she mightiness come upward across close his or her house. In the representative of the 2nd river when she practices the same act, she would live promised the 2nd one-half of moo-cow as the representative may be.
On arrival at the groom’s house, the groom’s sis in addition to her friends singing to defame the bride. The companion nowadays the gonfaa (gifts) in addition to count it inwards frontof relatives in addition to invited guests to demonstrate how much her parents are hard working.The groom’s sis blocks the entrance until he pays her some amount of money. The companion who takes the responsibleness of the bride in addition to so pays some amount of money to the groom’s sisters who do non permit the bride come inwards the house in addition to if they got they leave of absence the door.
The companion in addition to other guests relish themselves with the feast till the morning time piece singing in addition to dancing. That dark the man child deflowers the girl. The best men in addition to the groom’s woman parent go to the miss after she has been deflowered. The bride’s scarf is used to take the blood to proof her virginity. If no proof of virginity is found, the married adult man whips her with alanga (Whip made from hippopotamus), in addition to sometimes sends her dorsum to demand the render of union payment. But such do is at less grade these days. If she is found virgin, the groom in addition to the best men shoot of the gun to declare her purity in addition to the groom’s woman parent in addition to the best men take possession of the stained scarf in addition to emerge triumphant to declare the virtue of the girl. The best men pass 5 days with the couples except for the twenty-four sixty minutes time period they render to her parents’ house for the misiraachoo ( Congratulating the girl’s house unit of measurement on the virginity of their miss in addition to their proper upbringing.) For these 5 days the bride remains inwards the little house behind a mantle with her best men, visited freely only past times the groom in addition to his woman parent throughout a 5 twenty-four sixty minutes time period isolation. During these 5 days the best men do non allow whatever 1 to see the bride without offering some cents.
One twenty-four sixty minutes time period next the nuptials twenty-four sixty minutes time period the best men in addition to other friends congratulate the girl’s house unit of measurement on the virginity of their miss in addition to their proper upbringing. On the arrival the best men in addition to his friends shoot off the gun in addition to nowadays the stained cloth to the private house unit of measurement members past times placing it on each of their caps piece he sounds ilillee (An utterance of victory or joy.) The friend or relative is obliged to offering a gift for the privilege of viewing the bloodstained scarf. The scarf is non necessarily the one, which has a spot of a blood on it. Every private is supposed to give to a greater extent than than 2 coins (0.20 Ethiopian cents). After spending
at that spot enjoying the feasts in addition to congratulators start for their house, straight to the house of the newly weds to rest at that spot till 5th day.
On the 5th day, the bride introduces herself to the groom’s house unit of measurement in addition to makes a formal entry into the large house of the groom’s parents. The entry is called mana aseeennaa. Before the miss leaves the piffling house, the twain in addition to the miinjotaa feed from the marqaa (A breadstuff made from grain flour, usually barley served with butter) in addition to qorii (Barley roasted in addition to serve with special butter) provided past times the groom’s mother.
When she leaves her little hose the groom shaves her qarree, which is some other sign of her novel status, in addition to she also shaves a little portion of her husband’s hair. Following this the twain come inwards the house of the parents followed past times the miinjotaa in addition to at the door her husband’s manlike individual parent hope her cows, in addition to she reciprocates past times providing the manlike individual parent with heavy bullukko (A large garment usually worn past times men. It is local production made from cotton) in addition to the woman parent with kutaa (A cotton wool cloth which is real long worn past times the women from the top to the bottom. It is usually worn on the appointment of festivals) in addition to nuptials in addition to sabbata ( It is a long stair of cloth, which is worn past times Oromos of Gidda expanse circular their waist.)
The miinjee also brings many things for the ceremony such as qorii, nutrient served with chicken dish, in addition to pot total of farsoo. All the house unit of measurement with their relatives relish the feast prepared for the ceremony. From that twenty-four sixty minutes time period on wards the miinjotaa go their homes in addition to the bride lives with her married adult man without feeling of loneliness.
After calendar month or 2 the bride house unit of measurement invite the twain with miinjotaa to render home. This firstly homecoming is known as miinje deebii (returning of the best man). For that twenty-four sixty minutes time period the groom prepare a caprine animal that volition live killed at the house of the bride’s family. His woman parent prepares qorii, araqee in addition to kukkutaa (A nutrient soaked inwards a meat soup), which the bride takes with her when she goes for the miinjee deebii.
Red nuptials horseman,Gondar,Ethiopia
After getting prepared, the twain in addition to the companion go with few friends on fixed date. At the house of the bride’s family, immature girls gather in addition to sing together. On the arrival they are given seats inwards the temporary staying rooms. The bride’s house unit of measurement provides them with nutrient in addition to drink. After eating in addition to drinking, the bride stands upward to exchange greetings with her house unit of measurement in addition to relatives. Following this the best men dances at the middle of the girls dancing out side, declaring the virginity of the miss piece the bride serving the nutrient she has brought. People rarely slumber that night; usually rest all dark eating, drinking in addition to singing. Early inwards the morning, the groom brings into the front end the caprine animal he has brought in addition to the firstly best adult man kills it.
From the killed goat, steer or ram what ever it may be, the right hind limb volition non live consumed at that spot but the newly weds take it to their home. And also the pare belongs to the best men. The couple, the best men in addition to friends who accompanied the twain in addition to relatives of the bride’s house unit of measurement eat meat from the caprine animal prepared past times the bride’s woman parent in addition to women from the surrounding. After this, few friends who accompanied the twain render spot piece the twain in addition to the best men rest for some other 1 or 2 days. Before the twain render to their home, the house unit of measurement of the bride ready a appointment for their miss to come upward dorsum for yet some other see which is called toorban taa’umsa (a rest for a twain of weeks).
On this fixed appointment the bride goes to her house unit of measurement accompanied past times her married adult man who volition turn spot inwards the morning. She carries 1 time to a greater extent than flour in addition to spiced butter to supply to her family. After her rest for a calendar week with her parents the married adult man takes her home.
From this twenty-four sixty minutes time period on, the twain volition take hold the chance to see the bride’s parents when invited for annual festivals in addition to other domestic celebrations. This invitation in addition to frequent see is non 1 sided but reciprocal.
Oromo adult woman performing traditional java ceremony. By Wellington City Libraries
4.OTHER TYPES OF MARRIAGE
Other types of union experienced amid Gidda Oromos were: (1) Sabbat marii (2) Hawwii (3) Butii (4) Aseennaa in addition to (5) Dhaala
4.1SABBAT MARII
Next to naqataa (Betrothal) type of marriage, sabbat marii is the 2nd most often exercised type of union amid this society. Indirectly it is a forceful marriage, which is practiced inwards a hurry. It is asking a miss for union which is done past times breaching appointment arrangements or it is asking a miss for union without prior arrangement. Sabbat marii literally agency rolling or folding a sabbataa in addition to it connotes a province of fact where the specific fourth dimension set for a affair is flexure in addition to the representative is desired to acquire its conclusion right there. Its
conclusion takes 1 of the 2 forms, which are discussed subsequently.
One of the inwards a higher spot 2 forms is that where a twenty-four sixty minutes time period is set for the betrothal past times the families of the man child in addition to the girl, the parents of the man child before the twenty-four sixty minutes time period set for the union volition prepare a feast inwards underground past times breaching the appointment. Then the man child volition live made gather a fellowship of men accompanying him inwards a underground in addition to prepare nuptials twenty-four sixty minutes time period clothes for the miss he would similar to marry. Elders in addition to the fellowship of men volition live sent to the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement to asking the conclusion of union before the appointment previously set for the marriage. These attendants when they approach the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement volition transportation people from around the neighborhoods (of the girl’s family) to asking the girl’s house unit of measurement permit the unconditional conclusion of marriage. The girl’s house unit of measurement volition for certain endure from shocking in addition to anger when they hear to such news. The people living inwards that community gather when they come upward to know that a boy of so in addition to so has come upward to beg a miss of so in addition to so inwards union through sabbat marii. Elder people inwards the vicinity in addition to so plead betwixt the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to the man child together with his fellowship arguing that 1 time union is agreed upward on, the girl’s house unit of measurement should have in addition to hear to the men falling at the door of the house of the bride’s family. At this stage, mostly the girl’s woman parent volition create trouble.
Sometimes the elders in addition to the fellowship volition rest at that spot during the twenty-four sixty minutes time period in addition to fifty-fifty the dark without loosing hope of getting the girl. During this fourth dimension the neighbors volition supply the elders in addition to the fellowship with nutrient in addition to drinks as much as they tin can furnish. The parents of the girl, fifty-fifty if they are griped strongly, volition consent to the conclusion of union if the elders concur to each dot inwards the erstwhile contract without whatever alterations or reservations. If at that spot is no prior understanding on that point, the girl’s house unit of measurement volition usually impose expensive terms of understanding on the boy. This is to avoid the conclusion of union inwards this way. The elders inwards this representative take whatever term of understanding proposed past times the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to volition asking the exchange of less onerous terms for the most onerous ones.Hereafter, the contract of union volition live concluded after the gradual
negotiation on the terms. Finally, the elders give thank y'all the girl’s house unit of measurement for agreeing with them in addition to the miss live made acquire ready. According to the situations, nutrient in addition to potable volition live prepared from the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to the neighbors. Then the man child volition take the miss to his house.
The other cast of sabbat marii type of union is where the house unit of measurement of the miss has no prior cognition of the union intended past times the boy’s family. The physical care for followed inwards this from is inwards most cases differ to the inwards a higher spot mentioned. In the olden days, the man child prepares different things when he is intending to go the house of the girl’s family. Such things are stone, dry out things, invites all sorts of the hand-capped people (dead, beggars mostly who know to bless or dam people). In such cases the girl’s house unit of measurement does non pass upward their miss in
union to the man child propose. So, they give the miss than existence blamed or damned. To lose the miss is preferred than violating traditional beliefs of the society. Nowadays, sabbat marii is going past times having coqorsa (Running grass. It implies that the goodness wishing for the twain to create children), ulumaa’ii (A tree with a dainty odor. This is a wishing that the couples would take hold a dainty aroma betwixt them after they got married) in addition to alangaa (Whip. It implies a wishing that the spouse live together with love as if they were coiled together similar a whip).
In the middle of the night, the man child with 2 or 3 wise old men in addition to a dozen of his friends silently approaches the house of the girl’s parents. On arrival they position ulumaa’ii in addition to alanga on the gets of the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to slumber exterior the surrounding hose until morning. Early inwards the morning, when the girl’s manlike individual parent or woman parent opened upward the door of their house, 1 of the elders from the boy’s side telephone phone them in addition to say that ilmi aagaa dhufeeraa intalli aagaa mana jirtii? which agency “Here is the boy of a good, is at that spot the miss of a goodness inwards the house”? After this, a few of them search elderberry people from the surrounding to assist them plead their case. The miss in addition to her woman parent are non allowed to go out of the house stepping on the alangaa in addition to ulumaa’ii, which was position on the door until negotiation, begin. As inwards the representative of the firstly cast of sabbat marii type of union discussed above, hither also the advocacies essay to convince the girl’s parents so that they may take the request. If understanding tin can live reached on theissues of marriage, the groom gives some amount of money to purchase the miss clothes, shoes, umbrella in addition to uwwisa for the parents.
Following this, girls gather in addition to sing at the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement piece the groom’s political party eat nutrient in addition to potable araqee. Since the girl’s house unit of measurement did non hold back the union of their miss through sabbat marii type, which is concluded inwards a hurry, they do non supply the groom’s parties with farsoo rather they supply them with araqee, which is relatively slow to acquire it from their neighbor.
If it is decided that the union volition live at some fourth dimension inwards the future, both families prepare farsoo in addition to araqee for the wedding. After the groom’s political party feast what ever they take hold been provided with, the physical care for of harkafuudha in addition to the approving ceremony takes spot leading to the girl’s departure. The best men also takes an oath as inwards the representative of naqata type of marriage. If understanding cannot live reached on the number of marriage, search volition live conducted to obtain some other married adult woman for the man child as a commonly held belief inwards theOromo gild affirms that it is non goodness to the boy’s life to take hold no married adult woman after he began seeking the same. Therefore, the search continues until 1 is obtained.
4.2HAWWII
This mode is characterized past times that when a man child remains qerroo (bachelor) for several ground either because he is non handsome or he is from a house unit of measurement of depression social status, the way he gets married is advised past times his parents. The man child has no consent of the house unit of measurement of the girl. Sometimes, the girl’s woman parent is involved inwards arranging union of her miss through hawwii, but she keeps the underground inwards monastic enjoin non to brand it known to her married adult man (the girl’s father). This type of union is mutual amid poor people in addition to because of this the best alternative is underground selection type of marriage. Then the man child tells his manlike individual parent to go on negotiating the union where past times in addition to so the manlike individual parent or whatever representative, or fifty-fifty the man child him self starts finding a friend around her house. It is mostly the girl’s sayyuu (wife of the girl’s brother) that the man child approaches in addition to whom he thinks
that she tin can hold underground in addition to acts on a go-between.
The boy’s manlike individual parent tin can go investigation of her parents to which she belongs. If the criteria of union discussed inwards chapter 2 is non fulfilled, the boy’s manlike individual parent refuses the thought proposed past times his boy in addition to the affair ceases. On the other hand, if the criteria is fulfilled the manlike individual parent stimulates the physical care for in addition to gives the money to
his boy to purchase clothes, shoes in addition to umbrella for the girl. After she has been convinced past times the go between, the appointment of union is fixed. As inwards the representative of formal type of union (naqataa) the man child does non go to the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement to take the miss on the fixed appointment of marriage. But at that spot are places where the man child in addition to miss with their fellowship tin can mostly hold back each other. Such places are either inwards the bush or past times a river. She signs an understanding saying that she was non taken against her volition in addition to she volition live taken to 1 of the boy’s relatives until his parents prepare feast for marriage. In the adjacent twenty-four sixty minutes time period early on inwards the morning time elders are sent from the boy’s house unit of measurement to the girl’s house unit of measurement to brand the reconciliation.
The girl’s house unit of measurement easily convinced past times the elders in addition to they take the union in addition to have a sizeable total of money. Because the girl’s house unit of measurement know that at that spot is no forcefulness application involved inwards union of their miss in addition to at that spot is no hope that they tin can acquire their miss back, they usually soften to take the union. The
payment inwards this type of union is usually betwixt 50 in addition to 100 Ethiopian Birr, which is much less that other types of union except aseennaa. After the boy’s house unit of measurement prepares the feast, the nuptials ceremony takes spot a calendar week after thefirst date. The parents of the girl’s also invite the couple, which is equal to miinjee deebii. Misiraachoo is also completed on the appointment of miinjee deebii.
4.3 BUTII
The Oromo of this expanse telephone phone butii the type of marriage, which is accomplished past times force. This mode of acquiring married adult woman inwards the Gidda Oromo has its ground of taking spot especially on the constituent of the man, when the man child is refused past times girl’s parents, past times the miss herself, if he is asked too much money as a bride wealth and
different sort of gifts which he cannot afford. This type of union takes of the next 2 forms. The firstly is when the miss has consented she is induced to live abducted. The 2nd is cast is accomplished past times compulsion without whatever prior cognition of the abduction (unlike the firstly from) on the constituent of the girl.
The firstly cast of butii type of union conducted where the girl’s house unit of measurement suffers from economical problems. In this case, almost every trunk dares non to enquire the miss of this house unit of measurement for marriage. Here, as years roll the girl’s historic time period volition go over the inwards a higher spot historic time period customarily required for marriage. Consequently, the gild develops a negative mental attitude towards the miss in addition to stigmatizes the miss as haftuu, which agency remaining unmarried. Thus, the girls at this stage desires to escape the curse of her house unit of measurement for marrying without their permission, past times arranging for her subsequent abduction past times the man child whom she is inwards love with. She does this without the cognition of her family. She usually specifies the way of abduction, which the man child should take into action. Such ways are when she collects firewood, fetching drinking H2O in addition to other similar situations. The boy
is often informed of 1 of the inwards a higher spot satiations in addition to abducts the miss accordingly.
The 2nd cast of butii is that where the man child with his friends abducts the miss from where he hides himself. The boy, however, waits for the miss inwards this hiding until she comes to his share. In this situation, if it happens that the miss is non alone, a combat is almost ever likely to occur betwixt the boy’s friends on the 1 manus in addition to the women or men with the miss on the other. In this combat the man child is likely to succeed inwards the fighting as he often goes out prepared for abduction. Thereafter, the man child takes the miss with him in addition to and so places her inwards a
sure house of his relatives or bush so that no 1 from the girl’s house unit of measurement mightiness regain her whereabouts. The same night, where the abduction carried out, the man child deflowers the miss for a miss who has lost her virginity volition non go dorsum to her family.
On the tomorrow of the twenty-four sixty minutes time period of abduction, the boy’s house unit of measurement sends elders to the girl’s house unit of measurement to settle the matter. Settlement is usually difficult. Nevertheless, 1 time the virginity of the miss is consummated, the girl’s house unit of measurement never ever wants to retake their miss in addition to so that they tin can concur to the matter. This existence so, the house unit of measurement of the miss usually enquire high compensation sums for the moral in addition to physical harm sustained past times them as a resultant of the abduction. However, elders mediate betwixt the 2 families to ready a reasonable total agreeable past times both sides. Then, the total fixed past times elders volition live paid in addition to the dispute volition consequently come upward to an end. After-wards, understanding in addition to peace set out to reign in addition to the union for which the man child has carried out the abduction volition live conducted.
ASEENNAA
For a adult woman to remain single into her twenties is incomprehensible, though, she must go beyond her self, called aseennaa, literally agency “entry”. Nowadays, the people who do aseennaa are insignificant inwards number. When a miss is left single or when her manlike individual parent wants to give her to some 1 whom she does non like, she chooses single immature adult man in addition to and so runs a way to his house without the cognition of the adult man mostly inwards the evening.
On the arrival she enters into the main room of the house (diinqa), scatters iddii (solanaceous fruit) in addition to holding qadabukoo (big dough container gourd). The scattered iddii implies that she wishes to a greater extent than wealth to the house unit of measurement she has joined piece that of qadabukoo is an appear of her status as the housewife inwards that family. She does this mostly when the boy’s woman parent in addition to some members of household are non at home. The immature adult man whom the miss wanted to acquire married cannot reject the union whether he likes it or not. The rejection of this type of union results inwards ostracism past times the society. The adjacent twenty-four sixty minutes time period the parents of the miss are informed that the miss has come upward to the house of somebody.
DHAALA
Dhaala literally agency “inheritance”. It is a type of union betwixt a adult woman in addition to the blood brother of a deceased married adult man or levirate. The ground behind this is to save the children of the deceased adult man within the house unit of measurement in addition to relieve them frommistreatment past times the stepfather to whom the widow may marry. According to the
traditional practices of the Oromo society, the adult woman is obliged to rest idly thinking of her husband’s expiry for a time period of at to the lowest degree 1 year.
After her rest for 1 or 2 years without married adult man she is given the deceased husband’s brother, classificatory or total brother. The deceased man’s blood brother pass upward to get hitched with the widow thinking that as if she is his ain blood relative. But he accepts when he is told to do so either past times his house unit of measurement or elders inwards the community. This type of union depends on the number of children born to the twain in addition to on how good the widow is liked past times the parents of the deceased man. If the adult man has married his ain married adult woman before this arrangement, he turn to piece of work inwards the fields betwixt the 2 households, but if he is a bachelor (qeerroo), he volition latter get hitched with a miss because it is culturally credible in addition to socially valued to get hitched with a
immature miss in addition to shave the qarree.
On the other hand, if at that spot were no children born to the deceased adult man in addition to the widow, she volition render to her parents in addition to gets married at that spot unless she is beyond her kid bearing age. Levirate union volition also non live arranged for older widow, but her adult son’s volition back upward her.
Source:http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol15num3/beyene.pdf
TRADITIONAL OROMO RELIGION
AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
2.l The Oromo Concept of "Waaqa" in addition to Human Destiny
There are 3 religions inwards Oromiya: traditional religion, Islam in addition to Christianity. Many Oromo do traditional faith parallel with Islam or Christianity. Oromo religious, belief is based on the take in that at that spot is only 1 Waaqa (God). The Standard Arabic give-and-take Rabbi is also used past times the Muslim Oromo in addition to others to refer to their supreme being. According to the Oromo traditional religion, Waaqa has multiple attributes. Waaqa is He Who is before everything else. Waaqa is Uumaa (a creator of everything inwards the world). Waaqa is
Hunda beekaa (omniscient). Waaqa is hundaa tolaa (omni benevolent). Waaqa is hunda danda'aa (omnipotent). Waaqa is the source in addition to lover of dhugaa (truth). Waaqa is Qulqulluu (pure). Waaqa is intolerant of injustice, crime, sin in addition to all falsehood. The Oromo never worshiped carved statues, trees, rivers, mountains' or animals as substitutes.
But who is the creator of Waaqa? All of my informants concur that Waaqa is non a created being. Waaqa does non take hold an elder. There is nada that has powerfulness over Waaqa. For the Oromo Waaqa is eternal in addition to the terminal cause of all things. The Oromo thus had the concept of the monotheistic supreme God from fourth dimension immemorial although the Oroma 'conception of God is quite distinct from the Western one. The Oromo
conception of Waaqa illustrates that Momoh's generalization is unfounded. "There is extremely generated on business concern human relationship of oUr colonia{ expOsure" (Momoh 1996,62). Momoh contends that Africans take hold gods. He identified 3 gods, such as the ancestors in addition to founders of the clan, the god of the water, mountain, wood or desert in addition to the god of the staple crop or animal. He adds, "there are gods of the elements -wars, trade, hunting, moral gods -vengeance, protection; destiny gods-luck, blessing, misfortune in addition to fate" (Momoh 1996, 63). Momoh farther argues that "[t]here are no known Afri.can people who take hold 1 give-and-take for God. What nosotros take hold are attributes, expressions in addition to 'litanies describing in addition to designating God. This, inwards line with what nosotros take hold been arguing, is absolute proof that the notion of God inwards Africa is a resultant of Christian a.nd Islamic
Influences" (Momoh 1996, 64). The absence of proverbs, said Momoh, is a clear indication of the absence of the concept of God inwards traditional Africa (Momoh 1996, 67). .
However, as has been stated earlier, the Oromo take hold 1 give-and-take for the supreme beingWaaqa. There are various Oromo proverbs6 which praise Waaqa. Examples include:
• Waaqa malee, gaariin hin jiru (BABO 1998, 624) (There is no 1 who is
sort except Waaqa /God).
• Waan Waaqni fide lafti ba'aa hin dadhabu (BABO 1998, 122) (Whatever
Waaqa brings the world does non neglect to carry it).
• Namni yaa Waaqijedhe Waaqarraa hindhabu (BABO 1998,481) (One who
worships God volition acquire everything).
Some writers reported that the Oromo also talked virtually Waaqa diimaa (the reddish Waaqa). Bartels writes, "for the sake of completeness ... people sometimes also speak of 'Waqa dema' - the light-colored Waaqa (or 'the reddish Waaqa') inwards contrast to 'Waqa gurraacha' - the dark-colored Waaqa' (Bartels 1983,107). Daniel also reported that through his interviews he has found out that at that spot are 3 meanings of Waaqa. The concept of Waaqa could live used to refer to the expanse of the sky as seen from the Earth, a supreme being, in addition to also could live understood to hateful the heaven, as the abode of the Supreme Being (Daniel 1984, 105). Daniel states that "[t]he 'black' aspect of Waaqa is usually regarded as the guardian in addition to protector; whereas -- the "red" 1 is considered to live the aspect of Waaqa which is at that spot to punish men inwards representative of wrongdoing" (Daniel 1984, 106). Tippet on the other manus said the following:
"[iJn some places [Waaqa] is conceptualized as 2 gods, resident inwards the sky ... 1 dark in addition to one
reddish ... either the reddish god existence provoked to anger manifests this inwards displays of lightning which the
dark god muffles in addition to turns to thunder, or the 2 gods manifest themselves inwards cloudy in addition to sunny
days. For some informants these are manifestations of the 1 god, for others they are 2 gods.
Where they are regarded as 2 gods the dark 1 is the to a greater extent than friendly to adult man ... in addition to spoken of as
creator in addition to manlike individual parent (Tippet 1970, 153)."
The concept of "the reddish Waaqa" is non-existent inwards their belief. The Ambo Oromo identified Waaqa as gurraacha (the dark Waaqa). They believe that Waaqa is inwards a higher spot the sky, the cloud. In fact, they mentioned that biduu (the rainbow) has 3 colors 1 of which is red. Biduu is believed to live the belt of Waaqa.
Some Western in addition to Ethiopian writers defined Waaqa`s sk.y=God. Accordingto Bartels (1983), the give-and-take Waaqa has a double meaning: sky, i.e., the vault of the sky as nosotros take in it in addition to God. Tilahun inwards his Dromo English linguistic communication Dictionary defined Waaqa as God in addition to sky (1989, 586). Mudee (1995, 330) defines Waaqa as the creator of human beings. Ludolphus (1982) reported that Waaqa for the Oromo agency "the Heaven" which
governs the world. Ceruli (1922) viewed Waaqa both as sky in addition to as God.
The Definition of Waaqa as a sky God does non seem to live plausible. The phrase "sky God" does non stand upward for the early on Oromo concept of Waaqa. The Oromo take hold a mutual myth that inwards olden days Waaqa was visible in addition to living on the Earth. He used to speak with the people in addition to solve their problems. According to the tradition, 1 twenty-four sixty minutes time period a caprine animal stepped on Waaqa when He was sitting on the ground wearing a cotton wool blanket. It was after Waaqa cursed a caprine animal that its tail was lifted up. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 mule is also said to take hold kicked Waaqa in addition to became sterile because of misbehavior. Besides, other people committed sin in addition to annoyed Waaqa. Waaqa in addition to so left the world inwards anger in addition to became invisible. Following this, the Oromo say the dark Waaqa is living inwards a higher spot the bluish sky.
Thus Waaqa is non the visible bluish sky (Informants (hereafter: inf(s): Emanssa; Fufa; Merga Jara). Some informants signal that Waaqa is ever with us although we;don't take in Him (Infs: Duresso; Merga Jara; Nagara Fite). Likewise, the Akans of Ghan'a. say that "if y'all wishing to say something to God, tell it to the wind" (Abraham 1995,52) for God-is with the people. It seems to me that the Definition of Waaqa as a sky God is a recent phenomenon in addition to has go pop through European writers. The Europeans in addition to the Hebrews advanced the notion of a heavenly or celestial God, located at a sure distance inwards the sky. God has been called the heavenly God, the celestial God, or the God of sky (Danquah 1995, 101). In most cases European writers tend to work their ain concepts inwards their anthropological study of African people.
The of import interrogation to the Oromo is : how did the thought occur to Waaqa to create human beings in addition to the world inwards which nosotros live? The Oromo believe that inwards a higher spot all things Waaqa stretched out the Earth, in addition to created all other things. Waaqa created the firstly human existence from the soil past times breathing at it. After the appearance of the firstly human being, the world cried in addition to asked Waaqa the ground why He took its meat in addition to os to create a human being. Waaqa replied that similar the call of the world human beings volition call in addition to render to the world when they die, whereas, His breath volition go to Him. Unlike some ethnic groups inwards Africa, the Oromo do non believe that the soul of departed ancestors retakes bodily cast inwards novel babies inwards their families in addition to clans. Instead, they believe that at the minute of expiry the soul volition live separated from the trunk in addition to goes to Waaqa. In fact, the Oromo prayed to the spirit of the dead.
They prepare a thick local bread, cheese with melted butter, local beer, in addition to dear in addition to celebrate the Ekeraa ritual inwards Dec every year. Waaqa also created devils, vultures, dogs, wild animals in addition to so on. One may wonder why Waaqa created goodness in addition to bad things. According to the informants, illness in addition to misfortune inwards full general is often considered a penalty from Waaqa for sins a individual has committed. It is because of the errors of human beings that Waaqa allowed evil things to be inwards the world. Otherwise- Waaqa is all-good. If Waaqa had non tolerated both goodness in addition to evil things, he would take hold been ungrateful; His omnipotence in addition to omniscience would non take hold been known. The Oromo believe that the coexistence of goodness in addition to bad, beauty in addition to ugly is necessary. In the absence of wise men, the unwise cannot improve their cognition Emanssa; Erko; Fufa; Gamachu; Nagara Fite; Nagassa).
The Oromo believe that humans tin can influence Waaqa's actions. Individuals who live in addition to deed inwards accordance with Waaqa's monastic enjoin volition live happy, in addition to live respected members of their society. On the contrary, when a individual fails to deed inwards accordance with Waaqa's order, Waaqa volition punish himlher. Waaqa tin can brand him/her blind, in addition to tin can cutting hislher hands (Infs: Merga Jara; Ragassa). These supernatural sanctions tin can resultant inwards various types of misfortunes ranging from illness, mishaps, in addition to bad luck for the guilty individual in addition to his/her relatives.
As has been stated earlier, the Oromo do non take hold a dualistic conception of reality. They believe that Waaqa in addition to La/a (Earth) are inseparable. They cofl"1)ider the world as their mother. They underscore that they suck the thorax of the world as the babe sucks,its mother's breast. All things originate from the world in addition to depend on the resources of the world for their survival. The world is the source of nourishment, survival in addition to life (Infs:
Fufa; Gamtessa).
Nothing tin can live exterior the Earth. The next maxim illustrates this:
" Allaattiin hanga /eete barartullee duuti isii lafuma (The birds that flew inwards the air
come upward in addition to go out upon the Earth) (BABO 1996, 325). This shows that the world is the final
abiding spot of all things that lived in addition to grew. For the Oromo, Waaqa is similar a father.
He gives them pelting in addition to helps the world grow different plants. In fact, the Oromo do not
say that the world is Waaqa's wife. What is clear is that Waaqa is.considered as a male
whereas the world is considered as a female. I take hold a serious dubiety concerning
Haberland's assertion that the Eastern Arsi Oromo believe that "Iafti niitii Waaqaati"--
"the world is Waaqa's wife" ( Haberland 1963,607). Bartels (1983, 108) also said that
the Western Matcha Oromo do non consider the world as Waaqa's wife. As I take hold argued_
elsewhere (1997a), the link betwixt Waaqa in addition to the world has been expressed inwards certain
myths of Oromo origin, people's blessings, oaths, curses, rituals, proverbs in addition to so forth.
As Knutsson noted, "the ground itself is superhuman inwards character, although it is not
equivalent to the heaven. To give weight to the truth of what 1 says or to a request-for
something, evidence is presented or a interrogation posed 'in the call of Waka in addition to La/a"
(Knutsson 1967, 56)."
My informants disagree whether the the world belongs to all, the living the dead in addition to the unborn included. Most of them concur that before the conquest of the Oromo past times the Abyssinians inwards the 19th century, the the world was free, in addition to no trunk owned it. Land couldn't live bought or sold. People had use-rights over the the world resource, which belongs to Waaqa. The the world did non take hold a boundary inwards the strict sense of the term. But Emperor Menelik in addition to his followers proclaimed that the the world belongs to the government. He apportioned the Oromo the world in addition to gave it to his soldiers, relatives in addition to churches. Some informants fence that the the world belongs to the living, for they work the resources of the the world for survival. They maintain that the dead take hold already left -the the world and
couldn't claim it. The living volition manus it over to the adjacent generation (lnfs: Fufa; Gonfa-; Galata). Others combat that the the world is the private belongings of the dead;, they were buried inwards the land! in addition to no trunk tin can forcefulness them to leave of absence the the world or to modify their place.
Human beings originated from the the world in addition to returned to it (Infs: Oagaga Kana'a; Gamtessa). The 3rd grouping believes that the the world belongs' to all, living, dead in addition to unborn included. The living acquire the necessities of life from the land. The dead were buried inwards the land. The unborn'will live born on the the world (Infs: Daksissa; Nagara Fite). The 3rd grouping the take in held past times many Africans. "For Africans the world belongs to all, living in addition to dead. We volition live inwards this the world where our for parents lived in addition to where our greatgreat-grand children volition live. To brand sure that all do goodness from this wealth, nosotros take hold to take attention of it properly now. This value scheme cuts across all ethnic groups inwards Africa" (Omari 1990, 174). Generally, the Oromo people believe that the nowadays generation is nether moral obligation to save the the world in addition to manus it over to the futurity generation.
Oromo woman
2.2 The Concept of "Ayyaana"
Oromo traditional faith teaches that at that spot are many saint-like divinities called Ayyaana, each seen as a manifestation of the 1 Waaqa. Ayyaana is believed to live the angel of Waaqa. It is the intermediary betwixt human beings in addition to Waaqa. Ayyaana is created past times Waaqa in addition to cannot create anything. Ayyaana tin can only communicate the problems of humans to Waaqa. During possession the Ayyaana speaks inwards the oral fissure of the Ayyaantuu (Qaalluu) with the people. When individuals enquire Ayyaana for help, the latter volition say s(he) volition enquire in addition to beg Waaqa for himlher. Ayyaana acts according to the volition of Waaqa. Ayyaana lonely cannot wound or kill individuals. But with the assist of Waaqa Ayyaana tin can live invoked to convey misfortune upon ' the individual unwilling to comply with the traditions of the gild (Infs: Emanssa; Fufa). Thus, Ambo Oromo
mental attitude towards the Ayyaana (spirit) is at variance with Lewis' view. Lewis reports that the Ayyaana(spirits) "can straight comport upon all aspects of life. They tin can kill a adult man or cure him; slay his ox' or increment his herd; brand him mad or destroy his enemy. They tin can live vengeful toward the impious or benevolent to the faithful" (Lewis 1970, 174).
Unlike Waaqa the color of Ayyaana is unknown. It should live reiterated that Waaqa could only create or destroy human beings in addition to other things (lnfs: Emanssa; Fufa; Nagara Fite). The take in of my-informants is at variance with the thought that "one's ayyaana determines one's destiny, since it is assumed that when some 1 is born, th\!' individual is born into an ayyaana that determines his or her future" (Daniel 1984, 107). As I volition demonstrate later, the Oromo believed that Waaqa with their respective Ayyaana created the days inwards each
month. But for the Ambo Oromo, it is non the Ayyaana that determines one's destiny but Waaqa. According to Oromo traditional religion, all created things inwards the universe take hold their ain Ayyaana. Thus at that spot are numerous Ayyaanas. For instance, hunters are expected to sacrifice animals for the wild animals they killed during hunting. Otherwise the guardian spirit of the concerned wild brute volition assail the hunter.
The Ayyaana is attached to private Qaalluu in addition to speaks through his oral fissure during possession. Both are inseparable. The 'Qaalluu serves as an intermediary betwixt human in addition to the Ayyaana (spirit). The role of a Qaalluu is similar to the role of a Bishop inwards the Christian world in addition to of Imam inwards the Muslim world. He or she is expected to observe traditional taboos (Safuu) in addition to ritual observances in addition to follow the truth in addition to avoid sin. The Ambo Oromo identifies several Ayyaanas. Each lineage (balbala) has its ain Ayyaana, in addition to each clan (lammii) has its ain Ayyaana. The erstwhile may live called Ayyaana xinnaa (small Ayyaana) whereas the latter tin can live called Ayyaana Guddaa (big Ayyaana). The qaalluu is the leader of religious rituals. The Qaalluu is also known as the Ayyaantu for s(he) has the Ayyaana of his lineage or clan.
The Ayyaana Abbaa ( Ayyaana of one's father) is invoked for assist inwards monastic enjoin to fulfill one's duties, to live successful, in addition to to avoid evil acts, for it is believed to live to a greater extent than powerful than one's ain Ayyaana. Likewise, the Ayyaana of the clan is to a greater extent than powerful than a father's Ayyaana (Infs: Fufa; Nagara Fite).
The Dromo also work "Ayyaana" to refer to a holiday. The days on which the Oromo perform traditional ceremonies are called Ayyaana. Some days take hold been assigned to some of the spirits in addition to conceived as Ayyaana. Also the concept of Ayyaana tin can live used to refer to a person's fate ( Bartels 1983; Daniel 1984). That someone is Ayyaantuu may hateful she is lucky. • Nabi is believed to live the ancient Ayyaana of the Dromo (lnf: Emanssa). To give nascency to a child, the spirit called Araashittii should possess pregnant woman. Booranticha is a manlike individual spirit, in addition to is believed to live the protector of ox in addition to calf. It is also known as the spirit of the river. An private is required to prepare traditional beer, Niger seed, flour of roasted barley with butter, salt, pancake-like bread, sauce of lentils, ix buddena (large local breadstuff cooked only on 1 side) in addition to celebrate the Booranticha ritual at the river-bed so as to appease the spirit of the river (Inf: Kumalcha).
What is interesting is that the Qaalluu establishment has had a positive impact on the environment. The Dromo build Galma (traditional Oromo ritual hall/Church) at a special place. The qaalluu lives in addition to worships inwards this place. Although the Oromo tin can build Galma on a hill, they to a greater extent than often than non believe that a gradient or a loma is non a favorable place, for it exposes the Galma to different dangers. For this matter, they build a Galma nether a
hill, past times the side of hideout, or past times the side of isolated places (Infs: Emanssa, Merga Jara).
Oromo Karrayyu adult man with hhis traditional Ganfura hairstyle
These places should live complimentary from yell. Women who take hold catamenia are forbidden to come inwards the Galma. Such women are considered impure. The believers see the Galma in addition to dance, sing in addition to trounce drums to perform a ritual called dalaga inwards monastic enjoin to make a province of ecstasy, which often culminates inwards possession. It is at the tiptop of this that the possessing Ayyaana speaks through the Qaalluu's oral fissure in addition to respond prayers in addition to predict the future. It should live noted that the Oromo perform prayer ceremonies also permanently flowing rivers, past times the side of large mountains, hills, stones in addition to trees. The the world around the Galma in addition to the natural resources on this the world are viewed as sacred in addition to are good protected.
In Dromo traditional culture, some individuals claim to know the mystery of human nature in addition to predict the future. These individuals are known as Xibaartuu Or Warra Waa beeku (those who know something) or Warra siinii ilaalu (those who appear at the lees of a loving cup of java in addition to predict the future). They also claim to know the message of the smoke of incense. When people acquire sick in addition to human face life crisis, they see these yam
spinners. The Qaalluu leaders also advise individuals to see them in addition to empathise what to do inwards monastic enjoin to avoid their problems. It should benoted that Xibaartuu has a lower social status than the Qaalluu leaders. Some informants believe that Xibaartuu is knowledgeable in addition to tin can assist the people (Infs: Duresso; Emanssa). The bulk of my informants, however, said that the Xibaartuu is a deceiver, in addition to does non know anything.
The yarn spinners exploit the people past times fabricating faux stories. Some fifty-fifty say · that they are the instruments of the Qoolluu leaders. They advise people to offering money, animals in addition to other gifts to the Qoolluu so that the Ayyoonti volition solve their problem. But the advice of xiboortuu is groundless (Infs: Eticha, Gamtessa; Merga Jara; Ragassa).
On the other hand, the Oromo believe that at that spot are hidden Seexanas (devils) which are the enemies of the people in addition to Waaqa. Wooqa "has go the enemy of devils whom he tin can effect at whatever time" (Bartels 1983, 121). In fact, Waaqa creates the devils. Like human beings they are mortal. But they tin can live the cause of conflict betwixt human beings, in addition to they tin can convey harm to individuals in addition to disturb their health. Devils are
invisible, destructive in addition to the sources of evil things, misfortunes, in addition to all kinds of human sufferings. When people suspect that a devil brought harm to their child, they volition take the latter to Ayyoona Guddaa (Big Ayyoona). The Qoolluu tin can forcefulness the devil to release the child. The Qoolluu tin can brand the devil swear non to disturb the kid inwards the futurity (Infs: Gutema Mitafa; Nagassa). Rivers, ash, mountains, various trees, in addition to the spot hitting past times lightening, in addition to draft is believed to live the abode of devils. The Oromo are used to appease devils past times providing various offerings.
2.3 The Concept of "Maaram"
Mooram is believed to live the divinity of women. Mooram was created past times Waaqa in addition to addressed· as haadha boor (the woman parent of ocean). I think this is to signal that Mooram came to the Oromo from outside. The Oromo believe that Mooram is the woman parent of a child. The Oromo women perform traditional ceremonies inwards observe of Mooram. It is believed that Mooram volition assist barren women to beget a child, in addition to assist pregnant
women to give nascency to a child. When a adult woman gives nascency to a kid Oromo women volition gather in addition to ululate (say ilili ilili). They also prepare porridge, in addition to splash butter. It is normal for the Oromo to sacrifice an brute during this ceremony. Moreover, Mooram is worshipped for the wellness of the environment, animals, human beings in addition to crops. The Oromo Qoolluu leaders pray to Mooram every 2 weeks for the continuation of
offspring of humans. Mooram has her ain ritual house. Ritual goods include 100100 (earthen caldron), in addition to Qoloo (traditional shirt). It has also madabii (raised platform of Earth). The dancing ceremony is performed on Tuesdays, Thursdays,. in addition to Saturdays (Iofs: Duresso; Emanssa; Fufa).
2.4 The Concept of "Ateetee"
Some writers take hold explained the nature e.of Ateetee in addition to Mooram. Knutsson states that the names Ateetee in addition to Mooram are used interchangeably for the same sort of existence (Kmitsson 1967,55). Daniel states t/1at the various songs of Ateetee imply that "[a]teete is a ceremony prepared for Ayyolee, Mooram in addition to Waaqa as thanksgiving past times those who take hold children in addition to a lamentation past times the barren women" (Daniel 1984, 111). Bartels, however, questioned this assertion. To the Oromo of Western Matcha, Ateetee is the call of the ritual inwards which Mooram is invoked (Bartels 1983). Baxter (1979) had similar observation concerning the belief of the Arsi Oromo. For Cerulli, Ateetee is conceived as the goddess of fecundity (Cerulli 1922,127; Harris 1968,50).
The take in of the Ambo Oromo is at variance with Knutsson' s argument. According to the Ambo Oromo, Ateetee in addition to Maaram are different in addition to take hold different functions in. Oromo religion. The materials used during' ceremonies are different. But both Ateetee in addition to Maaram are believed to live females. ' For the Ambo Oromo, Ateetee is the woman parent of cattle in addition to the spirit of baksaa (melted or processed butter). The Oromo also identified Ateetee as Aayyoo Baar (the Mother of Ocean) in addition to as Hadha Dambal (the woman parent of overflow, full). The purpose 'of the Ateetee ritual is to assist cattle breed well, in addition to to assist oxen plough well. There are Ateetee cattle inwards Oromo culture. When a heifer drops a calf, her butter volition live stored in addition to used during the Ateetee ceremony. Yogurt is also required to live kept for 2 weeks before the Ateetee ritual. The Ateetee ritual tin can live performed inwards June in addition to Jan or inwards whatever other month. Most of the time, the Ateetee ritual is performed on Tuesday, Th in addition to Sat (Inf: Gutama Mitafa; Urgessa Gutama). The women tin can set out to celebrate the Ateetee ritual on Friday, in addition to splash butter on Saturday. Or they tin can set out on
Wednesday, Th in addition to splash butter on Th in addition to Friday, respectively. Traditionally, it is believed that Mon is the twenty-four sixty minutes time period of the ghost. Midweek is believed to harden its pump towards the people. But the proper appointment for Ateetee ritual is determined past times fourth dimension reckoning experts. The Ambo Oromo perform Ateetee ceremonies every 2 years (Infs: Duresso; Lami; Merga Jara).
Five or to a greater extent than women are required to participate inwards Ateetee rituals. The married adult woman of Guu,laa (an private who take hold gone through all the rituals of the Gadaa in addition to who has his-ruling time period behind him)--Kalaalee volition live elected in addition to tumble the melted butter over the women who perform Ateetee ceremony. When the boy of Kalaalee has gone through all the rituals of the Gadaa, the Kalaalee would live called Cifiree (Inf: Lemo). The women should non perform Ateetee ritual with plaited hair. Their pilus should' live daabee (it should flow downwards the neck, the front end in addition to 'the sides). She should curf her pilus with leaves of Qobboo (Ricinus communis). Her married adult man is expected to carry Caaccuu (necklace of beads). On the 3rd twenty-four sixty minutes time period the 5 women perform fertility ritual past times splashing their chest, in addition to cervix with warm butter. Women are expected to eat porridge. Porridge volition live served with laaloo (tray made of straw). On the 5th day, the married adult man volition take his cattle to the spot where the cattle volition potable horra (mineral water). On mid-day, the married adult man volition render cattle to his premises. When the cattle render home, the volition milk cows in addition to pour the milk on the dorsum of cows. This is believed to assist cows breed well.
During Ateetee ritual, an old salubrious moo-cow should live sacrificed for the cattle to breed well, for a bull to serve a cow, for a to live successful in addition to for a the world to live leveled. It is a taboo to a moo-cow with broken horns, blind eye, incorrect tail in addition to other defects. If a individual does non take hold a cow, he tin can slaughter java (coffee fruits
stewed inwards butter) (Inf: Fufa). The slaughtering of java may take hold been symbolic. "The cherry-like java fruits are bitten opened upward in addition to stewed inwards melted butter. The butter enters the fruits in addition to reaches the beans inside. These beans which, because of their shape, business concern human relationship for the java fruits 'use as a symbol of the woman: their shape is reminder of the woman individual organ much as cowry-shells are" (Bartels 1983, 287). When the husband
sacrifices a cow, the Ateetee spirit volition possess his spouse. The people anoint stick with butter in addition to prop it against their body. The married adult man volition brand libations past times curdled milk. He is also expected to set upward 2 greenish poles inwards front end of the house. The people eat meat, potable yogurt, unfermented ale, in addition to traditional beer. The milk volition live served with Guchuma !large gourd). The people in addition to so praise the cattle inwards their song. The women
trip the lite fantastic during the dark (Infs: Emanssa; Lemo).
It is believed that if a individual fails to perform Ateetee cattle cannot breed well, the calf cannot grow, the teat of animals volition live closed, in addition to a individual tin can live visually, impaired in addition to crippled. The Oromo say "Ateetee ijaaf ijoof gabbaru" (Ateete ritual is. performed for the sake of the eyes in addition to destiny). In general, the Ateetee ritual has symbolic meanings. The anointment of sticks with butter, the planting of greenish poles, the shedding of old cows blood, the splashing of the thorax in addition to the cervix with butter are the symbols of fertility, procreation, in addition to continuation' of life on Earth. They symbolize that the survival of most Oromos depend on the survival in addition to rebirth of herds.
2.5 Ute Mowata Tradition
Ethiopian in addition to non-Ethiopian anthropologists who take hold studied the nature of Waaqa'i Maaram, Ateetee in addition to Ayyaana take hold been soundless virtually the nature of the Mowata civilization amid the Ambo Oromo. In what follows, I volition nowadays a preliminary observation virtually how Mowata has been practiced past times the Ambo Oromo. My analysis relies solely on oral information both from the study sites in addition to outside. Those .who take hold been practicing the Mowata cult in addition to other peasants were interviewed. The readers are advised to consider each spot in addition to cast their ain position.
My informants concur that Mowata came to Ambo from Soddo via Waliss although they could non spot the exact appointment of the appearance of Mowata inwards Ambo. It is believed that originally Damaamitii (the deity of Mowata) came downwards to the world from the sky; it is an innovation of Waaqa in addition to it cannot live inherited through blood ties. I think that the Mowata tradition has religious in addition to social dimensions. The Mowata ritual is largely associated with women, although men mostly Fugaa (woodworkers who are socially despised) in addition to hermaphrodites participate inwards Mowata spirit possession. The Mowata gild has its ain leader who is called Habaqii. In most cases, a Fugaa is the leader of the Mowata society. There is the saying that "Dubartiin qeetti dhirsaan nakkarte ala baateet jaarsi fugaa dha doobbiif goraan reeba':, (A adult woman who challenges her married adult man inwards his premises volition live beaten past times a Fugaa elderberry outdoors with nettle in addition to raspberry plant" (Inf: Ragassa). Each locality has its ain Habaqii in addition to those who reside· inwards the expanse participate inwards Mowata spirit possession through the guidance of their Habaqii. The Habaq;; is required to live given a whip made from the pare of a hippopotamus past times the Ayyaana. For instance, Obboo Kumalcha, the Habaqii
around the metropolis of Ambo, reported that the spirit called Danfaa of the Qaalluu leader Obboo Fayissa Inika gave him a whip. When the Habaqii ties the whip inwards a business solid knot, the members of the Mowata gild volition live possessed past times the spirit in addition to gather around the Habaqii's premises. By tying the whip, the Habaqii tin can brand them unconscious, in addition to may forcefulness them to stimulate crying at a funeral, to fetch water, to eat food, in addition to to
perform whatever other duties. In particular, when the Qaalluu of Danfaa in addition to Maaram (well-known spirits inwards Ambo) in addition to 1 of the members of the Mowata gild dies, the members of the Mowata gild volition cause crying at the funeral.
To do this the Habaqii should live informed virtually the expiry of the concerned individual. When the Habaqii thinks that they take hold performed their duties, slhe volition dispossess the members of the Mowata gild of the spirit past times untying the whip. The Habaqii tin can pacify a individual who is possessed past times the spirit in addition to unconsciously tries to assail other people past times using fire, thorny bushes in addition to the like. The Habaqii employs various phrases to Pb the spirit possession. These phrases are considered the linguistic communication of Mowata. For instance:
• Ashimmoo damaamitii (Be possessed past times the spirit)
• Sebir (Leave him or her)
• Tadumdumii (Be silent)
• Tonyii (Sit down) (Infs: Kurnalchaa; Lemmo).
Individuals who participate inwards the Mowata spirit possession cutting the leaves of various trees, whereas, those who do non properly celebrate the Mowata ritual cutting the thorns of different trees in addition to take constituent inwards a funeral.
The Mowata tradition .is much to a greater extent than complicated than what has been stated. According to informants, the Mowata spirit tin can possess a individual inwards 2 different ways. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Qeerransa (leopard) can, on the 1 hand, kidnap a person. Initially, a individual volition live afflicted bodily or mentally (Infs: Duresso; Kurnalcha; Lemo). Obboo Kurnalcha's personal story illustrates this.
"I was sick for virtually 14 months. I suffered from diarrhea in addition to vomiting. I was non able to eat well.
I only drank java in addition to water. Sometimes I ate roasted grains. After the firstly 4 months, a reddish snake
with long pilus came to my bed. My parents looked after me during my illness for I was non married. My parents didndt empathise the cause of my illness in addition to why the serpent came to my place. They suspected
that the serpent is a symbol of Ayyaana. They had to position butter on my caput several times a day. The serpent was licking butter. If the serpent had non found butter, it could take hold pierced my caput in addition to thereby killed me.
After 14 months a leopard took me. In the meantime, the members of Mowata gild began to
appear for me. The leopard fed me rootworm, beetle in addition to other insects, in addition to protected me from other wild animals. Two or 3 leopards did this. When the firstly 1 collected worms in addition to insects, the other 1 stayed with the patient. These leopards were special in addition to different from other leopards. Personally, I did
non take in whatever of them for I was unconscious at that time.
Finally, the Mowata expedition saw me after aweek. At that fourth dimension I was with a leopard.
All persons who were possessed past times the spirit knelt downwards in
front end of the leopard to influence it. Then a leopard was given a caprine animal in addition to left me. The fact
of the affair is that a leopard id non eat caprine animal given to it. It hitting it in addition to thereby killed it.
Some times a leopard mightiness pass upward to leave of absence the patient alone. When this occurs, Fugaa
volition grab it in addition to throw it away in addition to enquire the relatives of the patient whether the latter
belongs to them past times pacifying the Mowata members for they may assail the former. Later.
the Fugaa volition create clean the patient in addition to enquire the members of the Mowata to convey the patient
to his premise on a stretcher. In my case, after going home, I drank warm H2O to clean
my tum from worms in addition to insects. Later on I was given a whip made from the pare of
a hippopotamuswith viii bells past times Danfaa (the spirit) of Obboo Fayissa Inika so as to
relieve pregnant women from pain themselves during spirit possession. Consequently I
became a Habaqii in addition to prepared a Mowata ceremony inwards observe of the whip. The whip
has its ain ceremony.
After 1 year, a leopard came to my spot inwards May for the 2nd time. Firstly it made
my woman parent unconscious past times tying its tail. My woman parent was a fellow member of the Mowata
society. Hereafter, a leopard took me out of the house past times lifting upward the door. It then
returned to my parent's house in addition to released my woman parent from the spirit past times untying its tail.
But nobody saw it when it did all this. The members of the Mowata saw me after five
days. After performing all the necessary conditions, they returned me to my place. Since
in addition to so I take hold been the Habaqii of the Mowata. I take hold personally observed the leopard
during our search for a patient (lnf: Kumalcha). "
It is also believed that a leopard tin can take a adult woman if she leaves her house during the night. The leopard-may kill a patient if it is non given a caprine animal on time. Some fourth dimension ago, the members of Mowata failed to take in a sure Merge, a immature girl, for 6 weeks. Eventually they realized that this miss was killed past times a leopard in addition to eaten past times a wild animal. They only found her plaited hair, cervix in addition to leg at Fincha valleyl inwards Wollega. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 patient
taken past times a leopard tin can only live seen past times the Mowata members for the spirit helps them to do so. Unlike other Ayyaana the Mowata spirit does non require a special gift of a bull to live sacrificed (Inf: Kumalcha).
There is also a 2nd way past times which a individual tin can live possessed past times the Mowata spirit. From the outset, a individual volition endure from diarrhea, vomiting in addition to other diseases. Following this, 2 snakes volition come upward to his or her place--one lying at the caput of the bed in addition to the other lying at the lower destination of the bed. The patient volition live unconscious for virtually 1 calendar week or two. When the patient seems to halt breathing, his parents volition enshroud him or her in addition to set out to cry, which inwards tum volition Pb to the gathering of the Mowata members.
Meanwhile, the spirit tin can possess women if a serpent coils itself. Consequently, these women volition assail those who are non the followers of Mowata spirit in addition to forcefulness them to leave of absence the house. The members of the Mowata cult volition in addition to so leave of absence a patient with an old in addition to respected adult woman in addition to go out for labsii (announcement). They volition inform other followers of the Mowata spirit virtually the patient in addition to come upward dorsum to the patient's place.
The Habaqii volition in addition to so complimentary the women from the spirit in addition to give them boiled grain. The adjacent morning time the Habaqii volition give the patient a stick. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 stick volition rest on the lap of the patient for 7 days. The Habaqii volition give the patient food. Finally, the Habaqii volition complimentary the patient from the spirit. The patient volition in addition to so live healthy.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 individual tin can also enquire the followers of Mowata to cause crying during his or her funeral past times preparing a large feast. The individual is·not required to live possessed past times the Mowata spirit. The individual is expected to prepare traditional Oromo beer, food, bread, a sacrificial cow, in addition to inform the Habaqii to adapt the Mowata ritual. Two Guulaas in addition to the followers of the Mowata spirit are required to take constituent inwards this special ritual. The two
Guulaas are expected to Pb the ritual past times beating the law for the funeral purpose.
Source:http://www.ossrea.net/publications/images/stories/ossrea/ssrr-19-p-3.pdf
Systematic repression in addition to rampant human rights
abuses against the Oromo People inwards Ethiopia
Tarekegn Chimdi
Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Victoria
Abstract
From the fourth dimension of colonization of Oromia at the destination of 19th century, the Oromo people were faced with discrimination in addition to marginalisation. Their egalitarian democratic establishment of governance the Gada system; their cultural traditions in addition to linguistic communication were banned; their meansof subsistence, the world was confiscated in addition to as a resultant forced to slavery in addition to servitude. The policy of successive regimes inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia including the electrical flow regime has been implementing similar tactics of furthering their subjugation in addition to repression live it nether the guise of republic or socialism.
The electrical flow TPLF/ PRDF dominated regime is a political, economical in addition to social powerhouse for nearly past times 2 decades after ousting the Amhara hegemony inwards 1991. In contrast to the Tigrayans which constitute virtually 5% of the total population, the Oromo people encounter rampant human rights abuses, absurd relocation in addition to eviction from their lands, experimented with unplanned resettlement schemes inwards hostile environments, human face abysmal poverty in addition to contamination of epidemic diseases.
Since this regime came to powerfulness inwards 1991, serious systematic repression in addition to pervasive human rights abuses against the Oromo people has been reported past times international human rights organisations. So far, these abuses take hold been largely ignored past times the international community, in all probability far from the eyes in addition to ears of the international observers inwards Finfinne (Addis Ababa).
Residents of the Oromia are specially vulnerable to targeted atrocities due to their remote geography, lack of quick carry in addition to communication infrastructure for rapid exchange of information, absence of human rights monitoring groups in addition to lack of independent media coverage. Knowing this, EPRDF is acting with impunity. The authorities routinely subjects its critics to harassment, extrajudicial killings, imprisonment in addition to torture. Police in addition to armed services officials often imprison such people on charges of involvement with "anti-peace" or fifty-fifty "anti-people" groups, but convictions in addition to fifty-fifty trials are rare.
In general, people are existence terrorized past times federal constabulary working-hand-in glove with local officials in addition to militias. Such crackdown on citizens from all walks of life is a twenty-four sixty minutes time period to twenty-four sixty minutes time period activity inwards Oromia, including children as immature as 1110. According to a renowned international human in addition to peoples rights organisation, gfbV “If intellectuals, students, teachers, journalists, assistance agency workers, artists, human rights activists in addition to peasant farmers are subjected to human rights abuses solely on the footing of their origin, in addition to so Gesellschaft für
bedrohte Völker believes that the Ethiopian authorities are guilty of racism”.
Oromo people,Woliso market,Ethiopia
I. Introduction
Numerically, the Oromo people is the single largest national grouping inwards Ethiopia, accounting for virtually 35 1 chiliad one thousand (40%) of 75 1 chiliad one thousand population. The Oromo people are 1 of the indigenous peoples inhabiting the Horn of Africa since fourth dimension immemorial, belong to the Cushitic origin. The Oromo people are the majority, but inwards a minority similar situation. Their political, economical social in addition to cultural life inwards the Ethiopian empire assert , discrimination in addition to marginalisation due to colonization of their country, Oromia ,by the Abyssinians at the
destination of 19th century. Millions decimated inwards the state of war against colonization inwards betwixt 1868-1900 through different means. Their egalitarian democratic establishment of governance the Gada system; their cultural traditions in addition to linguistic communication were banned; their agency of subsistence,land was confiscated in addition to as a resultant forced to slavery in addition to servitude.
From that fourth dimension then, successive regimes inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia including the electrical flow regime has been implementing similar tactics of furthering their subjugation in addition to repression live it nether the guise of republic or socialism. The electrical flow TPLF /EPRDF dominated regime is a political, economical in addition to social powerhouse for nearly past times 2 decades after ousting the Amhara hegemony inwards 1991. In contrast to the Tigrayans which constitute virtually 5% of the total population, the Oromo people encounter rampant human rights abuses, absurd relocation in addition to eviction from their lands, experimented with unplanned resettlement schemes inwards hostile environments, human face abysmal poverty in addition to contamination of epidemic diseases.
II. Rampant Human Rights Abuses
Since this regime came to powerfulness inwards 1991, serious systematic repression in addition to pervasive human rights abuses against the Oromo people has been reported past times international human rights organisations. So far, these abuses take hold been largely ignored past times the international community, in all probability far from the eyes in addition to ears of the international observers inwards Finfinne (Addis Ababa). Residents of the Oromia are specially vulnerable to targeted atrocities due to their remote geography, lack of quick carry in addition to communication infrastructure for rapid exchange of information, absence of human rights monitoring groups in addition to lack of independent media coverage. Knowing this, EPRDF is acting with impunity. The authorities routinely subjects its critics to harassment, extrajudicial killings, imprisonment in addition to torture20. Police in addition to armed services officials often imprison such people on charges of involvement with "anti-peace" or fifty-fifty "anti-people" groups, but convictions in addition to fifty-fifty trials are rare.
In general, people are existence terrorized past times federal constabulary working-hand-in glove with local officials in addition to militias. Such crackdown on citizens from all walks of life is a twenty-four sixty minutes time period to twenty-four sixty minutes time period activity inwards Oromia, including children as immature as 1123 . According to a renowned international human in addition to peoples rights organisation, gfbV “If intellectuals, students, teachers, journalists, assistance agency workers, artists, human rights activists in addition to peasant farmers are subjected to human rights abuses solely on the footing of their origin, in addition to so Gesellschaft für
bedrohte Völker believes that the Ethiopian authorities are guilty of racism”. Similarly the human rights study 200825 discusses the unabated human rights abuses as follows.
“ In Oromia, Ethiopia’s most populous state, authorities authorities take hold used the
fact of a long-standing insurgency past times the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) to imprison,
harass, in addition to physically abuse critics, including schoolhouse children. Victims are informally
defendant of supporting the OLF... , but supporters of the Oromo National Congress
(ONC) in addition to the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (OFDM), registered
opposition political parties, endure similar treatment.“
In May 2008, the Ethiopian authorities trained in addition to fully armed Gumuz militia had massacred Oromo civilians killing mothers, burning children live inwards locked houses, amputating those they grab live in addition to destroyed properties, inwards several districts of Eastern constituent of Wollega, Western Oromia. While the Oromos were non allowed to comport arms in addition to those who possessed firearms inwards the past times were forced to disarm prior to the staged incident. In over 2 weeks of assail against the civilians after May 17, 2008 to a greater extent than than 400 people were killed, thousands of houses burnt down, hundreds of elders, children in addition to women were
amputated in addition to over 20,000 forced to flee their homes.
In some other incident on Feb 5, 2008, inwards the Puntland’s Bosasso metropolis of Somalia , over 65 Oromo refugees were bombed to expiry in addition to over 100 wounded from 2 explosions on 2 restaurants frequented past times Oromo refugees. Local residents accuse that it was sponsored past times no 1 other than Ethiopian government.
II. b. Arrests in addition to detentions, banning civic associations in addition to students
The Macca Tulama self-help Association (MTA) board members, teachers & students, journalists, businessmen, farmers, members of the Oromo opposition parties Oromo National Congress (ONC), Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement were highly targeted for arrests in addition to detentions inwards the recent years on baseless allegations of involvement with the OLF. As an active constituent of the Oromo society, the Oromo students were protesting against the Ethiopian authorities policies such as deforestation, levied taxes in addition to rising inwards the toll of fertilizers, educational policies, modify of the upper-case alphabetic character metropolis of Oromia from Finfinne to Adama etc. starting from 2000. In Jan 2004, the MTA leaders called protestation against the displace the
upper-case alphabetic character metropolis of Oromia from Finfinne to Adama. The Oromo journalists who reported the reality of the protests were implicated in addition to labelled. Finally, those peaceful protests targeted with killings, injuries with live bullets, torture, imprisonment, expulsion from schools in addition to flee
the country.
Several hundreds of Oromo students in addition to teachers from different parts of Oromia in addition to Finfinne (Addis Ababa) were arrested, severely beaten in addition to tortured after Jan 4, 2004 peaceful demonstration called past times the Mecha Tulema association (MTA) against the displace the upper-case alphabetic character metropolis of Oromia from Finfinne to Adama. On the same day, hundreds of Oromos severely beaten in addition to taken to custody. This deed of the Ethiopian authorities is against the UDHR Articles nine in addition to convention against torture.
On Jan 21,2004, 350 Addis Ababa University Oromo students were rounded upward from the front end of the President’s business office piece requesting the release of their viii colleagues arrested on 18 Jan 2004 defendant of damaging the academy property30. The students were ill-treated in addition to forced to walk on the gravel for long hours without nutrient at Kolfe constabulary grooming in addition to later released on Jan 24,200. The ID cards of the students were registered in addition to ordered non to go to the university. On their release, the constabulary authorities could non create whatever criminal accuse against them. Their suspension was announced on the authorities volume media the adjacent day. Such deed diametrically opposes the UDHR Article 26(1) in addition to shows the Ethiopian
authorities discriminatory policies against the Oromo people. They take hold nowhere to go, had no subsistence in addition to accommodation as most of them are from the rural areas in addition to far from family. They were unable to go to their house unit of measurement as they were hunted in addition to arrested past times the local authorities at their nascency place. The Oromo elders requested the academy president in addition to the prime number government minister to readmit the students. They did non acquire reply to this appointment to peacefully destination this crisis. The Macha Tulema association later appealed to the citizens in addition to co-ordinated fiscal back upward to earn minimal living for suspended students, for which the government
defendant in addition to arrested its leadership.
The Ethiopian authorities arrested the leaders of indigenous MTA association, banned in addition to confiscated the properties of the association contravening the UDHR Articles 20(1) in addition to 17(1,2). On July 2,2004, it issued the alphabetic character with reference number 11/7469/07-04 from the registration business office of associations for the closure in addition to confiscation of MTA’s belongings quoting the peaceful demonstration staged on 4 Jan 2004 was illegal. The leaders of MTA Dirribi Demissie ( President), Gemechu Feyera, Sintayehu Workneh in addition to Ayelu Ittisa in addition to to a greater extent than than a dozen of Oromo academy students in addition to journalists Shiferaw Insarmu in addition to Dhabasa Wakjira were inwards custody until early on 2007 fifty-fifty though different benches of courtroom ordered their release
on several occasions. Amnesty International in addition to other human rights organisations consider them as prisoners of conscience in addition to appealed for their release since 2004. Still some of the association leaders are languishing inwards prison.
Again starting from Nov 9, 2005 , the Oromo students from all over Oromia in addition to different higher educational institutions launched a protestation telephone phone with pop demands. Some of the demands of the students are an immediate halt to the killing of Oromo students, observe in addition to implementation for the right to self-determination of the Oromo people, release of members in addition to leadership of the Macca Tulama Self-help Association, the unconditional reopening of the Macca Tulama Association office, unconditional release of thousands of Oromo political prisoners- students, journalists, civic organisation leaders etc, selfadministration of Oromia past times the Oromos, restoration of all Oromian cities to their proper names in addition to the administrations of Finfinne in addition to Dirre Dhawa to live nether the jurisdiction of Oromia state.
Oromo Borana girl
These peaceful demands of students continued inwards the high schools in addition to universities across Oromia in addition to most of the schools left closed after protests were turned violent past times the involvement of the authorities safety forces. As a result, dozens of students were killed in addition to wounded from live bullet from safety forces, several thousands of Oromo nationals were detained inwards different prisons inwards Oromia province in addition to Finfinne (Addis Ababa) since Nov 2005. Most of the detainees were nether torture in addition to severe beatings, held incommunicado in addition to were non brought to court. Credible reports signal 3 detained students Alemayehu Gerba, Morkata Iddosa in addition to Gaddissa Hirphasa were killed from torture in addition to injuries from live bullet piece held imprisoned. Those reportedly alleged for torture were non brought to court. In the recent years 7 Oromo detainees had been tortured to expiry in addition to others had died after existence shot or existence denied medical attention inwards Maikalawi in addition to Kalitti prisons alone. Even though few of the MTA leaders in addition to students were released on bail inwards the early on months of 2007, at that spot are tens of thousands still languish inwards jail including the MTA board members
Mengistu Desta, (MTA General Secretary), Tsegaye W/Yohannes, Kumsa Gire (both aged over 80), Solomon Bekele, Taddesse Dagafa, Dechasa Benti, Legesse W/Selassie in addition to others.
Most of them were detained without charges for over viii years. After these years, some of the detainees were sentenced to death, life imprisonment. Only few got a judgement term of 10 years from the partisan in addition to unqualified judges affiliated with or members of the ruling political party TPLF/EPRDF.
In all these years since this regime came to power, inwards different parts of Oromia, the unparalleled huge forcefulness from the authorities were mobilised to quell peaceful dissent in addition to protests. They are terrorizing the local population in addition to affecting peaceful life of the residents in addition to students; kill, torture in addition to rape citizens. Prisons are total of the Oromos from all walks of life. Mr. Siye Abraha who had been the government minister of defense forcefulness nether the same regime in addition to had 1 time been real vicious against the Oromo people described the constituency of the Oromo inwards the prison house cells as “the prison house speaks Afan Oromo”. He had been imprisoned for 6 years of after he led the dissident faction inwards the TPLF. The paramilitary in addition to the safety forces are terrorizing the local population in addition to affecting peaceful life of the residents in addition to students; kill, torture in addition to rape citizens. Sound learning teaching processes were obstructed past times the provocations of these forces. Contamination of epidemic diseases similar HIV/AIDS is also feared from huge presence of mobilized federal forces in addition to militias.
III. Evictions in addition to relocations
Government actions may take hold led to forced displacement of thousands of people during 2005 in addition to prior. Report confirm that the EPRDF authorities has unleashed on the people its special troops, supported past times its paramilitary forces in addition to armed local authorities officials. In what increasingly bears genocidal characteristics, numerous ordinary people are existence indiscriminately killed in addition to wounded. Many are existence tortured in addition to intimidated. According to the same report, repression includes the burning of houses in addition to property, in addition to the confiscation of the world in addition to farm animals.
The Ethiopian authorities is evicting Oromo farmers inwards the call of investment at a real unprecedented charge per unit of measurement in addition to hundreds of thousands of farmers around the cities inwards Oromia were turned destitute as a result. So far according to authorities sources, betwixt May 1992 in addition to March 2005, over 900 agricultural projects were handed 149,126.1hectraes of the world inwards the cast of lease from 10 to 99 years with no or lowest compensation ( a maximum of ETB 20,000 equivalent to USD 2000) to the indigenous the world owners36. Though farther enquiry is needed, this figure had been quadrupled inwards the finally 3 years with dire consequences on the ground to the farmers. In these years, the Ethiopian authorities had been working hard for its geopolitical leverage past times providing agricultural lands to the countries similar Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , Republic of Djibouti in addition to to a greater extent than countries are still nether negotiation. In his interview with Arab news, Meles Zenawi, the prime number government minister of Ethiopia, said latterly its authorities was “very eager” to supply hundreds of thousands of hectares of agricultural the world for investment.
According to recent reports of United Nations specialized agencies , Middle Eastern in addition to North African countries, which import most of their food, are leading the race to invest overseas inwards countries similar Ethiopia. Jacques Diouf, director-general of the Food in addition to Agriculture Organisation (FAO) warned the race past times food-importing countries to secure farmland overseas to improve their nutrient safety risks creating a “neo-colonial” system. In add-on the same newspaper noted concern over the the world rights in addition to the interrogation of how much nutrient would live left for the host country. At this stage at that spot are virtually 6.4 1 chiliad one thousand people are starving inwards Ethiopia. The greenest
in addition to surplus nutrient producing areas of Oromia in addition to Southern States are the ones highly vulnerable.
Uncompensated evictions of Oromo farmers from around the cities inwards Oromia especially Finfinne (Addis Ababa) inwards the call of investment is at worrying storey for the ground families do non take hold whatever agency of subsistence other than their ancestral plots of land. In the call of investment today Oromo farmers from the vicinity of Finfinne (Addis Ababa) in addition to other major cities in addition to towns were turned to live landless in addition to forced to live victims of ecological degradation in addition to hazardous wellness problems. Cut bloom in addition to the bio-fuel production are also the top ranking investments of massive the world holding to comport upon the life of millions of farmers in addition to their
dependents inwards the years to come.
Until the middle of 2006, out of 65 cutting bloom plantations operating inwards Ethiopia, 63 of them are found inwards Oromia, specifically inwards the radius of 13-50km at the outskirts of Finfinne, on a total of 2400 ha of land. About 20,000 labourers (90% women) are working on these farms with a daily income of an average of 0.5 USD compared to 1USD inwards Republic of Kenya in addition to 2 USD inwards Colombia. They are underpaid in addition to their working conditions is comparable to slavery; in addition to unable to organise their union to deal collectively. Even though the authorities propagate it benefits rural women inwards terms employment, un-repairable damages to their wellness in addition to environmental problems associated with them outweighs. Rather, the Ethiopian authorities has given due attending to the bloom manufacture because of growing revenue it collects from export taxes to finance its expanding armed services expenditure. Currently, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia exports to a greater extent than than lxxx 1 chiliad one thousand stems a calendar month to 40 countries ($166 1 chiliad one thousand of revenue) at the expense of evicted in addition to vulnerable Oromian farmers disposed their lands. Seventy percent go to the Netherlands, from where they are sent around the world. It also exports to Germany, Britain, Russian Federation and, inwards smaller amounts, to the U.S. in addition to the Middle East. Tamiru L. Obole of Jimma Times summarized that the manufacture has brought with it much controversy: allegations of environmental mismanagement, labour abuse in addition to unfair the world holding.
According to sources unopen to the Ministry of Agriculture in addition to Rural Development inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia at that spot are around 120 chemicals in addition to pesticides41 come inwards into the the world for the work inwards floriculture manufacture are registered to the World Health Organizations’ negative pesticide listing for their carcinogenic potential. These highly hazardous chemicals include Flucythrinate, Chlorothalonil, Cyproconazone, FOLPET in addition to MANCOZEB including xv other chemicals are used inwards the bloom farming sector inwards Ethiopia.
If precautions are non taken, pesticides in addition to sprays for handling of flowers, disposal of waste materials water, depression temperatures for preservation inwards mutual coldness rooms, muscular-skeletal disorders due to poorly designed piece of work stations, long - standing hours cause such disorders or diseases as congenital defect legs in addition to hands, cerebral palsy, encephalon cancer, toxic dermatitis, hydrocephalous, lymph tumour. They are carcinogens, endocrine disruptors in addition to cholinesterase inhibitors. Pregnant or thorax – feeding women into contact with pesticides
may take hold high run a risk of their off-spring or children encounter 1 of the inwards a higher spot mentioned disorders. Pollution in addition to depletion of H2O resources due to intensive work of H2O in addition to air pollution due to spray drifts, burning of plastics roofing materials or containers are also major concerns for the communities living inwards the vicinity of these farms. Chemists farther explicate the long term effect of these chemicals could cause miscarriages, depression immunity in addition to fifty-fifty deteriorate encephalon cells over fourth dimension with symptoms of fainting spells, nausea or extreme vomiting.
According to local sources every pregnant adult woman involved inwards the production encountered the expiry of their offspring inwards the firstly few days of birth. Biofuel the other source of concern for amassing millions of hectares of the world is underway inwards Oromia. According to reliable sources, virtually 24 millions of hectares inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia take hold been identified as suitable for biofuel production, in addition to many unusual companies take hold already been allocated the world from farmland, forests in addition to wilderness areas. Even protected areas are non rubber from the spread of biofuels. For example, German linguistic communication fellowship Flora Eco Power for the finally few years had been investing 671 1 chiliad one thousand birr (€57/US$77 million) for biofuel production on 13,000 hectares (enough the world to screen over 16,000 soccer fields) of the world inwards Oromia state; 87% of which is the Babile Elephant Sanctuary, a spot to rare in addition to endangered elephants.
The displace for the production of biofuels- “green gilt rush” with appropriation large volume of the world was protested from different angles: from NGOs, churches, scientists to the United Nations specialized agencies for driving the rural communities into destitution in addition to starvation44 from to a greater extent than nutrient insecurity in addition to rocketing nutrient prices. 30 African NGOs petitioned against the production of Biofuels inwards Africa as follows.
"It is geared to supplant millions of hectares of local agricultural systems, in addition to the
rural communities working inwards them, with large plantations. It is oriented to substitute
biodiversity-based indigenous cropping, grazing in addition to pasture farming systems by
monocultures in addition to genetically engineered agrofuel crops." In understanding with several
new scientific analyses, they take hold that "the electrical flow force for agrofuels exacerbate,
rather than solve, the job of climate change."
The Gallagher report: biofuels are driving people into hunger of 08 July 200845 published past times ActionAid says that piece most types of biofuels volition non assist to cut back climate change, they volition brand life harder for millions of poor people around the world. Adding to that Dr Claire Melamed, ActionAid caput of policy said: “Grain in addition to vegetable stone oil are existence diverted to biofuels, leading to scarcity in addition to rocketing nutrient prices. In the developing world, the world on which farmers in addition to pastoralists depend is existence converted into biofuel monocultures”. The same concern was also echoed past times the main United Nations agencies involved inwards agriculture in addition to nutrient aid, WFP in addition to FAO, also warn that the increased acreage used for biofuels is already contributing to
higher nutrient prices in addition to may Pb to to a greater extent than hunger inwards the world .
As evidences suggest, from dot of take in the mentality of the electrical flow regime inwards Ethiopia, the manufacture would take hold moved to the highlands of Tigray had at that spot take hold been no adverse effects to the environs in addition to health. Independent investigations on the effect of these farms on the indigenous population demand to live carried out past times concerned international organisations.
IV. Government Borne Conflicts in addition to Internally Displaced Persons
The Ethiopian authorities had been calling for plebiscite over the Oromo localities inwards the regions of Borana, Bale, East in addition to due west Hararge of Oromia at the destination of 2004. The results of plebiscite on these areas were culminated inwards favour of Oromia. However, the authorities instigated conflicts after the decisions were made. Deliberate incitement of conflicts amid the Oromo clans – Borena, Gabra in addition to Guji- in addition to national groups neighbouring Oromia ( betwixt Karrayyu Oromo in addition to Afar, somali in addition to Ittu Oromo) past times the authorities officials in addition to safety forces are the major cause of internal displacement for over 170,000 people inwards Borena, West Hararge, Bale zones of Oromia over the finally 3 years. According to reliable local sources, authorities forces are either arm/ disarm 1 of the competition clan against the other or side on the battleground with 1 of them. For example, inwards the representative of karrayyu in addition to Afar the authorities armed the later against the erstwhile in addition to appeared as a mediators of peacemaking. The local somali (region 5) authorities militia sided against the Oromo civilians Cheraro Doba district inwards Hararge zone of Oromia.
Several thousands of somali returnees in addition to settlers were issued with the ID cards to brand them eligible for voting in addition to also provided with armaments inwards those areas of Oromia from the government. In several places the plebiscite favoured the dominion nether Oromia. These armed somali militias supported past times Ethiopian safety forces started attacking civilians inwards the respective villages. In 2005, Over 100 civilians killed, hundreds of houses burnt, upward to over 100,000 people internally displaced without back upward inwards Cheraro Doba, Miesso in addition to other districts of West Hararge region. On Jan 19,2005, these militias engulfed the villages inwards the Cheraro Doba district inwards western Harerge. They opened flaming killing eleven Oromo civilians, wounding 18 others in addition to some 12,000 displaced in addition to over 500 houses were burnt, crop-fields in addition to depots of the residents of xxx farmers associations were position nether fire. Similarly, inwards August 2004, 73 people were killed in addition to to a greater extent than than 85,000 flee their homes from villages inwards Miesso.
According to reports past times humanitarian organisations, conflict betwixt the Gabra in addition to the Guji, in addition to betwixt the Gabra in addition to the Borena displaced over 40,000 people inwards 2005. Many remain displaced, in addition to local authorities do non consider them eligible for emergency nutrient distribution in addition to other basic services in addition to protection. This makes their province of affairs real precarious, specially inwards the context of the electrical flow drought. In the middle of 2006, to a greater extent than than 100 people died in addition to 90,000 displaced inwards tearing clashes betwixt the Borena in addition to the Guji Oromo clans . Most of these IDPs are living inwards poor conditions with no food, H2O in addition to shelter in addition to receiving real limited assistance. In the recent years, the conflicts were exacerbated past times the authorities forces to include to a greater extent than clans or land groups similar Gedeo, Burji, Guji, Amaro in addition to Sidama, Gumuz in addition to Afar 1 against the other to elongate their rest inwards power.
Such calculated instigation of violence amid the neighbouring communities past times the Ethiopian authorities should live condemned, the perpetuators of such crimes should live brought into justice in addition to vulnerable displaced peoples demand to acquire plenty attending from the humanitarian organisations. In these conflicts the authorities agents are the both players in addition to the referees. For the peacemaking in addition to direction of their affairs, these groups demand their conflict resolution mechanisms traditions that existed for centuries live harnessed without the intervention of the government.
V. Agricultural input for political gain
Surprisingly, the basic agricultural commodities for the farmers inwards Oromia is allocated based on the affiliation to the ruling political party inwards power. Farmers in addition to low-income town residents inwards Oromia who neglect to back upward the governing political political party are denied fertilizer, other agricultural aids in addition to nutrient items provided to the affiliates at subsidized prices. The others are fired from their piece of work for non sympathizing with the EPRDF ruling party. In the rural areas of Oromia where virtually 87% live on agriculture, local in addition to regional officials to a greater extent than often than non take hold swell powerfulness in addition to influence over the population in addition to over the distribution of goods in addition to services.
Good relations with the local officials are crucial for obtaining land, farming aid, access to wellness attention in addition to education, in addition to identity cards. In the meantime, command over some agricultural input goes far beyond their authority. Control over fertilizer in addition to agricultural inputs inwards full general take hold given Meles’s authorities a remarkably effective tool for quashing dissent inwards rural parts of Oromia. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 TPLF owned fellowship inwards accuse of importing fertilizers often regulates on the price. In case, fertilizer toll is so expensive that farmers often regain it hard to repay their debts, local officials routinely throw them into prison house for days or weeks at a fourth dimension if they fail.
According to Human Rights Watch farmers were forced to auction off livestock or household goods to acquire out of prison. Farmers who openly criticize the authorities or its policies often regain themselves denounced inwards populace meetings as “troublemakers,” “anti-development” saboteurs or fifty-fifty as members of unsafe “anti-people” organizations.
VI. Conclusions
The newspaper tried to shed lite on the systematic repression in addition to worst human rights records of the Ethiopian authorities inwards its heavy-handed policy against the Oromo people. Criticisms in addition to reports from international human rights organisations were also sited. Despite all the criminal offense it commits against humanity, this authorities is the largest beneficiary of US armed services in addition to evolution assistance in addition to 1 of the top recipients of European assistance inwards the sub-Saharan Africa.
These major powers along with China in addition to Russian Federation take hold increased their merchandise partnership inwards such it farther give economical boost to the regime so as to farther suppress the subjugated peoples inwards Ethiopia.
It is high fourth dimension that the governments of the US in addition to European Union countries press the Ethiopian authorities for its worst records of human rights tape in addition to business concern human relationship for the suffering of millions of Oromo in addition to other peoples from eviction, internal displacement in addition to hunger that partly resulted from its policy.
source:http://www.gadaa.com/SystematicRepressionAgainstOromoByEthiopianRegime.pdf
WHAT IS NEXT FOR THE OROMO PEOPLE
Asafa Jalata, PhD,
Professors of Sociology in addition to Global Studies, in addition to Interim Chair of the Africana Studies Program
at the University of Tennessee – Knoxville
The Past in addition to Current Status of the Oromo People
The Ethiopian colonial terrorism in addition to genocide that started during the finally decades of the 19th century still proceed inwards the 21st century. Ethiopia, erstwhile Abyssinia, terrorized in addition to committed genocide on the Oromo people during the Scramble for Africa with the assist of European imperial powers in addition to the modern weapons they received from them. During Ethiopian colonial expansion, Oromia, “the charming Oromo land, [would] live ploughed past times the Fe in addition to the fire; flooded with blood in addition to the orgy of pillage.” Calling this lawsuit as “the house of a swell massacre,” Martial De Salviac states,
"The conduct of Abyssinian armies invading a the world is simply barbaric. They contrive a abrupt irruption,
to a greater extent than often at night. At daybreak, the flaming begins; surprised men inwards the huts or inwards the fields are 3 quarter
massacred in addition to horribly mutilated; the women in addition to the children in addition to many men are reduced to captivity; the
soldiers Pb the frightened herds toward the camp, take away the grain in addition to the flour which they charge on
the shoulders of their prisoners spurred on past times blows of the whip, destroy the harvest, then, glutted with
booty in addition to intoxicated with blood, go to walk a chip farther from the devastation. That is what they call
‘civilizing a land."
Oromo Barentu people
The Oromo oral story also testifies that Ethiopians/Abyssinians destroyed in addition to looted the resources of Oromia, in addition to committed genocide on the Oromo people through massacre, slavery, depopulation, cutting hands, famine, in addition to diseases during in addition to after the colonization of Oromia. Recognizing this tragedy, “the Oromo said: ‘It is Waaqa [God] … who has subjected us to the Amhara.’” According to Martial De Salviac, “With equal arms, the Abyssinia [would] never [conquer] an inch of land. With the powerfulness of firearms imported from Europe, Menelik [Abyssinian warlord] began a murderous revenge.”
The colonization of Oromia involved human tragedy in addition to destruction: “The Abyssinian, inwards bloody raids, operated past times surprise, mowed downwards without pity, inwards the the world of the Oromo population, a mournful harvest of slaves for which the Muslims were thirsty in addition to whom they bought at real high price. An Oromo kid [boy] would cost upward to 800 francs inwards Cairo; an Oromo miss would good live worth 2 chiliad francs in
Constantinople”. The Ethiopian authorities massacred one-half of the Oromo population (five 1 chiliad one thousand out of ten million) in addition to their leadership during its colonial expansion.
According to Alexander Bulatovich (2000: 68-69), “The dreadful annihilation of to a greater extent than than one-half of the population during the conquest took away from the Gallas [Oromos] all possibilities of thinking virtually whatever sort of uprising. . . . Without a doubt, the Galla, with their to the lowest degree 5 1 chiliad one thousand population, occupying the best land, all speaking 1 language, could stand upward for a tremendous forcefulness if united.” The devastation of Oromo lives, institutions, in addition to Oromian natural beauty were aspects of Ethiopian colonial terrorism. The surviving Oromos who used to relish an egalitarian republic known as the gada scheme were forced to human face province terrorism, political repression, in addition to an impoverished life. Bulatovich explains virtually the gada direction in addition to notes that “the peaceful complimentary way of life, which could take hold go the ideal for philosophers in addition to writers of the eighteenth century, if they had known it, was completely changed. Their peaceful way of life is broken; liberty is lost; in addition to the independent, liberty loving Gallas regain themselves nether the severe control of
the Abyssinian conquerors.”
Ethiopian colonialists also destroyed Oromo natural resources in addition to the beauty of Oromia. Oromia was “an oasis luxuriant with large trees” in addition to known for its “opulent in addition to dark greenery used to shoot upward from the soil.” De Salviac also notes that “the greenery in addition to the shade please the eyes all over in addition to give the landscape richness in addition to a variety which brand it similar a garden without boundary. Healthful climate, uniform in addition to temperate, fertility of the soil, beauty of the inhabitants, the safety inwards which their houses seem to live situated, makes 1 dream of remaining inwards such a beautiful country.” The Abyssinian colonialists devastated “the forests past times pulling from it the laths for their houses in addition to [made] campfires or firewood for their dwellings. . .
. [They were] the swell destructors of trees, others [accused] them of exercising their barbarity against the forests for the sole pleasance of ravaging.”13 Bulatovich applied to Oromia the phrase “flowing inwards milk in addition to honey” to signal its abundant wealth inwards cattle in addition to honey.
The Ethiopian colonial province gradually established settler colonialism inwards Oromia in addition to developed 5 major types of colonial institutions, namely, slavery, the colonial landholding system, the nafxanya-gabbar scheme (semi-slavery), the Oromo collaborative class, in addition to garrison in addition to non-garrison cities. It introduced the physical care for of forced recruitment of labor via slavery in addition to the nafxanya-gabbar (semi-slavery) system. (The Ethiopian settlers continued to depopulate Oromia through slave merchandise until the 1930s when the Italian fascists abolished slavery to recruit adequate labor for their agricultural plantations inwards the Horn of Africa. The nafxanya-gabbar scheme was also abolished during this fourth dimension through the same process.) The colonial province expropriated almost all Oromo lands in addition to divided upward the Oromo amid colonial officials in addition to soldiers in addition to their collaborators to forcefulness them to create agricultural commodities in addition to nutrient for local consumption in addition to an
international market. The Oromo farmers were reduced to serfs or slaves or semi-slaves in addition to coerced to piece of work without remuneration for the settlers, intermediaries, in addition to the colonial province for sure days every week. Whenever they failed to supply complimentary labor or pay taxes or tributes, the settlers enslaved their children or wives.
The colonial terrorism that started during the reign of Menelik has continued nether successive Ethiopian governments. The Haile Selassie authorities continued the policies of Menelik until it was overthrown past times the pop revolt of 1974. The Selassie authorities terrorized the Oromo of Raya-Azabo, Wallo, Hararghe, Bale in addition to other regions because of their political in addition to cultural resistance to the Amhara-Tigray domination. It also imprisoned, tortured or hanged prominent Oromo leaders, such as Mamo Mazamir in addition to Haile Mariam Gamada who organized in addition to led the Macca-Tuulama Self-Help Association inwards the early on 1960s. The military
regime that emerged inwards 1974 nether the leadership Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam continued province terrorism, dictatorship, in addition to Ethiopian colonial policies. Currently, the Meles regime is continuing similar colonial policies in addition to practices inwards Oromia in addition to other places.
When Oromo activists in addition to the people started to resist the armed services regime, it intensified its province terrorism. The Military regime (derg) in addition to its supporters committed massive human rights violations inwards the call of the so-called Revolution. According to Norman J. Singer,
"Those killed inwards the firstly 3 months of the cause of the ‘Red Revolutionary Terror' . . . numbered
around 4000-5000 [in Finfinnee (Addis Ababa) alone], the killings continued inwards March 1978, spreading to
the relaxation of the the world . . . Those detained for political instruction numbered from 30,000 upwards . . .
Torture methods emphasized inwards the Red Terror . . . included severe beating on the head, soles of the feet . .
in addition to shoulders, with the victim hung past times the wrists or suspended past times wrists in addition to feet from a horizontal bar . . .
; sexual torture of boys in addition to girls, including pushing bottles or red-hot Fe bars into girls' vaginas; in addition to other
cruel methods."
The derg continued its volume imprisonments in addition to killings. In 1980, 1 Oromo source mentioned that "the Oromo constitutes the bulk of the to a greater extent than than 2 1 chiliad one thousand prisoners that glut Ethiopia's jails today". In the 1980s, thousands of Oromo nationalists were murdered or imprisoned; the regime also terrorized other elements of Oromo society. According to Gunnar Hasselblatt, the:military government"
"repeatedly held volume shooting amid the Oromo population, hoping to pause the free, independent Oromo
spirit. Sometimes a hundred, sometimes 2 hundred men were shot on this raised dry out patch . . . in addition to were
buried with bulldozers. Over years this physical care for was repeated several times. When the method did not
piece of work in addition to the Oromo population could non live forced into submission, other methods were used. The victims
were made to prevarication downwards with their heads on stone, in addition to their skulls were smashed with some other stone. The . . .
authorities . . . tried everything to consolidate its reign of terror in addition to exploitation of Oromia . . . . When the
Oromo motion could non live quenched past times shooting or past times the smashing of skulls, [the government] came
upward with a novel idea. Men’s testicles were smashed betwixt a hammer in addition to an anvil. Three men tortured and
maimed inwards this way are still living."
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has maintained its oppressive in addition to repressive structures on the Oromo past times the assistance of successive global powers, namely, Great Britain, the United States, erstwhile Soviet Union, in addition to China. As the erstwhile USSR supported the Mengistu regime, the US, powerful European countries in addition to China are supporting the Tigrayan-led Ethiopian government.Since 1992, the Tigrayan authoritarian-terrorist regime has controlled the Oromo in addition to denied them the liberty of expression, association, organization, the media, in addition to all forms of communication in addition to information networks. This authorities has been focusing on brutally
attacking the Oromo national motion led past times the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) in addition to on robbing the economical resources of Oromia inwards monastic enjoin to enrich the Tigrayan elites in addition to their collaborators in addition to to specifically develop the Tigrayan region. To make its political in addition to economical objectives, the regime primarily uses its puppet organisation known as the Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO) which was created in addition to is today controlled past times the Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front (TPLF); the OPDO is led past times Tigrayan cadres, elements of Oromo speaking colonial settlers, in addition to opportunistic Oromos who would do anything inwards exchange for luxurious lifestyles.
The minority Tigrayan-led Ethiopian authorities is attempting to give a terminal solution for a large political job that has existed for several centuries—the human relationship betwixt the Oromos in addition to their Amhara-Tigrayan colonizers. As nosotros know from history, the policy of targeting in addition to exterminating indigenous peoples exists inwards different parts of the world, in addition to it has been an integral do of the racialized capitalist world scheme since the 16th century. While claiming to promote Christian civilization, modernity, in addition to commerce, European colonialists exterminated indigenous peoples inwards the Americas, Australia, Asia, in addition to Africa over a time period of several centuries inwards monastic enjoin to transfer their resources to European colonial settlers in addition to their descendants. Specifically, the plans in addition to actions that King Leopold of Kingdom of Belgium had for the Congo or Andrew
Jackson of the U.S. for the Cherokees or colonial FRG for the Herero in addition to Nama peoples inwards South West Africa (Nambia) are real similar to the grand computer program in addition to activeness the Meles authorities has for the Oromo nation.
Read farther here:http://www.gadaa.com/JalataWhatsNextForOromo.pdf
Gadaa as the Totality of the Oromo Civilization
Asafa Jalata, PhD,
Professors of Sociology in addition to Global Studies, in addition to Interim Chair of the Africana Studies Program
at the University of Tennessee – Knoxville
The critical in addition to comprehensive understanding of the classical Oromo civilization requires studying the historical, cultural, political, philosophical, religious, linguistic, in addition to geographical foundations of Oromo society. This is a monumental chore that cannot live adequately achieved at this historical moment. Currently our cognition of the social in addition to cultural history of Oromia (the Oromo nation) is real limited in addition to fragmented. For generations, the Oromo take hold mainly transmitted their history in addition to civilization through oral discourse.
Since Oromo scholars in addition to others take hold been discouraged or prohibited past times the Ethiopian colonial province from documenting Oromo oral traditions, adequate information is lacking. Due to the dominant role of oral history, Oromo historiography requires a thorough in addition to critical study of oral traditions. For the Oromo, as for
many African societies, the observation applies that “each fourth dimension an old adult man [or a woman] dies a library is lost.” The Ethiopian colonial province has suppressed the production, reproduction, in addition to dissemination of the intellectual cognition of the people past times destroying and/or suppressing Oromo institutions, culture, in addition to history.
For most Ethiopian in addition to Ethiopianist scholars, Oromo history began inwards the 16th century when the Oromo were actively recapturing their territories in addition to rolling dorsum the Christian in addition to Muslim empires (Jalata, 2005). The Oromo had at that fourth dimension a cast of constitutional authorities known as gadaa (Luling, 1965; Baissa, 2004: 101). Although nosotros take hold limited cognition of Oromo history before the 16th century, it is reasonable to think that this people did non invent the gadaa scheme just at the minute they were consolidating themselves through defensive in addition to offensive wars in addition to thereby entering "recorded history." Between the 16th in addition to 19th, when various peoples were fighting over economical resources inwards the Horn of Africa, the Oromo were effectively organized nether the gadaa establishment for both offensive in addition to defensive wars.
As Virginia Luling (1965: 191) mentions, "from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century the [Oromo] were dominant on their ain territories; no people of other cultures were inwards a spot to exercise compulsion over them." There are adequate evidences that signal the Oromo people dominated the areas from Abyssinia, the Amhara-Tigray homeland, to Mombasa in addition to from Somalia to the Sudan (albeit at that spot were no good demarcated boundaries) before they were partitioned in addition to colonized during the Scramble for Africa (Hambly, 1930: 176). To increment our understanding of the classical Oromo civilization, it is necessary to demonstrate the connections amid Oromo peoplehood, culture, worldview, philosophy, religion, in addition to politics. Let us start our analysis of the Oromo classical civilization with indigenous Oromo republic as
the key foundation of social in addition to political institutions.
Oromo Democracy in addition to its Major Principles
The indigenous gadaa scheme organized in addition to ordered gild around political, economic, social, cultural, in addition to religious institutions (Baissa, 1971, 1993; Legesse, 1973). We do non know when in addition to how this scheme emerged. However, nosotros know that it existed as a full-fledged scheme at the firstly of the sixteenth century. During this century, the Oromo were nether 1 gadaa direction (Baissa, 1993). According to Lemmu Baissa (2004: 101), Gadaa authorities comprised a hierarchy of triple levels of government: the national, the regional in addition to the local. At the pan-Oromo level, the national authorities was led past times an elected luba council [leaders] formed from representatives of the major Oromo moieties, clan families in addition to clans, nether the presidency of the abbaa gadaa in addition to his 2 deputies . . . The national leadership was responsible for such of import matters as legislation in addition to enforcement of full general laws, handling issues of state of war in addition to peace in addition to coordinating the nation’s defense, direction of intra-Oromo clan conflicts in addition to dealing with non-Oromo people.
Oromo karrayyu warrior at Gadaa ceremony
Gadaa has 3 interrelated meanings: it is the grade during which a grade of people assumes politico-ritual leadership, a time period of viii years during which elected officials take powerfulness from the previous ones, in addition to the establishment of Oromo gild (Legesse, 1973; 2006). Discussing the philosophy of Oromo democracy, Asmarom Legesse (1973: 2) notes, "What is astonishing virtually this cultural tradition is how far Oromo take hold gone to ensure that powerfulness does non autumn inwards the manus of state of war chiefs in addition to despots. They make this goal past times creating a scheme of checks in addition to balances that is at to the lowest degree as complex as the systems nosotros regain inwards Western democracies." Bonnie Holcomb (1991: 4) asserts that the gadaa scheme “organized the Oromo people inwards an all-encompassing democratic republic fifty-fifty before the few European pilgrims arrived from England on the shores of North America in addition to only later built a democracy.”
The gadaa scheme has the principles of checks in addition to balances (through periodic succession of every viii years), in addition to partition of powerfulness (among executive, legislative, in addition to judicial branches), balanced opposition (among 5 parties), in addition to powerfulness sharing betwixt higher in addition to lower administrative organs to forbid powerfulness from falling into the hands of despots. Other principles of the scheme take hold included balanced representation of all clans, lineages, regions in addition to confederacies, accountability of leaders, the settlement of disputes through reconciliation, in addition to the observe for basic rights in addition to liberties (Baissa, 1971, 1993). There take hold been 5 miseensas (parties) inwards gadaa; these parties take hold different names inwards different parts of Oromia as the resultant of
Oromo expansion in addition to the establishment of different autonomous administrative systems (Lepisa, 1975; Ibssa 1992).
All gadaa officials were elected for viii years past times universal adult manlike individual suffrage. The scheme organized manlike individual Oromos according to age-sets (hirya) based on chronological age, in addition to according to generation-sets (luba) based on genealogical generation, for social, political in addition to economical purposes. These 2 concepts – gadaa-sets (age-sets) in addition to gadaa-grades (generationsets) – are of import to a clear understanding of gadaa. All newly born males would come inwards a gadaa-set at birth, which they would belong to along with other boys of the same age, in addition to for the adjacent xl years they would go through 5 eight-year initiation periods; the gadaa-grade would live entered on the footing of generation, in addition to boys would come inwards their luba xl years after their
fathers (Legesse, 1973: 81). In incorporating the age-classification system, gadaa is similar to age-sets practiced past times the Masai, Kikuyu in addition to the Nuer. However, its work of genealogical generations as its organizing elements makes it different in addition to unique.
In 1522, the Oromo had already begun to participate inwards the extensive in addition to intensive struggle inwards the Horn of Africa. This was before the Muslims seriously confronted Christian Abyssinia inwards 1527. In the firstly one-half of the 16th century, after 2 centuries of domination, the Muslims destroyed Christian dominion in addition to established their ain nether the leadership of 1 Ahmed Gragn for to a greater extent than than a decade.
The Oromo were caught inwards the wars of the Christian in addition to Muslim empire-builders, in addition to according to Darrel Bates (1979: 7), "The [Oromo] . . . of the southern in addition to western highlands had suffered inwards their fourth dimension from both parties, in addition to were waiting inwards the wings for opportunities . . . to recover lands which had been taken from them." Internally, an increment inwards both population in addition to cattle had exhausted the scarce resources; externally, the wars with both the Christians in addition to the Muslims endangered the Oromo's survival as people.
Oromo common salt collector inwards in Crater lake
Butta wars occurred every viii years past times the Oromo, when powerfulness transferred from 1 gadaa grade to the next, in addition to were organized for revenge, or for defensive in addition to offensive purposes. In the firstly of the 16th century, when they began to intensify their territorial recovery in addition to expansion through the butta wars, all Oromo were nether 1 gadaa government.
This factor, according to Asmarom Legesse (1973: 8, 10, 74), in addition to the powerfulness of the gadaa scheme to consolidate the people both militarily in addition to organizationally enabled them to expand or recover their territories in addition to accommodate their increased population in addition to stock. Their recovery in addition to expansion signaled their survivability (Ta’a, 1986: 17). The Oromo fought twelve butta wars betwixt 1522 in addition to 1618, recovering, expanding, in addition to establishing Oromia (the Oromo country) to its nowadays boundaries (Ta’a, 1986: 21-28). In the course of study of their continued expansion into various regions, different groups established autonomous gadaa governments. Various Oromo groups kept their relations through the business office of Abbaa Muuda (the manlike individual parent of anointment) (Ta’a,1986:10) in addition to formed alliances or confederations during times of difficulty. The gadaa scheme has a real logical structure, but because of the interlinking of the 2 concepts of belonging and
responsibleness that are at its core, it is non easily accessible at firstly glance. Several descriptions are offered here. John Hinnant (1978: 213-214) says:
"[Gadaa] divides the stages of life, from childhood to old age, into a serial of formal steps,
each marked past times a transition ceremony defined inwards terms of both what is permitted in addition to what
is forbidden. The aspect of gadaa, which throws the concept of historic time period grading into confusion
is that of recruitment. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 strict age-grade scheme assumes that an individual’s social passage
through life is inwards melody with his biological development. An private enters the scheme at a
specific historic time period in addition to passes through transition rites at intervals appropriate to the passage from
childhood through total adulthood to senility. However, recruitment into the gadaa scheme is
non based upon biological age, but upon the recruitment that an private remain exactly
5 stages below his father’s level. Recruitment is thus based on the maintenance of one
socially defined generation betwixt manlike individual parent in addition to son.
Describing how gadaa currently works inwards the Borana part of Oromia, Asmarom Legesse (1973: 8) asserts that “[Gadaa] is a scheme of classes (luba) that succeed each other every viii years inwards assuming military, economic, political, in addition to ritual responsibilities. Each gadaa grade remains inwards powerfulness during a specific term (gadaa), which begins in addition to ends with a formal transfer ceremony.” And “[society is organized] into 2 distinct but cross-cutting systems of peer grouping structures. One is a scheme inwards which the members of each grade are recruited strictly on the footing of chronological age. The other is a scheme inwards which the members are recruited as strictly on the footing genealogical generations. The firstly has nada to do with genealogical ties. The 2nd has piffling to do. Both types of social groups are formed every viii years. Both sets of
groups turn over from 1 stage of evolution to the adjacent every viii years” (Legesse, 1973: 50- 51).
Despite the emergence of various autonomous gadaa administrations after the mid-17th
century, the key principles of the scheme remained intact. While establishing these
autonomous local governments, the Oromo formed alliances, federations, in addition to confederations to
maintain their cultural in addition to political solidarity in addition to defend their safety in addition to involvement from their
mutual enemies (Bulcha, 1996: 50; Etefa, 2008). The possession of establishment of qaallu (the
spiritual leader) in addition to the mutual gadaa authorities seems to take hold been what Mohamed Hassen
(1990: 9) terms “‘the special mark’ of the Oromo nation.” We take hold seen that Oromo males are
involuntarily recruited to both age-sets in addition to generation-sets. Male children bring together age-sets as newly
born infants. Males born inwards the same eight-year time period belong to an age-set. But they come inwards into
the scheme of gadaa grades xl years after their fathers, in addition to since 1 grade is viii years,
fathers in addition to sons are 5 grades apart. Male children tin can bring together advanced grades at birth, in addition to may
bring together men or old men who are considered to live members of their genealogical generations. Older
men mentor immature males inwards teaching rules in addition to rituals, but the erstwhile care for the later as equals
since at that spot is no status difference betwixt the 2 groups inwards a gadaa class. Members of a gadaa
grade part the same status in addition to roles in addition to perform their rights of passage from 1 grade to
some other collectively.
Although some Oromo accepted Islam past times forcefulness or as resistance to Ethiopian colonial
domination, in addition to others were forced to take Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity or willingly
accepted other forms of Christianity, their worldviews “are still hidden nether the surface”
(Lambert, 1990: 42). Oromo prayers, blessings, in addition to greetings manifest the Oromo worldview.
“The words of prayers, blessings in addition to greetings continuously create in addition to recreate connections
betwixt the organizational in addition to the cosmological structures,” P. T. W. Baxter (1990: 247) writes,
“such as the moieties in addition to gaada.” Discussing the original scheme of Oromo thought and
worldview, Lambert Bartels asserts (1990: 15) that “whether they became Christians or Muslims,
the Oromo’s traditional modes of experiencing the divine take hold continued almost unaffected, in
spite of the fact that several rituals in addition to social institutions inwards which it was expressed take hold been
real diminished or obviously submerged inwards novel ritual cloaks.”
In Oromo society, cognition in addition to information take hold been mainly transmitted from
generation to generation through the institutions of family, religion, in addition to gadaa. Young Oromo
are expected to acquire of import things that are necessary for social integration in addition to community
development. They acquire appropriate social demeanor past times joining age-sets in addition to generation-sets.
From their families, communities in addition to experts, they acquire stories, folk tales, riddles, in addition to other
mental games that assist acquiring the cognition of society. As age-mates, they part many
things because of their ages; members of generation-sets also part many duties in addition to roles
because of their membership inwards grades or classes.
At the stage of grade 4 “the gadaa classes in addition to the historic time period set come upward into existence as a formal
corporate group: Leaders are elected for both groups. The call of the most senior adult man inwards each
grouping becomes the call of the grouping as a whole. The 2 groups in addition to so go cross-linked,
cross-cutting, structural units that operate as complementary institutions so long as they are
both represented past times living members “ (Legessee, 1973: 58) [author’s emphasis]. Between the
3rd in addition to 4th gadaa grades, boys go adolescent in addition to initiated into taking serious social
responsibilities. The ruling grouping has responsibleness to assign senior leaders in addition to experts to
instruct in addition to council these immature men inwards the importance of leadership, organization, in addition to warfare.
They also acquire songs, parables, proverbs, cultural in addition to historical maps, in addition to other social skills
that they tin can work inwards populace spoken language to praise the living in addition to dead heroes or to criticize in addition to ridicule
cowardice in addition to traitors. Oratory, the fine art of populace speaking, is highly valued inwards Oromo society;
“the forms of delivery, the wit of the speaker, his tone of voice, his posture, oculus contact and
powerfulness to command the attending of the audience” are skills to live honed in addition to admired (Megersa,
1993: 36).
Young men are also trained to go junior warriors past times taking constituent inwards state of war campaigns and
hunting large animals; they acquire the practical skills of warfare, armed services organization, and
fighting so that they tin can engage inwards battle to defend their the world in addition to economical resources (Baxter,
1979: 69-95). P. T. W. Baxter (1979: 177) argues that the Oromo take hold used age-sets because
generation-sets “cannot live an efficient agency to mobilise troops, in addition to a quite distinct organisation
based on closeness of historic time period . . . exists for that purpose.” In the Borana community, where many
elements of the gadaa scheme still exist, the assembly known as Gumi Gayyo (the assembly of
multitudes) brings together every type of of import living leaders, such as living– Abba Gaddas,
the qaallus, age-set councilors, clan leaders in addition to gadaa councilors, in addition to other concerned
individuals – to brand or amend or modify laws in addition to rules every viii years (Huqqaa, 1998). The
Gumi Gayyo assembly has the highest grade of control than the gadaa in addition to other assemblies,
in addition to other assemblies cannot opposite its decisions (Legessee, 1973: 93).
The Abbaa Boku (the manlike individual parent of scepter) was a ‘chairman’ who presided over the assembly.
According to G. W. B. Huntingford (1955: 54): “The Abbaa Boku in addition to his 2 colleagues are
chosen from the oldest or most distinguished families, which are known as `families of Hayu.'
The principal constituent of the Abbaa Boku is to preside over the parliament . . . to proclaim the
laws, in addition to to deed when necessary as ritual proficient inwards the gadaa-ceremonies.” Abbaa Gadaa is
some other call for Abbaa Boku.
The Abbaa Duula (the defense forcefulness minister) was also 1 of the leading figures inwards the gadaa
government. He was the leader of qondala (army) in addition to was elected past times the people. His main
responsibleness included assisting the Abbaa Boku, especially during the fourth dimension of war. The Abbaa
Boku was also supported past times a council, known as shanee or salgee, in addition to retired gadaa officials.
Gadaa laws were passed past times the caafee (assembly) in addition to implemented past times officials. There was no
taxation nether this scheme except that gadaa leaders in addition to their families were provided with
necessary materials, such as food.
Despite kinship relationships are existence such an of import factors inwards Oromo society, those
who are elected to business office are expected to serve without regard to kinship ties. Nobody is above
the dominion of law inwards Oromo democracy. Lemmu Baissa (1993: 11) expresses the take in that the
gadaa scheme “as a whole “provided . . . the mechanism for democratic dominion in addition to enjoyment of
maximum liberty for the people.” Despite the gadaa scheme existence an egalitarian social system,
women were excluded from passing through age-sets in addition to generation-sets. Gadaa effectively
enforced a gender-based partition of labor inwards Oromo society, although it allowed 2 equally
of import separate in addition to interdependent economical domains.
Explaining how the gadaa scheme brought these 2 domains together past times establishing
mechanisms of balancing, regulating, in addition to safeguarding these domains, Qabbannee Waqayyo
(1991: 8) argues that “men take hold controlled the mobile resources -- those that required going out
from the homestead – herding, defense forcefulness of livestock in addition to land, tilling novel fields, plowing, etc.
Women take hold controlled the stationary resources – the house, the grain in addition to other products of the
fields 1 time they are brought into gotara for storage, etc. Even the cattle around the house are
nether their control; women milk them, create upward one's heed how much milk goes to the calves, how much to
the people inwards the household for drinking, how much for butter or cheese to eat or sell, how much
to guests who convey valuable information, go friends inwards fourth dimension of need.”
The balancing of the domains of women in addition to men in addition to maintaining their interdependence
take hold been preconditions for keeping peace betwixt the sexes in addition to for promoting safu (moral and
ethical order) inwards gild (Kelly, 1992). “By exercising a existent day-to-day command over the
disposition of the resources at every dot of the decision-making physical care for inwards ways that are
protected past times the value scheme of society,” Waqayyo (1991: 9) writes, “the adult woman wields
determinative influence inwards the gild as a whole.” The gadaa scheme in addition to the siiqqee institution
had influenced the value scheme of Oromo society. In pre-colonial Oromo society, women had
the siiqqee institution, a parallel establishment to the gadaa scheme that “functioned manus inwards hand
with Gadaa [sic] scheme as 1 of its built-in mechanisms of checks in addition to balances” (Kumsa,
1997: 119). These 2 institutions helped maintain safu inwards Oromo gild past times enabling Oromo
women to take hold command over resources in addition to private spaces, social status in addition to respect, and
sisterhood in addition to solidarity past times deterring men from infringing upon their private in addition to collective
rights (Kumsa, 1997: 115-145). If the residuum betwixt men in addition to women was broken, a siqqee
rebellion was initiated to restore the law of God in addition to the moral in addition to ethical monastic enjoin of society.
When at that spot were violations of their rights, women left their homes, children, in addition to resources
in addition to traveled to a spot where at that spot was a large tree called qilxxu in addition to assembled at that spot until the
problems were solved through negotiation past times elders of men in addition to women (Kumsa, 1997: 129-
130). According to Kuwee Kumsa (1997: 126), “Married women take hold the right to organize and
cast the siiqqee sisterhood in addition to solidarity. Because women as a grouping are considered halaga
[non-relative] in addition to excluded from the Gadaa grades, they stick together in addition to count on 1 another
through siiqqee which they all take hold inwards mutual . . . inwards the unusual gosa [lineage] where women
live as strangers, siiqqee represents the woman parent in addition to they fifty-fifty address each other as `daughters of
a mother.’
They acquire together regularly for prayers as good as for other of import private in addition to community
matters. If men essay to halt women from attending these walargee (meetings), it is considered
against safu.”
Oromo women used different siiqqee mechanisms to maintain their rights; such
mechanisms included the law of muuka laaftu (soften wood), the abarsa (curse), iyya siiqqee
(scream), in addition to godaana siiqqee (trek). As Kumsa comments, “because of their liminality, women
wield a special religious powerfulness where they draw an enormous moral in addition to ritual authority. Men,
therefore, essay to avoid their curse in addition to seek their blessings . . . `Women inwards full general are
symbolically in addition to politically liminal in addition to correspondingly relish special sacred powerfulness as a class.’ .
. . people observe in addition to revere a adult woman because Waaq made her to live respected in addition to revered . . . .
Interference with a woman’s sacred control is regarded as violating seera Waaq in addition to safu”
(Kumsa, 1997: 127).
A adult man who violated women’s private in addition to collective rights could live corrected through
reconciliation in addition to pledging non to repeat the mistakes or through women’s reprisal ritual: A
grouping of women “ambush the offender inwards the bush or on the road, bind him, insult him verbally
using obscene linguistic communication that they would non unremarkably utter inwards the direct presence of an adult male
. . . pinch him, in addition to whip him with leafy branches or knotted strips of cloth. In extreme cases,
they may forcefulness him to crawl over thorny or rocky ground piece they whip him . . . They demand
livestock sacrifice as the toll to cease their attack. If he refuses, they may necktie him to a tree inwards the
bush in addition to seize 1 of his animals themselves. Other men rarely intervene ” (Kelly, 1992: 187).
With the colonization of the Oromo people in addition to the devastation of gadaa in addition to siiqqee institutions
Oromo women take hold been subjected to 3 levels of oppression: racial/ethno-national, class,
in addition to gender oppression. How did the social structures of the Oromo gild piece of work before
colonization?
The Origin in addition to Branches of the Oromo
Between the twelfth in addition to 13th centuries, the Oromo were already organized into 2 confederations or moieties known as Barentu in addition to Borana (Hassen, 1990: 4-6). All Oromo subgroups tin can in addition to do describe their genealogies to these confederations. Practically, however, it is non possible “to describe inwards item the mode inwards which farther partition in addition to the formation of” these moieties, sub-moieties, clans, in addition to lineages did occur (Haberland, 1963: 775). According to the Oromo oral tradition, these Borana in addition to Barentu moieties descended from the same house unit of measurement stock called Oromo (Baxter 1983: 129-149).
Despite the fact that the Oromo claim that they descended from the same house unit of measurement stock,
Oromo, they do non boundary their kinships to biological ancestry. The Oromo kinship scheme has
been based on a biological in addition to social descent. The Oromo recognize social ancestry in addition to avoid
the distinction betwixt the biological in addition to social descent since they know that the formation of
Oromo peoplehood was based on the biological in addition to social kinship.
The Oromo take hold had a long history of cultural contacts with non-Oromo through war, marriage, economical relationship, in addition to grouping adoption (Baxter, 1994: 174; Braukamper, 1989: 428). However, when at that spot were wars in addition to conflicts betwixt the Oromo in addition to their neighbors on economical in addition to cultural resources, such as land, water, territory, merchandise route, in addition to religious in addition to political issues, the erstwhile imposed specific cultural policies to structurally in addition to culturally modify the conquered people inwards monastic enjoin to Oromoize them in addition to consolidate Oromo society. Oromo laws strictly forbade the distinction betwixt the social in addition to biological descents (Megerssa, 1993: 27). P. T. W. Baxter (1994: 174) explains that “the adoption of adults, in addition to often all their dependents
used to live a mutual practice, which thereby incorporated them in addition to their descendants into the family, in addition to hence into the lineage, clan . . . These practices, though almost certainly widespread in addition to frequent, took spot despite the business solid ideological contention that descent in addition to inheritance were both rigidly patrilineal. Oromo social theory, similar most others, was often real flexible inwards practice.”
Through the physical care for of grouping or private adoption known as moggaasa or guudifacha, non-Oromo were adopted to Oromo gossa (confederation of clans), in addition to were structurally in addition to culturally Oromoized; these assimilated Oromo describe their descent to Oromo moieties in addition to to the original Oromo (Braukamper, 1980: 25). Non-Oromo neighbors who were defeated inwards state of war or who wanted to part resources with Oromo groups would live adopted to the Oromo gossa: “The adopted groups at nowadays go collectively the `sons’ of gossa . . . this organisation was inspired past times political, armed services in addition to economical considerations, though clearly it is couched inwards the symbolism of kinship in addition to affiliation” (Blackhurst, 1978: 243). The original 2 moieties, Borana in addition to Barentu, had 1 overarching political construction called the gadaa scheme that helped fashion.
Oromo relations within themselves in addition to with outsiders, but evolved the mechanisms for incorporating novel members. According to Hector Blackhurst (1978: 243-244), “Oromo political construction as it existed before [the sixteenth century] expansion began was flexibly centralized, inwards that major business office holders were located at fixed points but powerfulness was sufficiently diffused throughout the scheme to enable local-level conclusion making to proceed without constant reference dorsum to the center. However, the whole scheme was renewed spiritually in addition to structurally past times the meetings at the caafee where legal matters were discussed in addition to the law set downwards or reiterated.”
Oromo Karrayu woman,Ethiopia
Although the Oromo had a biologically- in addition to socially-constructed complex kinship system, as nosotros volition take in below, the formation in addition to appear of Oromo peoplehood are mainly culturally shaped (Baxter 1994: 248). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 meliorate understanding of Oromo people-hood in addition to cultural identity requires the identification in addition to exploration of the main characteristics in addition to essence of Oromo social organizations in addition to politico-religious institutions. Let us take hold some understanding of the Oromo kinship scheme on macro in addition to micro-levels since it has been the basic social construction for defining mutual interests inwards resources direction in addition to utilization in addition to inwards the physical care for of establishing political in addition to religious leadership in addition to inwards forming leagues or confederations amid Oromo society.
These leagues or confederations were based on a complex kinship system. The Oromo telephone phone the largest kinship scheme gossa, which is subdivided into moiety, sub-moiety in addition to qomo (clan). These subdivisions take hold lower-order branches of kinship known as mana (lineage), balbala (minor lineages), in addition to warra (minimal lineage or extended family) (Legesse, 1973: 37-42; Knutsson, 1967; Kelly, 1992: 40-63).
Wherever the Oromo were divided into sub-moieties in addition to clans, at that spot is “clear distinction betwixt clans in addition to lineages. The clan (qomo) is firstly of all a social group, consisting of several descent groups who demand non all live Oromo. The pump of every clan is compounded of a cluster of lineages tracing their descent to the ancestor who gave his call to the clan” (Bartels, 1990: 205). There were 5 sets of sub-moieties that extended from the Borana in addition to Barentu moieties: the Sabbo in addition to the Gona, the Macha in addition to Tulama, in addition to the Raya in addition to Assabo, the Siko in addition to the Mando, in addition to the Itu in addition to Humbana (Megerssa, 1993: 24-37). The firstly 3 sets belong to Borana, in addition to the 2nd 2 sets are branches of Barentu. The descendants of these moieties occupy specific areas inwards Oromia today: The Raya in addition to Assabo branches occupy northern Oromia (i.e., include some constituent of Tigray, the whole of Wallo in addition to some constituent of northern Shawa). The regions of Macha in addition to Tulama include most of the nowadays regions of Shawa, Wallaga, Ilubabor, in addition to the Gibe region.
The branches of Sabbo in addition to Gona occupy some constituent of the nowadays Sidamo, constituent of Gammu-Gofa, in addition to Borana, Gabra, in addition to Guji lands, in addition to some constituent of Kenya. The descendants of Siko in addition to Mando occupy the Arssi in addition to Bale lands, in addition to some constituent of the Rift Valley. Finally, the branches of Itu in addition to Humbana live inwards most of Haraghe in addition to some constituent of Wallo inwards the north. Nevertheless, at that spot take hold non been demarcated boundaries amid these parts of Oromia.
Whenever members of these moieties are asked to spot their descents, they ever supply the call of their moieties, rather than their lineages. The complexity of the Oromo kinship scheme is demonstrated past times the existence of similarly named putative descent groups on the macro in addition to micro kinship levels across the whole spectrum of Oromo gild (Baxter, 1994: 177). Because of these complexities in addition to the paucity of data, it is impossible at this fourth dimension to fully reconstruct the Oromo kinship system. Linguistic, anthropological in addition to historical information take hold linked the Oromo to the so-called eastern Cushitic-speaking peoples who take hold been inwards the Horn of Africa as far as their history is known (Lewis, 1966). These so-called eastern Cushitic speakers were historically, geographically, culturally in addition to linguistically connected peoples. The Oromo take hold lived for their known history inwards the Horn of Africa as these related peoples (Greenfield in addition to Hassen, 1980: 3).
Before the Arab elements immigrated to the Horn of Africa in addition to mixed with some indigenous African peoples in addition to developed into the Abyssinians or Habashas, the Horn of Africa was the spot of the so-called Cushitic in addition to other peoples. The Cushitic-speaking peoples settled on the key “Abyssinia/Ethiopian” Plateau, in addition to were differentiated into subgroups. The Oromo were 1 of these groups that moved southward (Melbaa 1980: 5; Ehret, 1976). The Oromo take hold complex worldview, philosophy, in addition to religion, as nosotros shall take in below.
Oromo Worldview, Philosophy, in addition to Religion
Oromo gild similar whatever gild has been witting of its cultural identity, its relation to nature,
in addition to the existence of a powerful forcefulness that regulates the connexion betwixt nature in addition to society.
The Oromo cognition of gild in addition to the world tin can live classified into two: a) cultural and
customary cognition known as beekumsa aadaa, in addition to b) cognition of laws known as beekumsa
seera. The cognition of laws is farther subdivided into seera Waaqa (the laws of God), and
seera nama (the laws of human beings). The laws of God are immutable, in addition to the laws of human
beings tin can live changed thorough consensus in addition to democratic means. Oromo customary knowledge
is a populace in addition to mutual cognition that guides in addition to regulates the activities of members of
society; some elements of this customary cognition tin can develop into rules or laws depending on
the involvement of gild (Megerssa, 1993: 20-23).
Every individual is expected to acquire in addition to recognize seera Waaqa in addition to seera aadaa; however,
should someone does non know the laws of gild or the laws of God, at that spot are Oromo experts
who tin can live referred to. These experts study in addition to know the organizing principles of the Oromo
worldview that reverberate Oromo cultural retention in addition to identity both temporally in addition to religiously
(Megerssa, 1993: 20-23). Oromo institutions tin can live meliorate understood past times studying the Oromo
concept of social evolution (finna). As inwards whatever society, social changes occur inwards Oromo society
past times combining the cumulative historical experiences with the contemporary condition. Hence
finna “represents the legacy of the past times which each generation inherits from its forefathers [and
foremothers] in addition to which it transforms; it is the fertile patrimony held inwards trust past times the present
generation which it volition enrich in addition to bequeath to futurity generations . . . [it describes] a developing
of the inner potential of gild based on the cultural roots it has already set down” (Kassam,
2007).
The Oromo concept of social evolution is constructed inwards 7 interconnected phases: Gudina, gabbina, ballina, badhaadha, hoormata, dagaaga, in addition to dagaa-hoora. When gudina indicates an improvement inwards cultural life due to the introduction of novel experiences to Oromo society, gabbina involves the physical care for of integrating cumulative cultural experiences with contemporary social conditions through broadening in addition to deepening the scheme of cognition in addition to worldview. According to Aneesa Kassam (2007) “This tin can only live achieved through the total knowledge, consent in addition to active participation of all members of the community. This implies the existence of a political organization, the forum for debate in addition to the democratic agency of reaching a consensus on all decisions affecting the mutual good. This should live obtained without forcefulness or coercion, without excluding the interests of whatever group, within the Oromo gild in addition to exterior it, inwards the broader context of the national or international arena. To this end, the Oromo evolved a political physical care for of powerfulness sharing reputed for its highly egalitarian nature: Gadaa.”
Oromo Karrayyu people at Gadaa ceremony
Without gadaa or Oromo republic at that spot cannot live finna (development), peace, social justice, kao (freedom, peace, prosperity, success, in addition to happiness), in addition to safu. Gabbina emerges through democracy, peace, cooperation in addition to consensus of all members of Oromo gild of different levels to improve economic, cultural, in addition to political conditions. Next to gabbina, at that spot is a ballina phase. Ballina involves the expansion of enriched cultural in addition to political experiences from Oromo gild to some other gild through reciprocity of cultural borrowing in addition to resources sharing in addition to interdependence, based on the principles of democracy. This is the stage that focuses on unusual relations. It allows Oromo gild to involve inwards cultural exchange and
cooperation with neighboring peoples. The cumulative experiences of gudina, gabbina, in addition to ballina Pb to the stage of badhaadha (richness). Theoretically badhaadha is a stage at which the Oromo in addition to their neighbors who take their philosophy of social evolution obtain peace, prosperity, in addition to wholeness since at that spot are no incidences of conflict, poverty, disease, in addition to natural calamities.
The badhaadha stage of evolution tin can only live achieved when at that spot is peace betwixt Waaqa (God), uuma (nature), in addition to society. According to Baxter (1990: 238), human beings “must hold right with each other inwards monastic enjoin to hold right with God, in addition to they must hold right with God to hold right with each other. Good social relationships in addition to proper ritual relationships are reflexes of each other. Violence betwixt men is both a cause in addition to effect of God’s displeasure.” The evolution of this stage facilitates the emergence of the hoormaata phase. During this phase, animals in addition to people reproduce in addition to multiply because of availability of abundant resources in addition to peace. Following this stage at that spot is a evolution stage known as dagaaga; this is the stage at which evolution cycles are assessed in addition to integrated to maintain fifty-fifty in addition to sustainable
development. At the terminal stage of evolution called daga-hoora, Oromo gild expands its cumulative cultural experiences of evolution to neighboring peoples through different mechanisms depending on a given condition. Sometimes, at this stage the Oromo had conflict with their neighbors because of the competition over resources, such as the world in addition to water.
Until the finally decades of the nineteenth century, when European imperialist intervention changed the residuum of powerfulness inwards favor of the Abyssinians, the Oromo easily defeated their competitors due to their gadaa organizational capacity in addition to armed services capability. The Oromo faith called Waaqeefana, worldview, philosophy, in addition to politics take hold been interconnected in addition to influenced 1 another. Oromo religious in addition to philosophical worldview considers the organisation of spiritual, physical in addition to human worlds as interconnected phenomena, in addition to Waaqa, the creator, regulates their existence in addition to functions inwards balanced ways. Explaining how Oromos believe that Waaqa directs the world from inwards a higher spot in addition to controls everything from within, Kassam (2007) expounds that the “image of creation has of import consequences for the Oromo vision of the
universe as a whole. It has influenced amid other aspects of its traditional culture, its political in addition to economical thought, in addition to determined its traditional scheme of authorities in addition to modes of production.”
The Oromo work 3 concepts to explicate the organisation in addition to interconnection of human, spiritual in addition to physical worlds. These 3 concepts are ayaana (spirit), uuma (nature), in addition to safu (moral in addition to ethical order). The Oromo believe that through ayaana, Waaqa (God) creates in addition to regulates human in addition to physical worlds inwards balanced ways. This ayaana also maintains the connexion betwixt the creator in addition to the created. Oromo gild has organizing principles for its known in addition to unknown universe similar whatever society; in addition to ayaana is a major organizing regulation of Oromo cosmology through which the concepts of fourth dimension in addition to creation are ordered (Kassam, 2007).
Oromo adult woman with her kid on her back
Ayaana as a scheme of classification in addition to an organizing regulation of Oromo cosmology establishes the connexion betwixt Waaqa (the Creator/God) in addition to the created (nature in addition to society) past times differentiating in addition to at the same fourth dimension uniting the created things in addition to the Creator (Kassam, 2007). The Oromo believe that Waaqa, the Supreme Being, created ayaana in addition to uses it to organize scattered things into order. As Gemetchu Megerssa (1993: 95) explains, “ayaana is the mechanism past times which the creator propels itself into becoming its ain opposite, in addition to dwells inwards that which it creates. This is in addition to so transposed to explicate the basic principles that embed themselves inwards the various Oromo institutions, since at that spot is no distinction betwixt the laws of thought, the laws of nature, history in addition to society.” The concept uuma includes everything created past times Waaqa including ayaana. Safu is an ethical in addition to moral “code that Oromos work to differentiate bad from goodness in addition to incorrect from right . . . [S]afu `constitutes the ethical footing upon which all human activeness should live founded; it is that which directs 1 on the right path; it shows the way inwards which life tin can live best lived’” (Megerssa, 1993: 255).
The Oromo claim that the understanding of laws of Waaqa, nature, in addition to gild both morally in addition to ethically in addition to living accordingly is necessary. They believe inwards God’s law in addition to the law of gild that they found through the gadaa scheme of republic to maintain nagaa (peace) in addition to safu amid Waaqa, society, in addition to nature to make their total human destiny known as kao or kayyo (Hinnant, 1978: 210). Respect for the laws of Waaqa in addition to gadaa take hold been essential to maintain nagaa Oromo (Oromo peace) in addition to safu (moral balance) inwards gild (Hinnant, 1978: 207- 243: Knutsson, 1967; de Loo, 1991).
Most Oromos believe that they had total kao before their colonization since they had liberty to develop their independent political, economic, cultural in addition to religious institutions. Original Oromo religious leaders, qaallus, take hold had a moral control in addition to social obligation to oppose tyrants in addition to back upward pop Oromo republic in addition to gadaa leaders, in addition to to encourage harmonious in addition to democratic relations based on the principles of safu, kao, Waaqa, in addition to uuma. The qaallu “is thought to possess sacred characteristics that enable him to deed as intermediary betwixt the people in addition to . . . [God],” in addition to “he had no administrative power, but could bless or withhold blessings from gadaa leadership, in addition to had an extraordinary powerfulness to curse anyone who threatened the wellbeing of the entire community past times deviating from . . . [God’s] order” (Kelly,
1992: 166)
The qaallu establishment has been committed to social justice, the laws of God, in addition to the dominion of law, in addition to fair deliberation; the qaallu “residence was considered politically neutral ground, suitable for debating controversial issues in addition to for adjudicating highly charged disputes, although he himself mightiness non take a prominent role inwards proceedings” (Kelly, 1992: 166). The qaallu establishment has played an of import role inwards protecting original Oromo culture, religion, worldview, in addition to identity. When those Oromos who were influenced past times this establishment kept their Oromo names, most Oromos who were converted to Islam or Christianity willingly or past times forcefulness abandoned their Oromo names in addition to adopted Muslim or Christian names depending on their borrowed religion. The qaallu tin can live credited with having played an indirect role inwards the
preservation of the Oromo identity in addition to the Oromo political system. The criteria to live a qallu included seniority inwards lineages, respectability inwards the community, expertise inwards ritual practices, moral qualification, observe for cultural taboos, audio social status, in addition to other leadership qualities (Knutsson, 1967: 66-67). The leader of all qallus was known as Abbaa Muuda (father of the anointment) who was considered to live the prophet in addition to spiritual leader of Oromo society. Oromo pilgrims traveled to the residence of Abbaa Muuda to have his approving in addition to anointment to live ritual experts inwards their respective regions (Knutsson, 1967: 148).
Abbaa Muuda served as the spiritual middle in addition to symbol of Oromo unity in addition to assisted all Oromo branches to hold inwards touching with 1 some other for several centuries; “as the Jews believe inwards Moses in addition to the Muslims inwards Muhammad, the Oromo believe inwards their Abbaa Muuda [sic]” (Hassen, 1991: 79). Abbaa Muuda similar other qaallu leaders encouraged harmonious in addition to democratic relations inwards Oromo society. According to the qaallu mythology, Abbaa Muuda, the original Oromo religious leader was descended from sky (Knutsson, 1967; Gololcha, 1988).
Oromo representatives traveled to the highlands of the mid-south Oromia to honour Abbaa Muuda in addition to to have his approving in addition to anointment that qualified them as pilgrims known as jilas to live ritual experts inwards their respective areas (Knutsson, 1967: 148). When Oromo representatives went to him from far in addition to close places to have his blessings, Abbaa Muuda commanded them “not to cutting their pilus in addition to to live righteous, non to recognize whatever leader who tries to acquire absolute power,and non to combat amid themselves” (knutsson, 1967: 148).
In its modified form, the qaallu establishment exists inwards some parts of Oromia, such as inwards the Guji in addition to Borana areas; it still protects an Oromo way of life, such as dispensing of local justice based on Oromo customs in addition to providing solutions to problems created past times a changing social status (Knutsson, 1967: 133-135). The qallus of Guji in addition to Borana are ritual leaders, advisors, in addition to ritual experts inwards the gadaa system. The qallus “possess the exclusive prerogative of legitimizing the different gadaa officials, when a novel gadaa grouping is initiated into the politically active class” (Knutsson, 1967: 142). The Oromo still do some elements of Oromo democratic values inwards the areas where the gadaa scheme was suppressed a century ago. The gadaa
scheme is still practiced inwards the Borana in addition to Guji regions nether the command of the Ethiopian colonial scheme inwards its modified form; it helps maintain peace, exchange cognition in addition to do rituals amid some clans in addition to regional groups (de Loo, 1991: 25).
Oromo Guji boy
The electrical flow gadaa of Borana in addition to Guji cannot fully reverberate its original political civilization nether Ethiopian colonialism. Theoretically, most Oromos including those intermediaries who are collaborating with the enemies of the Oromo recognize the importance of gadaa, in addition to some Oromo nationalists struggle to restore genuine Oromo democracy.
Efforts for Reviving in addition to Revitalizing Oromo Democracy
Some heart Oromo nationalist scholars advocate that without refining in addition to restoring elements of the original Oromo political civilization of gadaa, the Oromo gild cannot fully develop Oromummaa, which is absolutely necessary to make national self-determination, statehood, in addition to democratic governance. Recognizing that Oromo identity in addition to peoplehood are an appear of Oromo culture, some Oromo nationalist scholars take hold started to study the cultural foundations of Oromo gild to empathise the whole essence of this society. Such scholars believe that studying, understanding, in addition to restoring the original Oromo political institutions past times refining in addition to adapting them to contemporary conditions are practical steps towards unifying in addition to consolidating
the Oromo national movement.
Oromo dance
Some Oromo nationalists take hold already started to develop Oromummaa ideals based on original Oromo cultural foundations. The Oromo national struggle has initiated the Oromo cultural motion based on the next Oromo concepts: Oromummaa, gootummaa (bravery in addition to patriotism), walabummaa (sovereignty), bilisummaa (liberation), gadaa (popular Oromo democracy), nagaa (peace), in addition to kao or kayyo (prosperity in addition to peace) (Jalata, 2007). Furthermore, heart Oromo nationalist leaders assert today that all concerned Oromos should participate inwards revitalizing the Oromo national motion past times applying some elements of gadaa, aiming at establishing a futurity Oromia state, sharing sovereignty with others, implementing internal peace
within the Oromo society, in addition to promoting peace with Oromia’s neighbors. They also authorities annotation that the Oromo national struggle has at nowadays reached at a storey where it requires volume mobilization in addition to participation inwards monastic enjoin to succeed. In this mobilization, they recommend the motion to work the ideology in addition to principles of gadaa republic enshrined inwards Oromummaa to mobilize the entire land spiritually, financially, militarily, in addition to organizationally to take coordinated political in addition to armed services actions.
Gadaa, as an emblem of an Oromo cultural totality with its democratic traditions, has also go an ideological appear of the Oromo national movement. Holcomb (1993: 4) notes, “Gadaa represented an ideological footing for the appear of Oromo nationalism. This appear empowered the Oromo to resist oppression, go self-conscious as a land inwards the twentieth century inwards the human face of intense subjugation . . . Gadaa represents a repository, a storehouse of concepts, values, beliefs in addition to practices that are accessible to all Oromo. The challenge the Oromo human face at nowadays is the serious of fashioning elements of the heritage into an
ideology, which empowers the land to make the self-determination that the people aspire to.”
Also, a few Oromo scholars suggest that Oromo political organizations demand to work the Oromo political wisdoms in addition to experiences inwards monastic enjoin to make the national organizational capacity in addition to to throw off the chains of Ethiopian colonialism. They also recommend that after bringing together gadaa experts in addition to Oromo intellectuals who are familiar with the Oromo democratic traditions, the Oromo national motion should start to formulate procedures, strategies, in addition to tactics for edifice a national assembly with supreme control called Gumii Oromia. At this national Gumii, they suggest representatives of all Oromo sectors, all serious in addition to independent Oromo liberation fronts in addition to organizations should carry out their national obligations. This
national Gumii must live modeled after the Gumii Gayyo:
In Oromo democratic traditions, the highest control does non reside inwards the swell lawmakers who are celebrated past times the people, nor the rulers who are elected to regulation for viii years, nor hereditary rights, nor the age-sets in addition to age-regiments who furnish the armed services force, nor the abbaa duula who Pb their people inwards battle. It resides, instead, inwards the opened upward national assembly, at which all gadaa councils in addition to assemblies . . . active in addition to retired are represented, in addition to warra Qaallu, the electors, participate as observers. The meetings that take spot every viii years review the conduct of the ruling gadaa council, punish whatever violators of law, in addition to withdraw whatever or all of them from office, should that go necessary. In such sessions, a retired abbaa gadaa
presides. The primary purpose of the meetings of the national assembly, however, it to reexamine the laws of the land, to reiterate them inwards public, to brand novel laws if necessary, in addition to to settle disputes that were non resolved past times lower levels inwards their judicial organisation (Legesse 2006, 211).
The Gumii Gayyo is an appear of the exemplar model of the unwritten Oromo constitution. Reframing in addition to transforming the unwritten Oromo constitution into a novel written national constitution based on Oromo democratic principles require absolute commitment from Oromo nationalists in addition to their organizations. As Asmarom Legesse (2006: 255) puts, “Oromo republic is non perfect: if it were, it would non live democratic. Like all democratic institutions, it is the production of changing human thought that must ever live re-examined inwards relation to changing historic circumstances.” The underlying supposition is that past times establishing the National Assembly of Gumii Oromia, Oromo nationalists in addition to organizations of the Oromo national
motion aim to frame a written Oromo constitution past times adapting older Oromo political traditions to novel circumstances piece also learning from other democratic practices. Those who promote the thought of edifice Gumii Oromia recommend that the Oromo national motion needs to address 3 major issues. The firstly number is to farther develop Oromummaa to its fullest capacity past times overcoming its unevenness in addition to deficiencies. This volition strengthen the Oromo national organizational capacity.
Between the times when the Oromo were colonized in addition to until Oromo nationalism emerged, Oromoness primarily existed on personal in addition to the interpersonal levels since the Oromo were denied opportunities to cast national institutions. Expressed Oromoness was targeted for destruction; colonial administrative regions established to suppress the Oromo people in addition to exploit their resources. As a result, Oromo relational identities take hold been localized in addition to non strongly connected to a collective Oromo national identity. The Oromo were forcibly separated from 1 some other in addition to prevented from exchanging goods in addition to information with 1 some other for to a greater extent than than a century. They were exposed to different cultures (i.e., languages, customs, values, etc.) in addition to religions in addition to borrowed an array of them. Consequently, today at that spot are Oromos who have
internalized these externally imposed regional or religious identities because of their depression storey of political consciousness or because of their political opportunism. The Oromo people who did non develop national political consciousness still confuse clan, regional or religious politics with Oromo national politics.
Oromo woman
Overcoming these political weaknesses past times edifice Oromo national organizational capacity is only possible when Oromummaa as a national vision is accepted, energizes in addition to unites the entire Oromo nation. As an chemical factor of culture, nationalism, in addition to vision, national Oromummaa has the powerfulness to serve as a manifestation of the collective identity of the Oromo national movement. The footing of national Oromummaa must live built on overarching principles that are embedded within Oromo traditions in addition to civilization and, at the same time, take hold universal relevance for all oppressed peoples. The main foundations of national Oromummaa are rooted inwards the rights of private in addition to collective freedom, justice, pop democracy, in addition to human liberation, which are built on the concept of safu (Oromo moral in addition to ethical order) in addition to are enshrined inwards gadaa principles. As the ideology of the Oromo national movement, national Oromummaa enables the Oromo to call back their cultural memories, assess the consequences of Ethiopian colonialism, in addition to give vocalization to their collective grievances. National Oromummaa enables the Oromo people to cast alliances with all political forces in addition to social movements that take the principles of national self-determination in addition to multinational republic inwards advertisement of a global community that volition live complimentary from all forms of oppression in addition to exploitation. Therefore, Oromummaa is seen as a complex in addition to dynamic national in addition to global project.
Oromo (Borana tribe) woman
As a national projection in addition to the key ideology of the Oromo national movement, Oromummaa enables the Oromo to mobilize various cultural resources, interlink Oromo personal, interpersonal in addition to collective (national) relationships, in addition to assists inwards the evolution of Oromo-centric political strategies in addition to tactics that tin can mobilize the land for collective activeness empowering the people for liberation. As a global project, Oromummaa requires that the Oromo national motion live inclusive of all persons operating inwards a democratic fashion. This global Oromummaa enables the Oromo people to cast alliances with all political forces in addition to social movements that take the principles of national self-determination in addition to multinational republic inwards advertisement of a regional in addition to global humanity that volition live complimentary of all forms oppression and
exploitation. In other words, global Oromummaa is based on the principles of mutual solidarity, social justice, in addition to pop democracy.
The foundation of Oromummaa must live built on overarching principles that are embedded within the Oromo democratic tradition in addition to civilization and, at the same time, take hold universal relevance for all oppressed peoples. Although, inwards recent years, many Oromos take hold go adherents of Christianity in addition to Islam, the concept of Waaqa (God) lies at the pump of Oromo traditions in addition to culture. In Oromo traditions, Waaqa is the creator of the universe in addition to the source of all life. The universe created past times Waaaq contains within itself a sense of monastic enjoin in addition to residuum that is to live made manifest inwards human society. Although Oromummaa emerges from Oromo cultural in addition to historical foundations, it goes beyond civilization in addition to history inwards providing a liberative narrative for the futurity of the Oromo land as good as the futurity of other oppressed peoples, specially those who endure nether the Ethiopian Empire. Those Oromos who endorse in addition to glorify Ethiopianism in addition to clan/regional politics are undermining Oromummaa inwards monastic enjoin to relish powerfulness in addition to stuff benefits at the cost of the Oromo land in addition to other peoples.
Without recognizing the centrality of Oromummaa for the national struggle, the Oromo cannot develop a victorious consciousness that equips them with the cognition of liberation. Oromummaa as an intellectual in addition to ideological vision places the Oromo adult man in addition to adult woman at the middle of analysis in addition to at the same fourth dimension goes beyond Oromo gild in addition to aspires to develop global Oromummaa. Oromummaa challenges the thought of glorifying African monarchies, chiefs, or warlords that take hold collaborated with European slavers, colonizers in addition to neo-colonialists in addition to destroyed Africa past times participating inwards the slave merchandise in addition to the projects of colonialism, neocolonialism, in addition to global imperialism.
Those Africanist scholars who degrade African democratic traditions just as their Euro-American counterparts devalue the Oromo democratic scheme in addition to consider indigenous Africans such as the Oromo primitive in addition to “stateless.” Challenging the take in of Euro-American racist in addition to “modernist” scholars, Asmarom Legesse (2000: 30) asserts that “since monarchy was inwards decline inwards most Europe, in addition to the transition to republic became the paradigm of Europe’s highest political aspirations, admitting that some varieties of republic were firmly planted inwards Africa inwards the 16th century when inwards fact they were non fully established inwards Britain, the U.S. in addition to French Republic until the 17th or 18th century would take hold made the ideological premise of the ‘civilizing mission’ somewhat implausible. The thought . . . that African democracies may take hold some
constitutional features, which are to a greater extent than advanced than their European counterpart was in addition to still is considered quite heretical.”
Oromo women
Although the priority of the Oromo national motion is to liberate Oromia in addition to its people, the motion has moral in addition to political obligations to promote social justice in addition to republic for other peoples who take hold suffered nether the successive authoritarian-terrorist governments of the Ethiopian Empire.
Therefore, the Oromo motion needs to build a political alliance with national groups that endorse the principles of national self- determination in addition to multinational democracy. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 democratic Oromia should play a key role inwards a federated multinational democratic province because of its democratic tradition, the size of its population, geopolitics, in addition to abundant economical resources. The Oromo national motion should demonstrate to Oromo gild in addition to their neighbors that the Oromo land is serious virtually statehood, shared sovereignty, in addition to egalitarian multinational democracy.
Oromummaa, as oppressed nationalism in addition to a critical aspect of Afrocentric worldview, builds on the best elements of Oromo civilization in addition to traditions in addition to endorses an indigenous Oromo democracy. As an aspect of Afrocentric worldview (Asante, 1990) that sees an African civilization as the middle of African life in addition to the African Diaspora, Oromummaa bases its vision on Oromo pop democracy. The aspiration to restore this cast of pop republic is similar to the thought of developing Afrocentric awareness inwards the African in addition to African diaspora communities. According to Molefi Kete Asante (1988: 49), a critical Afrocentric awareness develops “when the individual becomes totally changed to a witting storey of involvement inwards the struggle for his or her ain heed liberation. Only when this happens tin can nosotros say that the individual is aware of the collective consciousness will. An imperative of will, powerful, incessant, alive, in addition to vital, moves to eradicate every describe of powerlessness.”
Those who endorse in addition to glorify Ethiopianism are undermining this Afrocentric awareness inwards monastic enjoin to relish powerfulness in addition to stuff benefits at the cost of various African population groups. Hence progressive Habashas, ordinary Amharas in addition to Tigrayans, other Africans, in addition to the African Diaspora must recognize the negative consequences of Ethiopianism in addition to back upward the struggle for self-determination, multinational democracy, in addition to evolution inwards Oromia, Ethiopia, in addition to beyond. Without recognizing the centrality of Africa for humanity inwards full general in addition to the significance of indigenous African cultures inwards particular, nosotros cannot develop “a victorious consciousness” (Asante, 1988) that equips us with the cognition of liberation. This cognition of liberation
must live a critical Afrocentric 1 that “places the African individual at the middle of analysis” past times making “the African individual subject, in addition to non object, of study” (Asante, 1990). Similarly, Oromummaa places the Oromo adult man in addition to adult woman at the middle of analysis in addition to at the same fourth dimension goes beyond Oromo gild in addition to aspires to develop global Oromummaa past times contributing to the solidarity of all oppressed peoples in addition to promoting the struggle for self-determination in addition to multinational democracy.
Recognizing the existence of various forms of indigenous African republic before Africa was partitioned in addition to colonized in addition to challenging Euro-American-centric scholarship in addition to Ethiopian studies that rationalize in addition to justify racial/ethno-national inequality tin can assist inwards developing a human-centric in addition to original scholarship. Learning virtually Oromo society—with its complex democratic laws, an elaborate legislative tradition, in addition to well-developed methods of dispute settlement—and the Oromo national struggle tin can nowadays a novel perspective for Africana studies in addition to politics.
Africans in addition to the African Diaspora in addition to other oppressed peoples tin can ally with 1 some other on global storey past times exchanging political in addition to cultural experiences in addition to re-creating the ideology of panAfricanism from “below” in addition to past times edifice global mutual solidarity based on the principles of pop republic in addition to egalitarian world order. As globalization in addition to transnational capitalism intensify its barbarism in addition to terrorism through looting in addition to destroying indigenous population groups, such as the Oromo, in addition to others, the selection of establishing regional in addition to global mutual solidarity of the oppressed in addition to exploited human groups on the principles of pop republic in addition to egalitarian world monastic enjoin volition go absolutely necessary. The Oromo classical civilization
tin can immensely contribute to such alternative liberation projects.
source:http://www.jpanafrican.com/docs/vol5no1/5.1Gadaa.pdf
Beautiful Oromo women celebrating celebrating their Ayyaanna Irreecha inwards Sheffield in addition to Leeds City Regions, England. Source: gadaa.com
They are found in:
• Northern Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (southern Tigray Region)
• Republic of Kenya (mainly northern), fifty-fifty as far due south as Lamu Island and
• Somalia
The Oromo people is the single largest national grouping inwards Ethiopia, accounting for virtually 35 1 chiliad one thousand (40%) of 75 1 chiliad one thousand population. Tilahun (1992), however, posits that "in Ethiopia, Oromo business concern human relationship for 50%-60% of the population of the Ethiopian Empire State (Tilahun, 1992). They are "a real ancient race, the indigenous stock, perhaps, on which most other peoples inwards this constituent of Eastern Africa (the Horn of Africa) had been grafted" (Bates, 1979). The Oromo people primarily reside over a vast part of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia predominately inwards Wallaggaa, Iluabbaabooraa, Jimmaa, Shewa, Arsii, Baalee, Harargee, Walloo, Boranaa, in addition to Southwestern constituent of Gojjam .
Oromo adult woman smiling,Harar area,Ethiopia. By Eric Lafforgue
The Oromo people are the majority, but inwards a minority similar situation. Oromia part is the richest part inwards the Horn of Africa. Livestock products, coffee, stone oil seeds, spices, mineral resources in addition to wild life are all various in addition to abundant. Their political, economical, social in addition to cultural life inwards the Ethiopian empire assert , discrimination in addition to marginalisation due to colonization of their country, Oromia ,by the Abyssinians at the destination of 19th century. Millions decimated inwards the state of war against colonization inwards betwixt 1868-1900 through different means. Their egalitarian democratic establishment of governance the Gada system; their cultural traditions in addition to linguistic communication were banned; their agency of subsistence, the world was confiscated in addition to as a resultant forced to slavery in addition to servitude.
Oromo (Borana) man
The Oromo are also known past times some other name, Galla. The people neither telephone phone themselves or similar to live called past times this name. They ever called themselves Oromoo or Oromoota (plural). It is non known for sure when the call Galla was given to them. It has been said that it was given to them past times neighboring peoples, specially Amhara, in addition to various origins of the give-and-take take hold been suggested. Some say it originated from the Oromo give-and-take 'gaiaana' important river inwards Oromiffa. Others signal that it came from an Standard Arabic give-and-take 'qaala laa'. There are other similar suggestions as to the beginning of the word. The Abyssinians attach a derogatory connotation to the Galla, namely 'pagan, savage, uncivilized, uncultured, enemy, slave or inherently inferior". The term seems to live aimed at generating an inferiority complex inwards the Oromo.
Oromo adult woman on the road,Ethiopia. Eric Lafforgue
The Land
The the world of the Oromo is called Biyya-Oromo (Oromo country) or Oromia (Oromiya). Oromia is a call given past times the Oromo Liberation Front to Oromoland, at nowadays constituent of the Ethiopian Empire. Krapf (1860) proposed the term Ormania to designate the nationality or the the world of the Oromo people. This, most probably, originated from his reference to the people as Orma or Oroma. Oromia was 1 of the complimentary nations inwards the Horn of Africa until its colonization in addition to business past times Abyssinia at the destination of the nineteenth century.
It is around located betwixt 2 grade in addition to 12 grade N in addition to betwixt 34 grade in addition to 44 grade E. It is bordered inwards the East past times somali in addition to Afar lands in addition to Djibouti, inwards the West past times the Sudan, inwards the South past times Somalia, Republic of Kenya in addition to others in addition to inwards the North past times Amhara in addition to Tigre the world or Abyssinia proper. The the world expanse is virtually 600 000 foursquare kilometres. Out of the 50 or so African countries it is exceeded inwards size past times only 17 countries. It is larger than France, in addition to if Cuba, Republic of Bulgaria in addition to Britain were position together, they would live around equal to Oromia inwards size.
Beautiful Oromo adult woman carrying charge on her back
The physical geography of Oromia is quite varied. It varies from rugged mount ranges inwards the centre in addition to northward to apartment grassland inwards most of the lowlands of the west, eastward in addition to south. Among the many mount ranges are the Karra inwards Arsi (4340 m), Baatu inwards Baaie (4307 m), Enkelo inwards Arsi (4300 m), Mui'ataa inwards Hararge (3392m) in addition to Baddaa Roggee inwards Shawa (3350 m).
Hardworking Oromo adult woman carrying jars on her back, Tulugulu Village,Ethiopia. By Eric Lafforgue
Similarly, at that spot are many rivers in addition to lakes inwards Oromia. Many of the rivers flow westwards into either the Blue Nile or the White Nile, in addition to others flow eastwards to Somalia in addition to Afar land. Among the large rivers are the Abbaya (the Nile), Hawas (Awash), Gannaaiee, Waabee, Dhidheessa, Gibe in addition to Baaroo.
For the peoples of Egypt, the Sudan in addition to Somalia, life would live impossible without these rivers. They carry millions of tons of rich soil to Egypt, the Sudan in addition to Somalia every year. Somalia depends heavily on the Gannaaiee (Juba) in addition to Waabee (Shaballe) rivers which come upward from Oromia. In fact Oromia supplies almost 100 per cent of the fresh H2O for Somalia, Republic of Djibouti in addition to Afars. At nowadays the Ethiopian authorities depends heavily on Hawas (Awash) H2O as a source of electrical powerfulness for its industries in addition to irrigation H2O to grow saccharide cane, cotton wool in addition to fruits. The Wanji in addition to Matahara saccharide estates are goodness examples. There is a swell potential inwards all these rivers for the production of electrical powerfulness in addition to for irrigation. Qoqaa, Fincha, Malkaa Waakkenne, Gibee Tiqqaa dams are examples of where hydro-electric powerfulness is already existence produced or inwards the physical care for of existence harnessed.
Oromo village
Among the Oromo lakes are Abbaya, Hora, Bishofitu, Qoqaa, Langanno in addition to Shaalaa. Many of these lakes possess a swell variety of fish in addition to birds on their islands in addition to shores.
The climate is as varied as the physical geography, although unopen to the equator (to the northward of it), because of the mount ranges, high altitudes in addition to vegetation, the climate is real mild in addition to favourable for habitation. Snow tin can live found on the mountains such as Baatu in addition to Karra. In the medium altitudes (1800-2500 m) the climate is real mild throughout the twelvemonth in addition to 1 of the best. Up to lxxx per cent of the population lives at this height in addition to agriculture flourishes.
Oromo men on horseback
The depression height areas (below 1500 m) inwards west, due south in addition to key constituent are relatively warm in addition to humid with lush tropical vegetation, in addition to although few live at that spot permanently most graze their cattle in addition to tend their beehives there. Although at that spot is piffling agriculture at this height at present, it has swell potential for the future. As the highland areas are already eroded in addition to over populated, people are gradually moving to the lowlands. The depression height areas inwards the eastward in addition to south-east are mostly semi-arid in addition to used past times pastoralists seasonally.
Oromo girl in addition to her sister
The vegetation of Oromia ranges from savanna grassland in addition to tropical wood to alpine vegetation on the mountaintops. The forests contain a variety of fantabulous in addition to valuable timbers. Oromia is known for its unique native vegetation as good as for being, the centre of multifariousness for many different species. For instance, crops similar coffee, anchote (root crop), okra, etc. are indigenous to this area.
Language
The Oromo land has a single mutual woman parent natural language in addition to basic mutual culture. The Oromo language, afaan Oromoo or Oromiffa, belongs to the eastern Kushitic grouping of languages in addition to is the most extensive of the xl or so Kushitic languages. The Oromo linguistic communication is real closely related to Konso, with to a greater extent than than 50 percent of the words inwards common, closely related to somali in addition to distantly related to Afar in addition to Saho.
Oromo family
Oromiffa is considered 1 of the 5 most widely spoken languages from amid the around 1000 languages of Africa, (Gragg, 1982). Taking into consideration the number of speakers in addition to the geographic expanse it covers, Oromiffa, most in all probability rates 2nd amid the African indigenous languages. It is the 3rd most widely spoken linguistic communication inwards Africa, after Standard Arabic in addition to Hausa. It is the woman parent natural language of virtually 30 1 chiliad one thousand Oromo people living inwards the Ethiopian Empire in addition to neighbouring countries. Perhaps non less than 2 1 chiliad one thousand non-Oromo speak Oromiffa as a 2nd language.
Oromo people
In fact Oromiffa is a glossa franca inwards the whole of Ethiopian Empire except for the northern part. It is a linguistic communication spoken inwards mutual past times several members of many of the nationalities similar Harari, Anuak, Barta, Sidama, Gurage, etc., who are neighbours to Oromo.
Before colonization, the Oromo people had their ain social, political in addition to legal system. Trade in addition to various kinds of skills such as wood in addition to metallic works, weaving, pottery in addition to tannery flourished. Pastoralism in addition to agriculture were good developed. Oromo take hold an extraordinarily rich heritage of proverbs, stories, songs in addition to riddles. They take hold real comprehensive works life in addition to brute names. The various customs pertaining to marriage, paternity, dress, etc. take hold elaborate descriptions. All these activities in addition to experiences take hold enriched Oromiffa.
Much has been written virtually Oromiffa past times foreigners who visited or lived inwards Oromia, specially European missionaries. Several works take hold been written inwards Oromiffa using Roman, Sabean in addition to Standard Arabic scripts. Printed stuff inwards Oromiffa include the Bible, religious in addition to non-religious songs, dictionaries, small stories, proverbs, poems, schoolhouse books, grammar, etc. The Bible itself was translated into Oromiffa inwards Sabean script virtually a century agone past times an Oromo slave called Onesimos Nasib, alias Hiikaa, (Gustave, 1978).
Roman, Standard Arabic in addition to Sabean scripts are all unusual to Oromiffa. None of them correspond good the peculiar features of the sounds (phonology), inwards Oromiffa. The main deficiency of the Standard Arabic script is the job of vowel differentiation. The Sabean script does non differentiate gemination of consonants in addition to glottal stops. Moreover, it has 7 vowels against x for Oromiffa. Hence, the Roman script is relatively best suited for transcription of Ororniffa. An Italian scholar, Cerulli (1922), who attempted to write inwards Oromiffa using both Sabean in addition to Roman, expressed the small comings of the Sabean script as follows: to limited the sounds of Galla linguistic communication with letters of the Ethiopic (Sabean) alphabet, which limited real imperfectly fifty-fifty the sounds of the Ethiopian language, is real close impossible ... reading Galla linguistic communication written inwards Ethiopic alphabet is real similar deciphering a underground writing." As a resultant several Oromo political, cultural groups in addition to linguists take hold strongly advocated the work of the Roman script with the necessary modifications. It has thus been adopted past times the Oromo Liberation Front some years ago.
Oromo people
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of Oromo scholars inwards the past times attempted to regain scripts suited for writing Oromiffa. The piece of work of Sheikh Bakri Saphalo is 1 such attempt. His scripts were different inwards cast but followed the symbol-sounds forming patterns of the Sabean system. Ever. though his scripts had serious shortcomings in addition to could non live considered for writing Oromiffa now, it had gained popularity inwards some parts of eastern Oromia inwards the 1950s, before it was discovered past times the colonial authorities in addition to suppressed.
Oromiffa has been non only completely neglected but ruthlessly suppressed past times the Ethiopian authorities. a determined travail for almost a century to destroy in addition to supplant it with the Amharic linguistic communication has been mostly ineffectual. Thus, the Amharization in addition to the devastation of the Oromo national identity has partially failed.
Oromo people
History
The the world of Cush, Nubia or the ancient Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards middle in addition to lower Nile is the spot of the Cushitic speakers. It was most in all probability from at that spot that they later dispersed in addition to became differentiated into separate linguistic in addition to cultural groups. The various Cushitic nations inhabiting north-east in addition to eastward Africa today are the resultant of this dispersion in addition to differentiation.
Oromo people
The Oromo cast 1 of those groups which spread southwards in addition to and so eastward in addition to due west occupying large constituent of the Horn of Africa. Their physical features, culture, linguistic communication in addition to other evidences unequivocally dot to the fact that they are indigenous to this constituent of Africa. Available information clearly indicates that the Oromo existed as a community of people for thousands of years inwards East Africa (Prouty at al, 1981). Bates (1979) contends, "The Gallas (Oromo) were a real ancient race, the indigenous stock, perhaps, on which most other peoples inwards this constituent of eastern Africa take hold been grafted".
1892 Wood Engraving Gall Girl Oromo Ethiopia
In spite of the fact that at that spot are several indications in addition to evidences that Oromo are indigenous to this constituent of Africa, Abyssinian rulers, courtroom historians in addition to monks combat that Oromo were novel corners to the part in addition to did non belong here. For instance the Abyssinian courtroom historian, Alaqa Taye (1955), alleged that inwards the fourteenth in addition to sixteenth centuries the Oromo migrated from Asia in addition to Madagascar, entered Africa via Mombasa in addition to spread northward in addition to eastwards.
Oromo distance running championKenenisa Bekele.
Others take hold advocated that during the same time period the Oromo crossed the Red Sea via Bab el Mandab in addition to spread westwards. Abyssinian clergies fifty-fifty contended that Oromo emerged from water. On this issue, based on the points made inwards The Oromo's Voice Against Tyranny, Baxter (1985) remarked, ". . . the contention that the firstly Oromo had truly emerged from H2O in addition to therefore, had non evolved to the same storey of humanity as the Amhara (i.e. treating a myth of beginning as a historical fact); or, to a greater extent than seriously, that Oromo were belatedly corners to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to hence, past times implication, intruders in addition to non so entitled to live at that spot as the Amhara."
Oromo people
The history of the arrival of the Oromo people inwards the sixteenth century inwards East Africa from exterior is a fabrication in addition to denial of historical facts. It is a myth created past times Abyssinian courtroom historians in addition to monks, sustained past times their European supporters in addition to which the Ethiopian rulers used to lay claim on Oromo territory in addition to justify their colonization of the Oromo people. Several authorities take hold indicated that the Oromo were inwards fact inwards the North-eastern constituent of the continent fifty-fifty before the arrival of the Habasha. According to Perham (1948): "the emigrant Semites landed inwards a continent of which the North-East appears to take hold been inhabited past times the eastern groups of Hamites, often called Kushites, who also include the Gallas." Paulitschke (1889) indicated that Oromo were inwards East Africa during the Aksumite period. As recorded past times Greenfield (1965), Oromo reject the take in that they were belatedly arrivals, ". . . old men with the Azebu in addition to Rayya Galia dismiss beak of their existence comparative newcomers. . . . . Their ain (Abyssinians) oral history in addition to legends attest to the fact that Oromo take hold been living inwards Rayya for a long time. Beke (cited past times Pankurst, 1985-86) quoted the next Lasta legend: "Meniiek, the boy of Solomon, . . . entered Abyssinia from the East, beyond the the world of the Rayya or Azebo Gallas. There are also evidence (Greenfield et al, 1980) that at to the lowest degree past times the 9th in addition to 10th centuries that at that spot were Oromo communities around Shawa in addition to past times virtually the fourteenth century settlements were reported around Lake Tana. The recent discovery, (Lynch in addition to Robbins, 1978), inwards northern Republic of Kenya of the pillars that Oromo used inwards the innovation of their calendar system, dated around 300 B.C., is some other indication that Oromo take hold a long history of presence as a community of people, inwards this constituent of Africa.
Oromo elders
The so called "Galla invasion of Ethiopia" is also a tale. It was firstly written around 1590 past times a monk called Bahrey in addition to henceforth European historians in addition to others almost invariably accepted this story as a fact. From his writing, it is evident that he was biased against Oromo. The next quotation from Bahrey, (in Beckingham et al, 1954), vividly illustrates typical Abyssinian cultural, religious in addition to racial biases against Oromo. He began his volume "The History of the Galla": "I take hold begun to write the history of the Galla inwards monastic enjoin to brand known the number of their tribes, their readiness to kill people, in addition to the brutality of their manners. If anyone should say of my subject, 'Why has he written a history of a bad people, just as 1 would write a history of goodness people', I would respond past times saying 'Search inwards the books, in addition to y'all volition regain that the history of Mohamed in addition to the Moslem kings has been written, in addition to they are our enemies inwards religion".
Oromo people
In fact it appears that the main purpose of his writing was to encourage Abyssinians against Oromo. Bahrey, Atseme, Harris, Haberiand in addition to others description of what they called the 'Galla invasion of Ethiopia' as an avalanche, a abrupt overwhelming human moving ridge which could live likened to a alluvion or swarms of migratory locust is unrealistic in addition to hard to imagine to say the least.
Bahrey, writing inwards 1593, credited the Oromo achievement to the existence of too many non-fighting classes inwards the ruling Ethiopian hierarchy, as opposed to the Oromos, whom he illustrated as having a homogeneous warrior class.
Oromo Karrayyu man
He also affirmed their spread (as resultant of their inhospitable homeland) into northwestern areas such as:
• Arsi
• Shewa
• Welega
• Gojjam
• Hararghe
• Wollo
The Oromo's Voice Against Tyranny argued that: ". . . the so-called Galla invasion of the sixteenth century was neither an invasion nor a migration. It was rather a national motion of the Oromo people . . . with the specific goal of liberating themselves in addition to their territories from colonial occupation. It was nada to a greater extent than or less than a state of war of national liberation." In fact the finally 2000 years were occupied with a gradual expansion of Abyssinians from northward to south. This expansion had been checked throughout past times Oromo. It was only with the arrival of Europeans in addition to their firearms that Abyssinians succeeded inwards their southward expansion mainly inwards the middle of finally century.
Powerful Oromo hero, Ras Oromo Gobana Dacche (Ge'ez: ራስ፡ ጎበና, 1821 - July, 1889) was an ethnic Oromo member of the Shewan aristocrats of key Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards the mid-19th century. He is known for coordinating his Shewa Oromo regular army with the key regular army ofMenelik II, who later became Ethiopian Emperor, to contain to a greater extent than lands into the Ethiopian Empire inwards the belatedly 19th century
Abyssinian in addition to European historians alleged that at that spot was a abrupt population explosion inwards the Oromo community inwards the sixteenth century that enabled it to invade Ethiopia. The claim lacks a scientific base. During that fourth dimension no significant, if at all any, technological evolution such as discoveries or introductions of medicines, novel in addition to improved tools for nutrient production, etc. took spot inwards the Oromo community that could take hold been the cause for the abrupt population explosion. The Oromo community had no advantages of these sort over neighboring communities.
Oromo runway in addition to patch athlete Maryam Yusuf Jamal.
Different areas take hold been indicated as spot where the Oromo developed or differentiated into its ain unique community of people or ethnic grouping (Braukamper, 1980). According to some ethnologists in addition to historians, the Oromo the world of beginning was the south-eastern constituent of Oromia, inwards the fertile valley of Madda Walaabu inwards the nowadays Baale region. This conclusion was reached mainly on the footing of Oromo oral tradition. Based on scanty anthropological evidence, others take hold also pointed to the coastal expanse of the Horn of Africa, specially the eastern constituent of the somali peninsula, as the most likely spot of Oromo origin. Bruce, an English linguistic communication traveller, indicated that Sennar inwards Sudan was the Oromo the world of beginning in addition to that they expanded from there. It should live noted hither that many European travellers take hold suggested the beginning of peoples, including Oromo, to live where they met some for the firstly time, which inwards most cases happened to live peripheral areas.
Balcha Aba Nefso (Gurage in addition to Oromo: ባልቻ ጻፎ; 1863 – 1936), also known past times his championship as Dejazmach Balcha, was an accomplished Ethiopian general, who served inwards both the First in addition to Second Italo-Ethiopian Wars. 'Balcha' agency 'taming, assimilating or making familiar with' inwards Afan Oromo.
During the era of Zemene Mesafint (which lasted until 1855), the Oromo dynasty of chiefs of Yejju were the most of import uninterrupted line of warlords to dominate the figurehead emperors of Ethiopia.
They turn out to live sub-kings of Begemder, Regents of the empire, as good as violet father-in-laws. Ras Ali I of Yejju attained this control inwards 1779, in addition to it continued, although contested past times other warlords, until the 1855 defeat of Ras Ali II of Yejju past times the upstart Kassa Hailu (who became Emperor Tewodros II).
Photograph taken past times 10th Field Company Royal Engineers during the Magdala Campaign of 1867-68. Queen of the "Gallas"and Son
Due to the powerlessness of the Emperor of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia during the Zemene Mesafint, the Yejju Oromo were successfully the rulers of Ethiopia. Other tribes in addition to chiefs of the Oromo people were also famous, such as:
• Lady Menen of Wollo who became Empress inwards 1800s
• Ras Mohammad of Wollo who became Ras Mikael, later Negus of Siyon in addition to manlike individual parent of Emperor Iyasu V
• Menen, of Ambassel, who became Empress Consort of Haile Selassie
In the firstly decades of the 19th century, 3 Oromo monarchies, Enarya, Goma in addition to Guma, rose to prominence. In the full general take in of Oromo people's role inwards Ethiopia, Ras Gobana Dacche is a famous Oromo figure who led the evolution of modern Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in addition to the political in addition to miliatary incorporation of to a greater extent than territories into Ethiopian borders. Gobana nether the control of Menelik II incorporated several Oromo territories into a centralized Ethiopian state. Some contemporary ethno-nationalist Oromo political groups refer to Gobana inwards a negative light. Though, before armed services integration; nowadays twenty-four sixty minutes time period Ethiopia, Eritrea, in addition to parts of Somalia were previously in addition to extensively linked commercially past times local, long-distance in addition to trans-frontier merchandise routes. These commercial routes connected Bonga, Jimma, Seqa, Assandabo, Gojjam, Begemder, Maramma, Massawa, Soddo, Shewa, Harar, Zeila in addition to Berbera. Some Oromo writers believe that the Oromo Gobana Dacche and the Amhara Menelik II were the firstly 2 people inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia with the concept of national boundary that brought various different ethno-linguistic communities nether a politically in addition to militarily centralized rule.
Habte-Giyorgis Dinagde Botera later Fitawrari Habte-Giyorgis aka Abba Mela
Born: Dendi woreda, Shewa. He is paternally Oromo in addition to maternally Gurage. read to a greater extent than virtually him here:ethiopianreview
"The 2 most of import historical figures who signify the introduction of the concepts of national boundary in addition to sovereignty inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are Emperor Menelik II in addition to Ras Gobana Dachi, who used guns manufactured inwards Europe to convey a large swath of Biyas (regions/nations) nether a centralized rule."
Ethnically mixed Ethiopians with Oromo background made upward a piffling percent of Ethiopian generals in addition to leaders. The Wollo Oromo (particularly the Raya Oromo in addition to Yejju Oromo) were early on Oromo holders of powerfulness amid the increasingly mixed Ethiopian state. The later north-to-south motion of key powerfulness inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia led to Oromos inwards Shewa holding powerfulness inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with the Shewan Amhara.
"In terms of descent, the grouping that became politically dominant inwards Shewa – in addition to Subsequently inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia – was a mixture of Amhara in addition to Oromo; inwards terms of language, faith in addition to cultural practices, it was Amhara."
Nonetheless, inwards many cases Oromo became constituent of the Ethiopian nobility without losing their identity. Both ethnically mixed Oromos in addition to those with total Oromo descent held high leadership positions inwards Ethiopia. Notably Iyasu V was the designated but uncrowned Emperor of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1913–1916), piece Haile Selassie I was the crowned in addition to to a greater extent than often than non acknowledged Emperor of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. Both these Ethiopian Emperors are ethnically mixed, with Oromo parents in addition to lineages. Haile Selassie's woman parent was paternally of Oromo descent in addition to maternally of Gurage heritage, piece his manlike individual parent was paternally Oromo in addition to maternally Amhara. He consequently would take hold been considered Oromo inwards a patrilineal society, in addition to would take hold been viewed as Gurage inwards a matrilineal one. However, inwards the main, Haile Selassie was regarded as Amhara: his paternal grandmother's royal lineage, through which he was able to ascend to the Imperial throne.
Oromo ruler Iyasu V (Lij Iyasu), Emperor of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from 1913–16.
By the 1880s, Sahle Selassie, manlike individual monarch of Shewa (the later Emperor Menelik II) allied with Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia to expand his kingdom to the South in addition to East, expanding into areas that hadn't been held together since the invasion of Ahmed Gragn. Another famous leader of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia with Oromo descent was Ras Makonnen Woldemikael Gudessa, the governor of Harar who served as the top full general inwards the First Italo–Ethiopian War, playing a key role at the Battle of Adwa. He is the manlike individual parent of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I.
Oromo man, Ras Makonnen Woldemikael Gudessa, the governor of Harar
In 1973, Oromo discontent with their spot led to the formation of the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), which began political agitation inwards the Oromo areas. Also inwards 1973 at that spot was a catastrophic famine inwards which over 1 quarter of a 1 chiliad one thousand people died from starvation before the authorities recognised the disaster in addition to permitted relief measures. The bulk who died were Oromos from Wollo, Afars in addition to Tigrayans. There were strikes in addition to demonstrations inwards Addis Ababa inwards 1974; in addition to inwards Feb of that year, Haile Selassie’s authorities was replaced past times the Derg, a armed services junta led past times Mengistu Hailemariam; but the Council was still Amhara-dominated, with only 25 non-Amhara members out of 125. In 1975 the authorities declared all rural the world State-owned, in addition to announced the destination of the tenancy system. However, much of the do goodness of this reform was counteracted past times compulsive collectivization, State farms in addition to forced resettlement programmes.
Emperor Haile Selassie I is Oromo on his paternal side
In Dec 2009, a 96-page study titled Human Rights inwards Ethiopia: Through the Eyes of the Oromo Diaspora, compiled past times the Advocates for Human Rights, documented human rights violations against the Oromo inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia nether 3 successive regimes: the Abyssinian Empire nether Haile Selassie, the Marxist Derg in addition to the electrical flow Ethiopian authorities of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), dominated past times members of the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) in addition to which was defendant to take hold arrested around 20,000 suspected OLF members, to take hold driven most OLF leadership into exile, in addition to to take hold effectively neutralized the OLF as a political forcefulness inwards Ethiopia.
According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the Oromia Support Group (OSG) recorded 594 extra-judicial killings of Oromos past times Ethiopian authorities safety forces in addition to 43 disappearances inwards custody betwixt 2005 in addition to August 2008.
There are several groups of people inwards East Africa real closely related to the Oromo. For instance, the Somalis are real similar inwards appearance in addition to culture. The fact that the somali in addition to Oromo languages part betwixt 30 percent in addition to 40 percent of their vocabulary could live an indication that these 2 groups of people became differentiated real recently. Other Cushitic-speaking groups living inwards the same neighborhood who are closely related to the Oromo are Konso, Afar, Sidama, Kambata, Darassa, Agaw, Saho, Baja in addition to other groups.
Oromo take hold several clans (gosa, qomoo). The Oromo are said to live of 2 major groups or moieties descended from the 2 'houses' (wives) of the individual Oromo represented past times Borana in addition to Barentu (Barenttuma). Borana was senior (angafa) in addition to Barentu junior (qutisu). Such a dichotomy is quite mutual inwards Oromo gild in addition to serves some aspects of their political in addition to social life.
Oromo man, Tilahun Gessesse, Ethiopia's greatest singer of all time
The vegetation of Oromia ranges from savanna grassland in addition to tropical wood to alpine vegetation on the mountaintops. The forests contain a variety of fantabulous in addition to valuable timbers. Oromia is known for its unique native vegetation as good as for being, the middle of multifariousness for many different species. For instance, crops similar coffee, anchote (root crop), okra, etc. are indigenous to this area.
The Economy
Potentially, Oromia is 1 of the richest countries inwards Africa. Agriculture is the backbone of its economy. Still employing archaic methods, subsistence agriculture is the agency of livelihood for to a greater extent than than xc per cent of the population. There are a variety of farm animals in addition to crop plants. Farm animals include cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, mules, horses, camels in addition to chicken. The Cushitic speaking communities of this part perchance Nubians, are credited with the domestication of ass in addition to were the firstly to breed mules, (a resultant of a cross betwixt a ass in addition to a mare). The Oromo are proficient inwards brute husbandry through their long tradition as herdsmen. For some, cattle-rearing (pastoralism) is still the main occupation.
Oromo Shepherds next a donkey
Because of Oromia's favorable climate in addition to rich soil, many types of crops are cultivated in addition to unremarkably at that spot is piffling demand for irrigation. Normally 1 in addition to sometimes 2 crops tin can live harvested annually from the same field. Among the major nutrient crops are cereals (wheat, barley, tef, sorghum, corn, millet, etc.), fibre crops (cotton), root crops (potato, sweetness potato, yam, inset, anchote, etc.), pulses (peas, beans, chick-peas, lentils, etc.), stone oil crops (nugi, flax, etc.), fruit trees (orange, mango, avocado, banana, lemon, pineapple, peach, etc.), spices (onion, garlic, coriander, ginger, etc. - coriander in addition to ginger also grow wild) in addition to a variety of vegetables similar okra which is indigenous to Oromia.
Salt collector with his ass carrying salt
Many varieties of these of import crops occur naturally inwards Oromia. These various crop plants are real valuable natural resources. Oromo farmers take hold contributed to world agriculture past times cultivating in addition to developing some of the world's crop plants in addition to inwards this way take hold discovered novel domesticated varieties. The main cash crops are java in addition to chat (a stimulant shrub). Coffee, a major cash earner for many countries, has its beginning inwards the forests of Oromia in addition to neighboring areas. Specifically, Kafa in addition to Limmu are considered centers of beginning for coffee. It is from hither that java spread to other parts of the globe. Coffee was 1 of the export items of the Gibe states. Wallagga in addition to llubbabor regions of Oromia exported java to the Sudan through the inland port of Gambelia on the Baro river in addition to border towns of Kurmuk, Gissan, etc. Hararge, because of its favorable location for communication with the exterior markets through the Red Sea, has been producing 1 of the finest coffees for export. Coffee has remained the master copy export item, representing to a greater extent than than sixty per cent of the unusual earnings of successive Ethiopian colonial regimes.
Oromo adult woman holding java from Oromo Coffee Company
The the world is also rich inwards wild animals in addition to plants. Many different species are found inwards the waters in addition to forests of Oromia: different kinds of fish, hippopotami, in addition to crocodiles. Land animals include lion, leopard, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, wild ass, zebra, columbus monkey in addition to elephant. There are a number of wild animals that are found solely inwards Oromia, such as nyaaia, bush-buck (special type), play tricks (from Baale), etc.
Various types of birds, many of them unique, are found around lakes in addition to elsewhere. These creatures are a source of attraction for tourists in addition to natural scientists alike.
The forests of Oromia are a source of fantabulous timber. Although the major portion of the forests has been destroyed since its occupation, some still remain inwards the due south in addition to west. However, this is threatened past times mismanagement, specially through the fast the expanding province farms in addition to resettlement programs. At the fourth dimension of colonization a large constituent of Oromia was covered with forest. This has been reduced to the nowadays 5-7 per cent. In add-on to timber trees, medicinal plants in addition to trees producing different kinds of gums, grow inwards abundance. Myrrh, frankincense in addition to paste Standard Arabic are gathered from the wild trees. Forests, also existence a source of timber, medicine in addition to gum, are useful inwards the conservation of H2O in addition to soil, in addition to as shelter for wildlife. They also take hold an of import aesthetic value.
Oromia has of import mineral deposits. The gilt mines at Adola in addition to Laga Dambi inwards the Sidamo in addition to around Nejjo, Asosa in addition to Birbir river valley inwards Wallagga regions which were the major sources of revenue for Meniiek in addition to Haile Selassie are existence exploited using modern machinery. Other of import minerals found inwards Oromia are platinum, sulphur, iron-ore, silverish in addition to salt.
The Oromo of Harerghe.
As early on as 1900 Meniiek granted concessions to a Swiss fellowship to mine gold, silverish in addition to other minerals inwards Nejjo, Wallagga region. Later the Germans took over. English, Russian in addition to Italian companies extracted gilt in addition to platinum at Yubdo in addition to neighboring areas inwards the same region. After some sixty years, the Soviet Union is continuing this business concern today inwards the same areas. It is known that large deposits of natural gas in addition to stone oil be inwards Baafe in addition to Hararge regions. The Ethiopian authorities announced as 1986 the regain of a novel deposit of natural gas inwards Baale.
Oromo Equus caballus men
The hundreds of hot springs scattered over Oromia are also of economical importance. Thousands of people, including foreigners, see these springs for their medicinal in addition to recreational value. They are a swell potential source of thermal energy. Rivers, streams in addition to springs are plentiful. The rivers take hold many fails that could live used to generate electrical powerfulness with piffling effort. The extent of this electrical powerfulness could easily satisfy the powerfulness needs of Oromia in addition to several neighboring countries.
Oromo (Borana tribe) women
Culture
Oromo take hold a real rich culture, fostered past times the size of the population in addition to large the world areas with various climatic conditions. One highly developed self-sufficient scheme which has influenced every aspect of Oromo life is the Gadaa system. It is a scheme that organizes the Oromo gild into groups or sets (about 7-11 ) that assume different responsibilities inwards the gild every viii years. It has guided the religious, social, political in addition to economical life of Oromo for many years, in addition to also their philosophy, art, history in addition to method of time-keeping.
Oromo (Karrayyu tribe) man,Ethiopia.
The activities in addition to life of each in addition to every fellow member of the gild are guided past times Gadaa. It is the law of the society, a scheme past times which Oromo administer, defend their territory in addition to rights, maintain in addition to guard their economic scheme in addition to through which all their aspirations are fulfilled.
The Gadaa scheme has served as the footing of democratic in addition to egalitarian political system. Under it the powerfulness to administer the affairs of the land in addition to the powerfulness to brand laws belong to the people. Every manlike individual fellow member of the gild who is of historic time period in addition to of Gadaa grade has total rights to elect in addition to to live elected. All the people take hold the right to air their views inwards whatever populace gathering without fear.
There follows a brief description of how the Gadaa scheme works: at that spot are 2 well-defined ways of classifying manlike individual members of the society, that is the hiriyya (members of an age-set all born within the time period of 1 Gadaa dominion of viii years) in addition to Gadaa grade. The Gadaa grades (stages of evolution through which a Gadaa grade passes) differ inwards number (7-1 1) in addition to call inwards different parts of Oromia although the functions are the same. The next are the Gadaa grades:-
1.Dabballee (0-8 years of age)
2.Folle or Gamme Titiqaa (8-16 years of age)
3.Qondaaia or Gamme Gurgudaa (1 6-24 years of age)
4.Kuusa (24-32 years of age)
5.Raaba Doorii (32-40 years of age)
6.Gadaa (40-48 years of age)
7.Yuba I (48-56 years of age)
8.Yuba II (56-64 years of age)
9.Yuba III (64-72 years of age)
10.Gadamojjii (72-80 years of age)
11.Jaarsa (80 in addition to inwards a higher spot years of age)
We volition briefly depict the duties of a Gadaa grade as it passes through the inwards a higher spot grades.
Oromo Woman, Bati, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
The Dabballee are sons of the Gadaa grade who are inwards power, the Luba. They are boys upward to 8 years of age. Thus this is a stage of childhood. Upon reaching their 8th year, they come inwards the Folle grade. At this historic time period they are allowed to go farther away from their villages in addition to to perform lite work.
Beautiful Oromo women
At 16 years old, they come inwards the Qondaala. They may at nowadays go long distances to hunt in addition to perform heavy work. Three years before the Qondaaia ends, those of the Gadaa grade come upward together in addition to nominate the futurity grouping leaders (hayyu council) who eventually volition constitute its presidium in addition to thereby the executive, judicial in addition to ritual authorities. The terminal election is preceded past times an often lengthy cause of negotiations. After nomination, the candidates tour the part accompanied past times their supporters to win the backing of the people before election, The individuals volition live elected on the footing of wisdom, bravery, wellness in addition to physical fitness.
Oromo Guji boy
In the Kuusa grade, the previously elected leaders are formally installed inwards office, although they do non yet assume total control except inwards their ain group. This is 1 of the most of import events inwards the life of the private in addition to the Gadaa scheme over all.
In the adjacent grade, Raaba Doorii, members are allowed to marry. This in addition to the Kuusa grade constitute a time period of preparation for the supposition of total authority. At the destination of this time period the grade members come inwards Luba or Gadaa, the most of import grade of the whole system, attain total status, in addition to take upward their spot as the ruling Gadaa class. At this stage the scheme comes to a halt momentarily in addition to all men displace to the proceeding grade vacating the finally grade which is the directly occupied past times a novel grade of youth who thus set out their ascent of the system's ladder.
Oromo karrayyu warrior with Oromo flag at Gadaa ceremony
The erstwhile ruling class, the Luba, at nowadays becomes Yuba. The Yubas, after passing through 3 separate eight-year periods, are transferred to the Gadamojjii class. Then they come inwards the terminal grade called Jaarsa in addition to retire completely.
Oromo Karrayyu men
As described briefly above, when the Oromo adult man passes from 1 stage to the next, his duties in addition to way of life inwards gild change. For instance, during the grades of Qondaala, Kuusa in addition to Raaba Doorii, the individuals acquire state of war tactics , Oromo history, politics, ritual, law in addition to direction over a time period of 24 years. When they come inwards the Gadaa grade or Luba at the historic time period of virtually 40 years, they take hold already acquired all the necessary cognition to take hold the responsibleness of administering the the world in addition to the celebration of rituals. It ends with partial retirement of the whole, grouping of elders to an advisory in addition to judiciary capacity.
The next are the Gadaa officials in addition to their duties according to the Tuuilama Gadaa practice:
1. Abbaa Bokku - President
2. Abbaa Bokku - First Vice-President
3. Abbaa Bokku - Second Vice-President
4. Abbaa Chaffe - Chairman of the Assembly (Chaffe)
5. Abbaa Dubbi - Speaker who presents the conclusion of the presidium to the Assembly
6. Abbaa Seera - Memoriser of the laws in addition to the results of the Assembly's deliberations.
7. Abbaa Alanga - Judge who executes the decision
8. Abbaa Duula - In accuse of the army
9. Abbaa Sa'a - In accuse of the economy
Oromo chief
Thus, the entire presidium consists of ix members, called "Saigan Yaa'ii Borana" (nine of the Borana assembly). The Abbaa Bokkus are the master copy officials. (Bokku is a wooden or metallic sceptre, a sign of control kept past times the Abbaa Bokku, the president). The Abbaa Bokkus take hold counsellors in addition to assistants called Hayyus who are delegated from the lower assemblies.
Oromo on the move
There are 3 storey of assembly - intercian, clan in addition to local chaffes, chaffe existence the Oromo version of parliament. The chaffe assembly was held inwards the opened upward air inwards a meadow nether the odaa (sycamore) tree. The chaffe made in addition to declared mutual laws in addition to was source of the accumulated legal cognition in addition to customs. In the hierarchy of Gadaa chaffes, the assembly of the entire presidium of the ruling- Gadaa Class is the highest trunk whose conclusion is final. It, is the assembly at which'reipresentatives of the entire population come upward together, at predetermined times, to evaluate amid other things, the piece of work of those inwards power. If those inwards powerfulness take hold failed to accomplish what is expected of them the assembly has the powerfulness to supplant them past times some other grouping elected from amid the same Gadaa grade or Luba. And this was 1 of the methods of checking in addition to balancing political powerfulness inwards the Oromo society. The 2nd highest Gadaa assembly is the clan chaffe. It is from these assemblies that special delegates to the higher assembly are elected. The lowest Gadaa chaffe is the local chaffe. This is made upward of local members of the Luba from amid whom representatives to clan chaffes are elected.
Oromo people
The holders of these responsible posts tin can remain inwards business office for viii years only, inwards normal times, in addition to are in addition to so replaced past times a novel grouping of officers. The powerfulness is handed over at a special ceremony at a special spot in addition to time. The office-holders conduct authorities - political, economic, social, ritual in addition to armed services - affairs of the entire land for this period. During state of war fourth dimension all capable men combat nether the leadership of the grouping inwards office. During the viii twelvemonth time period the officials live together inwards a hamlet (yaa'aa village) in addition to when necessary go together.
There are 5 Gadaas inwards a wheel of 40 years. If a adult man enters business office (becomes Luba) now, his sons volition go Luba 40 years from now. The 5 Gadaa (some times called Buttaa) inwards the wheel take hold names, which vary slightly from part to region. Among some Oromo communities the sets of 5 Gadaa names used past times the sons are different from those of the fathers. Whereas amid other communities the same set of Gadaa names are used for both fathers in addition to sons. For instance the Gadaa practised inwards the Borana community uses the next different sets of names for the 5 Gadaa. (Could live likened to 5 parties who take powerfulness inwards turns).
Oromo adult man carrying spear
Fathers Sons
1. Birmajii Aldada
2. Melba Horota
3. Muudana Bifoole
4. Roobale Sabaqa
5. Duuioo Kiloolee
In this mode a given call repeats itself every lxxx years. This is inwards fact the consummate Gadaa wheel divided into 2 semi-cycles of 40 years each. The firstly 40 years is the Gadaa of the fathers in addition to the 2nd is the Gadaa of the sons.
Although it is non known with whatever grade of certainty where in addition to when the Gadaa scheme started, it is known in addition to documented that the Oromo take hold been practising it for good over 500 years. However, according to oral Oromo historians, the Gadaa scheme has been inwards do for several centuries. "Their (Borana Oromo) noted historian, Arero Rammata, was able to recount, inwards 1969, an oral history roofing 4 chiliad years", (Prouty et al, 1981). Today Gadaa experts easily recall fifty-seven Abbaa Gadaas with of import events. Of course, this highly sophisticated scheme cannot take hold appeared without having been based on something earlier. Therefore farther study in addition to analysis is required to know to a greater extent than virtually its beginning in addition to development.
Social scientists of various backgrounds at different times take hold studied the Gadaa system. Many of them take hold testified that it is uniquely democratic. Among those authorities, Plowden (1868), stated, "among republican systems, Gadaa is superior". Asmarom Legesse (1973) described the Gadaa system: "one of the most astonishing in addition to instructive turns the evolution of human gild has taken". Indeed it is 1 of the most fascinating sociopolitical construction of Africa that fifty-fifty influenced the lives of other peoples. Several neighbouring peoples take hold practised a sort of the Gadaa. Among these are Sidama, Walayita, Konso, Darasa, Nyika, Nabdi, Maasai, etc., (Beckingham et al, 1954).
Like living organism, cultures undergo evolution inwards monastic enjoin to adapt to changing conditions. The Gadaa scheme has thus been undergoing evolutionary changes since its inception so as to serve meliorate a continually developing society. However, the fundamental that occurred inwards the Gadaa system, starting around the destination of the eighteenth century, were brought virtually mainly past times events set inwards motility from exterior the Oromo society. Therefore it was non fully a normal or natural development.
In most communities all of a abrupt in addition to inwards a few cases gradually, the usefulness of the Gadaa scheme declined. Among the factors that had contributed to this decline were firstly, the protracted wars that preceded the onset of colonization. The destination of the eighteenth century was marked past times constant wars in addition to skirmishes, specially inwards the northward in addition to north-eastern Oromia against the encroachment of the Abyssinians. Because of the insecurity imposed past times such wars coupled with the distances involved to go to the Gadaa ceremonies to modify the leadership, the Abbaa Duuias (fathers of war) stayed on their post service for much longer time period than required past times the Gadaa rules. This gave these state of war leaders a mandatory power, because they were forced or encouraged past times the gild in addition to existing circumstances, such as the continuous wars, to hang on to power. This weakened 1 of the outstanding features of the Gadaa system, the built inwards checks in addition to balances mechanism of political power. This inwards turn weakened the ideology past times which the Oromo land was successfully led for several centuries.
In add-on to the protracted wars, the passing of major merchandise routes through the expanse in addition to the subsequent expansion of merchandise gained the state of war leaders to a greater extent than wealth. Thus the wealth, fame in addition to powerfulness they gradually gained enabled them to command a larger number of followers inwards the expanse they were defending. Thus they usurped the political powerfulness that belonged to the Gadaa officials in addition to the people in addition to finally some of them declared themselves "mootii" (kings).
The 2nd of import factor that contributed to this decline was the coming of novel beliefs in addition to religions. The politico-religious aggression that took spot inwards the expansion of 1siam in addition to Christianity take hold affected the civilization of the Oromo people real much. The invasion of Oromo the world past times Muslims inwards the eastward in addition to due south in addition to past times Christians inwards the northward take hold left their score on the Oromo culture.
Thirdly, the changes inwards the mode of living of several Oromo communities was in all probability 1 of the of import factors that led to the decline of Gadaa. As the Oromo gild developed at that spot was a gradual modify inwards the social, economical in addition to political life of the people. For instance, inwards many parts of Oromia a settled agrarian mode of life developed fast in addition to the people practised both mixed agriculture - raised crops in addition to animals - in addition to nomadic pastoralism. The latter was the dominant mode of life before this time, although Oromo take hold practised tillage for a long fourth dimension in addition to take hold made important contribution to agriculture past times domesticating plants in addition to rearing rare varieties of crop plants. The introduction in addition to expansion of merchandise had important contribution also. These in addition to other related factors led to the emergence of a novel social system, which created a important pressure level on the Gadaa scheme in addition to brought virtually a modification or modify inwards the Gadaa practices.
Oromo (Arsi tribe) people
Finally, the onset of colonization had tremendously reduced the political in addition to usefulness of Gadaa scheme as the administrative affairs in addition to direction of the national economic scheme were taken over past times the colonisers except inwards remote regions. Atseme noted, "Menilek outlawed the major chaffe meetings inwards the Oromo areas he conquered". Bartels (1983) also noted, "Gadaa ... was gradually deprived past times Amharas of most of its political in addition to judicial powers in addition to reduced to simply ritual institution". Even the social aspects, that is the ritual in addition to ceremonial aspects, take hold non been left to the people. The observance of Gadaa ceremonies has been prohibited past times proclamation.
The Oromo people also take hold a rich folklore, oral tradition, music in addition to art. For representative it is believed that the Oromo are responsible for the innovation in addition to work of phallic stones (Wainwright, 1949 in addition to Greenfield, 1965). Decorations of stone bowls from Republic of Zimbabwe include pictures of cattle with long "lyre-shaped" horns such as raised past times Oromo. According to these scholars, this in addition to the phallic stones found inwards Republic of Zimbabwe are traced straight to Oromo in addition to linked to their early on settlements at that spot in addition to to the Republic of Zimbabwe civilization. Wainwright (1949) argued that these were founded past times the Oromo. He wrote: "Waqlimi in addition to his people came from Galia the world in addition to its neighbourhood, in addition to were already installed inwards southern Rhodesia before A.D. 900". (Waqiimi is an Oromo name). This appointment coincides with the appointment of the erection of some of the famous buildings at that spot which Wainwright says were built past times "Galia". This appears to live constituent of the spread of Kushitic civilization.
Although much of this civilization in addition to these traditions take hold survived harsh suppression, much has been forgotten in addition to lost, artifacts take hold been destroyed in addition to Oromo are discouraged from developing their civilization in addition to art.
Religion
There are 3 main religions inwards Oromia: traditional Oromo religion, Islam in addition to Christianity. Before the introduction of Christianity in addition to Islam, the Oromo people practised their ain religion. They believed inwards 1 Waaqayoo which approximates to the English linguistic communication give-and-take God. They never worshipped faux gods or carved statues as substitutes. M. de Aimeida (1628-46) had the next to say: "the Gallas (Oromo) are neither Christians, moors nor heathens, for they take hold no idols to worship." The Oromo Waaqa is 1 in addition to the same for all. He is the creator of everything, source of all life, omnipresent, infinite, incomprehensible, he tin can do in addition to undo anything, he is pure, intolerant of injustice, crime, sin in addition to all falsehood. Waaqayoo is often called Waaqa for short.
Oromo woman, Ethiopia
There are many saint-like divinities called ayyaana, each seen as manifestation of the 1 Waaqa or of the same divine reality. An effective human relationship is often maintained betwixt ayyaana in addition to Oromo past times Qaaifu (male) and/or Qaafitti (female). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Qaaiiu is similar a Bishop inwards the Christian world in addition to an lmam inwards the Muslim world. He is a religious in addition to ritual proficient who has a special human relationship with 1 of the ayyaana, which possesses him at regular intervals.
Although the business office of Qaaiiu is hereditary, inwards regulation it is opened upward to anyone who tin can supply sufficient proof of the special direct personal contact with an ayyaaria. In the Oromo gild a Qaaiiu is regarded as the most senior individual inwards his lineage in addition to clan in addition to the most respected inwards the society. He is considered pure in addition to clean. He must observe traditional taboos (safuu) in addition to ritual observances inwards all situations in addition to inwards all his dealings in addition to must follow the truth in addition to avoid sin.
The Qaaliu establishment is 1 of the most of import inwards the Oromo civilization in addition to gild in addition to is believed to take hold existed since mythical times. It is a real of import preserver in addition to protector of Oromo culture, to a greater extent than or less inwards the same way the Abyssinian Orthodox Church is the preserver of Abyssinian culture.
The Qaaiiu establishment has political importance, fifty-fifty though the Qaaiiu himself does non possess political powerfulness as such in addition to faith is distinctly separated from politics. The Qaailu hamlet is the spiritual centre, where political debates are organized for the candidates for the Gadaa offices. Thus he plays both a spiritual in addition to political role inwards the Gadaa system. For instance, during the 5th twelvemonth of the Gadaa period, the Gadaa grade inwards powerfulness honours the Qaaliu past times taking gifts in addition to making their pledges of reverence. This is the Muuda or annointment ceremony. As the caput of the council of electors, the Qaaliu organizes in addition to oversees the election of Gadaa leaders.
The Qaallu establishment was 1 time a repository of of import ceremonial articles (collective symbols) inwards the Buttaa (Gadaa) ceremony, such as the bokku (sceptre), the national flag, etc. The national flag is made inwards the colours of the Qaallu turban (surri ruufa). The national flag had 3 colours - dark at the top, reddish inwards the centre in addition to white at the bottom. In the Gadaa, the 3 colours, black, reddish in addition to white, represented those yet to come inwards active life, those inwards active life (Luba) in addition to those who had passed through active live, respectively. The work of these symbols is prohibited past times the colonial government.
The Oromo Qaallu must non live confused with the Amhara Qaailicha, who has a real different, much lower, social status. He is a vagabond who resorts to conjuring in addition to dark magic for his ain benefit, (Knutsson, 1967). He is notorious for extracting remuneration past times threats or other means. On the other hand, it is beneath the dignity of an Oromo Qaallu to enquire his ritual clients for gifts or payment. The Abyssinian ruling grade has confused the terms, thus disparaging the Qaallu socially in addition to religiously past times using the term depreciatingly.
The spot of worship of Qaaliu ritual house is called the Galma. Each ayyaana has its ain Galma in addition to its ain special ceremonies. The Galma is usually located on a loma top, loma side or inwards a grove of large trees. Many of these sites are at nowadays taken upward past times Abyssinian Orthodox Church buildings or Mosques. Places of worship also include nether trees, beside large bodies of water, past times the side of large mountains, hills, stones, etc. This has been misrepresented past times outsiders claiming that the Oromo worship trees, rivers, etc.
The believers see the Galma for worship 1 time or twice a week, usually on Th in addition to Sat nights. At this fourth dimension the followers dance, sing in addition to trounce drums to perform a ritual called dalaga inwards monastic enjoin to make a province of ecstasy, which often culminates inwards possession. It is at the tiptop of this that the possessing ayyaana speaks through the Qaallu's oral fissure in addition to tin can respond prayers in addition to predict the future.
Religious Oromo often made Muuda-piigrimages to some of the swell Qaaiius in addition to religious centres such as Arsi's Abbaa Muuda (father of anointment). Among the Borana Oromo Muuda pilgrimages are still common. Muuda pilgrimage is real holy in addition to the pilgrims walk to the spot of Abbaa Muuda with a stick inwards 1 manus in addition to carrying myrrh (qumbii). All Oromo through whose hamlet the pilgrims turn over are obliged to give them hospitality. As the Mecca pilgrims are called Haj amid Muslims, these Muuda pilgrims are ca!ied Jiia.
The Qaaiiu establishment was weakened with the advent of colonialism to Oromia, which reduced contacts betwixt various Oromo groups. The pilgrimage was prohibited. It became the policy to discourage in addition to destroy Oromo cultural institutions in addition to values. The Qaaiiu establishment has suffered to a greater extent than during the finally 14 years than it suffered during the previous 100 years. At this stage it faces consummate eradication in addition to Orthodox Church buildings are fast replacing Gaimas.
Oromo women,Harar, EthiopiaJust before the firstly of the harvest flavor every year, the Oromo take hold a prayer ceremony (thanksgiving festival) called irreessa. It 1 time took spot inwards river meadows where at nowadays the Abyssinian Orthodox Church takes its holy Tabot (tablets) for special yearly festivals, the 'timqat'. The lrreessa has go illegal in addition to anybody who attempts to practise it is at nowadays likely to live imprisoned.
The Oromo believe that after expiry individuals be inwards the cast of a spirit called the 'ekeraa'. They do non believe inwards suffering after expiry as inwards Christianity in addition to Islam. If 1 commits sin he/she is punished piece still alive. The ekeraa is believed to rest close the spot where the individual 1 time lived. One is obliged to pray to in addition to to give offering past times slaughtering an brute every so often to ones parents' ekeraa. The offerings take spot close the house unit of measurement or clan cemetery, which is usually inwards a village.
Oromo people take hold been inwards constant contact with other religions similar Islam in addition to Christianity for almost the finally 1000 years. For instance, the Islamic faith was reported to take hold been inwards eastern Shawa virtually 900 A.D. in addition to Christianity fifty-fifty before that. However, inwards favour in addition to defence of their ain traditional religion, the Oromo take hold resisted these religions for quite a long time.
However, today the bulk of the Oromo people are followers of Islam in addition to Christianity, piece the remaining few are still followers of the original Oromo religion. It is said that the Islamic faith spread inwards Oromia as a reaction to the Ethiopian colonization. The Oromo accepted Islam in addition to non-Orthodox Christianity en-masse because they identified Abyssinian Orthodox Christianity with the oppressor in addition to also to assert their identity visaa-vis Abyssinians. The Amhara spy monk, Atseme wrote: "The Galia became Muslim for his hatred of Amhara priests." Bereket (1980) also noted, "... Oromos inwards Arsi province accepted Islam inwards large number as a demonstration of anti-Amhara persuasion in addition to a rejection of all values associated with violet conquerors." Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 somewhat similar province of affairs inwards the due west was the credence of Islam past times many Afro-Americans inwards 1950s in addition to 1960s, as a reaction to the racial discrimination in addition to oppression they faced from the white community in addition to inwards search of an identity different from that of the oppressor group.
There are many Oromo who are followers of Islam or Christianity in addition to yet still practise the original Oromo religion. Bartels (1983) expressed this reality as follows: 'Whether they (Oromo) became Christians or Muslims, the Oromo's traditional modes of experiencing the divine take hold continued almost unaffected, inwards spite of the fact that several rituals in addition to social institutions inwards which it was expressed, take hold been real diminished or obviously submerged inwards novel ritual cloaks." Many used to visit, until real recently, the Galma in addition to pay due observe to their clan Qaaiiu. This is to a greater extent than truthful inwards regions where Abyssinian Orthodox Christianity prevails.
Oromo Calendar
Time is a real of import concept inwards Gadaa in addition to thus inwards Oromo life. Gadaa itself tin can live narrowly defined as a given set of fourth dimension (period) which groups of individuals perform specific duties inwards a society. Gadaa could also hateful age. The lives of individuals, rituals, ceremonies, political in addition to economical activities are scheduled rather precisely. For this purpose, the Oromo take hold a calendar. The calendar is also used for weather condition forecasting in addition to divination purposes.
The Oromo calendar is based on astronomical observations of the Luna inwards conjunction with 7 or viii particular stars or star groups (Legesse, 1973 in addition to Bassi, 1988) called Urji Dhaha (guiding stars). According to this calendar system, at that spot are around 30 days inwards a calendar month in addition to 12 months inwards a year. The firstly twenty-four sixty minutes time period of a calendar month is the twenty-four sixty minutes time period the novel Luna appears. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 twenty-four sixty minutes time period (24 hours) starts in addition to ends at sunrise.
In the Oromo calendar each twenty-four sixty minutes time period of the calendar month in addition to each calendar month of the twelvemonth has a name. Instead of the expected 29 or 30 names for days of a month, at that spot are only 27 names. These 27 days of the calendar month are permutated through the twelve months, inwards such a way that the firstly of each calendar month moves forrad past times 2 or 3 days. The loss per calendar month is in addition to so the difference betwixt the 27-day calendar month in addition to the 30-day month, (Legesse, 1973). One interesting observation is that, as illustrated inwards the computing of fourth dimension similar inwards the Oromo calendar, Oromos visualization of events is cyclical just as many events inwards nature are cyclical.
Since each twenty-four sixty minutes time period (called ayyaana) of a calendar month has a name, the Oromo traditionally had no work for names of the days of a week. Perhaps it is because of this that today inwards different parts of Oromia different names are inwards work for the days of a week.
Each of the 27 days (ayyaana) of the calendar month take hold special important in addition to connotation to the Oromo time-keeping experts, called ayyaantu. Ayyaantu tin can tell the day, the month, the twelvemonth in addition to the Gadaa time period past times keeping runway of fourth dimension astronomically. They are experts, inwards astronomy in addition to supplement their retention of things past times examining the relative spot of viii stars or star groups, (Bassi, 1988) in addition to the Luna to determine the twenty-four sixty minutes time period (ayyaana) in addition to the month. On the footing of astronomical observations, they brand an adjustment inwards the twenty-four sixty minutes time period call every 2 or 3 months.
The pillars found a few years agone inwards north-western Republic of Kenya past times Lynch in addition to Robbins (1978) has been suggested to stand upward for a site used to develop the Oromo calendar system. According to these researchers, it is the firstly archaeo-astronomical evidence inwards subSaharan Africa. Doyle (1986) has suggested 300 B.C. as the gauge appointment of its invention.
According to Asmarom Legesse (1973), "The Oromo calendar is a swell in addition to unique innovation in addition to has been recorded only inwards a real few cultures inwards history of mankind." The only other known cultures with this type of time-keeping are the Chinese, Mayans in addition to Hindus. Legesse states that the Oromo are unusual inwards that they seem to live the only people with a reasonably accurate calendar which ignore the sun.
Source:http://www.oromia.org/OromiaBriefs/Oromo&Oromia.htm#Greenfield1980
Oromo kids Australia
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES OF OROMO
The Oromos take hold a traditional union ceremony which descended from before times (antiquities). The swell social significance is attached to the nuptials ceremony. The nuptials twenty-four sixty minutes time period is a real of import twenty-four sixty minutes time period inwards the life of both the bride in addition to the groom. It is of import for the bride whose nuptials celebrated 1 time inwards her life. As for the man, he tin can celebrates his nuptials if he marries a 2nd or 3rd wives either because of the expiry of his firstly married adult woman or when ever he wants to take hold to a greater extent than than 1 wife.
However, fifty-fifty for the man, it is the firstly nuptials ceremony which is to a greater extent than of import than the 2nd or the 3rd one. These ceremonies do non take spot as inwards all forms of acquiring married adult woman (marriage).The most typical is Naqataa (betrothal) cast of union where the ceremony starts at the minute when union is firstly thought of in addition to fifty-fifty continues after the union is concluded inwards such representative as Ilillee, Mana Aseennaa, Minje Deebii in addition to Torban Taa’umsa.
Bethortal is a cast union mostly arranged past times the parents of the bride in addition to groom with a swell deal of negotiation. Traditionally the groom's parents search for a bride for their son. Before they brand whatever contact with the bride's parents, the groom's parents enquiry dorsum 7 generations to brand sure that the families are non related past times blood. Once this has been done, the boy's parents hen brand contact with the girl’s parents through a mediator. The mediator goes to the spot of the girl’s parents in addition to asks if their miss volition get hitched with the boy of the other parents. The girls's parents often impose conditions in addition to the mediator volition take the message to the boy's parents, in addition to so adapt a appointment for both parents to take in at a mutually convenient location. When the parents take hold reached an agreement, the adult man in addition to adult woman acquire engaged (betrothed). The parents in addition to so set a nuptials appointment in addition to they take in all the nuptials expenses.
Oromo miss dancing
After the betrothal is conducted, both parents prepare nutrient in addition to potable for the nuptials in addition to invite guests. The families relish the nuptials ceremonies of their children in addition to say that yeroo cidha dhala keenyaa itti arginudha (it the fourth dimension to seethe nuptials of our children). Both families set out to brand nuptials feast including Farsoo1, Daadhii2, Araqee3 in addition to food. These preparations set out a twain of weeks before the appointment of wedding. Fifteen or 20 days before marriage, the immature miss friends of the bride-to-be are invited to come upward to her
house after dark to do singing in addition to dancing. This is called Jaala Bultii (Dancing in addition to singing, which takes, spot around the boy’s in addition to girl’s house inwards the even 2 or 3 weeks prior to the nuptials in addition to terminates on the nuptials date.) The boys in addition to girls of the community gather in addition to sing past times the house of the bride in addition to the bridegroom. The singers on the side of the bridegroom praise him in addition to his relatives piece degrading the bride in addition to her relatives past times their songs. The same is truthful of the singers on the bride’s side.
One calendar month before the nuptials date, the groom requests his companion (hamaamota) in addition to historic time period mates (Hiriyya) to go with him to take his bride. It is also his responsibleness to take the miinjee (miinjota, plural)-the best man. Usually these people come upward with mule. If most of the bride’s friends in addition to best men come upward with their ain mules it is assumed to live an indication of groom’s wealth. The manlike individual parent of the man child also tells 1 of his age-mates to go with his man child as waa’ela abbaa (father’s stand-in). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 calendar week before the nuptials appointment the bride volition start washing her clothes, arranging her pilus in addition to destination her unfinished works similar traditional clothes in addition to other household furniture. Her friends volition non depart from her thereafter. Women inwards the neighborhoods of the bride would assist the woman parent of the bride inwards grinding, roasting grains which are used for making nutrient in addition to local drinks. They also fetch water, collect firewood in addition to carryout some other similar works. The men on their constituent assist past times fetching objects, which are necessary for the feast, past times constructing temporary staying rooms called Daassii for the attendants of the feast in addition to decorating the compound.
The bride in addition to her friends often beak over virtually the divergence which is inevitable. During this fourth dimension they are sorrowful in addition to often sing breath-taking melodies, the bride makes prose inwards poetical vogue in addition to weep in addition to her friends follow after her inwards singing the prose in addition to weeping. In the early on morning time of the nuptials date, the relatives of the bridegroom gather. After a piece bride’s companions gather piece girls close the house of the bridegroom sing in addition to dance. After wards, companions volition live provided with nutrient in addition to drinks. The bridegroom in addition to so volition live dressed with the clothes especially prepared for that appointment in addition to volition live seated a midst of his relatives. The parents of the bridegroom, elders in addition to relatives volition bless the bridegroom. When the bridegroom leaves his houses with his companions, the miss volition accompany him past times beating drums, singing in addition to resounding (Ilillee). If the bridegroom is from the wealthy family, bullets volition live shot as a pride to the family.
The companions volition proceed to the bride’s house singing songs. When they brand it at the house of the bride’s family, a sure physical care for should meet. That is, the bride with her friend volition come upward to the gate of the spot reserved for the companions in addition to beating drums. By doing this, she bars the bridegroom in addition to the companions from entering the house of her family. Such activity is known as Balbal qaba. She volition do this until she gets a sure total of money from the bridegroom as an entrance fee.
Changing Oromia: Ex-Circumcisers Attend Public Wedding of uncircumcised women. WWW.MANABUNA
Sometimes the bridegroom tries to come inwards the house of the bride’s house unit of measurement without giving a sure total of money to the bride. During this time, a dispute may arise betwixt the bride in addition to her age-mates on the 1 manus in addition to the bridegroom in addition to his companions on the other manus on whether or non the fellowship of the bridegroom should live permit come inwards the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement without paying some amount of money to the bride. Sometimes the disputes may Pb to serious debate in addition to fifty-fifty to exchange of blows. In such occurrences, some individuals from bride’s house unit of measurement essay to cool the nuisance in addition to brand the girls leave of absence the entrance. This is almost carried out past times making the entrance fee negotiable past times both sides.
That agency these individuals advice the miss to cut back the total in addition to the fellowship of the boys to pay a sure sum. After the total fixed is paid the bridegroom in addition to his companions volition sit down on the spot reserved for them inwards the temporary staying rooms (daassii). After they acquire inwards the dassii hosts from the bride’s house unit of measurement supply food, distributes waancaa (A vessel made of horn of animals which is used foe drinking purposes) or drinking spectacles to them in addition to fills it with goodness lineament Farsoo. After the nutrient is eaten, the groom puts gatii caabii (Caabii: earthen dish or plate used for dinning. Gatii caabii - money paid past times the groom after the nutrient is served. The girl’s woman parent takes this money in addition to it is usually betwixt 20 to xxx Ethiopian Birr.) The feast goes on inwards the cast of eating in addition to drinking.
Oromo woman,Ethiopia. Eric Lafforgue
The companions together with girl’s parties sing in addition to dance. Following this, the groom in addition to bride have approving from the girl’s parents. In that approving spot the manlike individual parent in addition to the woman parent of the bride as good as unopen relatives of her willassemble in addition to the bride in addition to the bridegroom volition live seated side past times side inwards front end of the individuals who bless them. The woman parent of the bride volition supply wancaafull of farsoo or milk. The bride in addition to the groom volition take take hold of the drinking glass past times putting their hands together on the drinking glass at the same time. While the bride in addition to groom holding the drinking glass together, the manlike individual parent in addition to woman parent of the bride volition bless them past times saying walitti horaa bulaa, which agency take hold children, wealth in addition to all necessity of life in addition to live together. Graan keessanii fi afaan keessan tokko haata’u, which agency live 1 heed in addition to heart. Then the bride in addition to groom volition take a sip of the potable of blessing. At this minute older men take out all items or materials made ready to live given as a gonfa (gifts) to count, necktie in addition to pack them. These are prepared past times the bride in addition to her parents, in addition to are also contributed by close relatives in addition to the bride’s age-mates. The gifts contributed past times the invited people inwards the cast of money or kinds are called gumaata.
After the competition of the approving process, the elders from the bride’s side demand a miinjee (the firstly best man) to live named in addition to becomes forrad when the proxy for the groom’s manlike individual parent (dura adeemaa) calls his name. Then the best adult man is asked whether he has a sis or non in addition to his willingness to live a blood brother of this miss (miinjee). If he names his sister, he volition take an oath inwards her call to take attention of the bride as his ain sister. He receives an oath to counsel in addition to protect her ways, to assist her whenever she is inwards job in addition to asks him for help. The best adult man says, “If I neglect to assist her, permit my sister’s best adult man care for her similar that”. In the representative that the best adult man has no sister, he swears saying that the same sort of handling should come upward to himself. After that the groom in addition to his companion, through the elderberry representing them then, province at nowadays nosotros ate in addition to drunkard in addition to finished what is required of us. So, nosotros appeal to your volition to permit us go because nosotros on our constituent take hold guests at our home. The groom rises lonely piece the best man helps the bride in addition to leads her out. The bride walks with her best adult man nether the newly bought umbrella in addition to mounts her mule past times the assist of the best man.
Oromo wedding, Ethiopia
The companion take all the stuff given as dowry in addition to mount their ain mules. After this, the bridegroom in addition to his fellowship volition leave of absence for their spot with his bride. On their way to bride’s house if they come upward across a river, the bride halts her mule because she wants the groom to hope her one-half claim over a cow.
The miss does non do this whenever she comes across a river. Rather, this is done only inwards the cases of rivers which she mightiness come upward across close his or her house. In the representative of the 2nd river when she practices the same act, she would live promised the 2nd one-half of moo-cow as the representative may be.
Beautiful Oromo (Borana sub-tribe) girl.
On arrival at the groom’s house, the groom’s sis in addition to her friends singing to defame the bride. The companion nowadays the gonfaa (gifts) in addition to count it inwards frontof relatives in addition to invited guests to demonstrate how much her parents are hard working.The groom’s sis blocks the entrance until he pays her some amount of money. The companion who takes the responsibleness of the bride in addition to so pays some amount of money to the groom’s sisters who do non permit the bride come inwards the house in addition to if they got they leave of absence the door.
The companion in addition to other guests relish themselves with the feast till the morning time piece singing in addition to dancing. That dark the man child deflowers the girl. The best men in addition to the groom’s woman parent go to the miss after she has been deflowered. The bride’s scarf is used to take the blood to proof her virginity. If no proof of virginity is found, the married adult man whips her with alanga (Whip made from hippopotamus), in addition to sometimes sends her dorsum to demand the render of union payment. But such do is at less grade these days. If she is found virgin, the groom in addition to the best men shoot of the gun to declare her purity in addition to the groom’s woman parent in addition to the best men take possession of the stained scarf in addition to emerge triumphant to declare the virtue of the girl. The best men pass 5 days with the couples except for the twenty-four sixty minutes time period they render to her parents’ house for the misiraachoo ( Congratulating the girl’s house unit of measurement on the virginity of their miss in addition to their proper upbringing.) For these 5 days the bride remains inwards the little house behind a mantle with her best men, visited freely only past times the groom in addition to his woman parent throughout a 5 twenty-four sixty minutes time period isolation. During these 5 days the best men do non allow whatever 1 to see the bride without offering some cents.
One twenty-four sixty minutes time period next the nuptials twenty-four sixty minutes time period the best men in addition to other friends congratulate the girl’s house unit of measurement on the virginity of their miss in addition to their proper upbringing. On the arrival the best men in addition to his friends shoot off the gun in addition to nowadays the stained cloth to the private house unit of measurement members past times placing it on each of their caps piece he sounds ilillee (An utterance of victory or joy.) The friend or relative is obliged to offering a gift for the privilege of viewing the bloodstained scarf. The scarf is non necessarily the one, which has a spot of a blood on it. Every private is supposed to give to a greater extent than than 2 coins (0.20 Ethiopian cents). After spending
at that spot enjoying the feasts in addition to congratulators start for their house, straight to the house of the newly weds to rest at that spot till 5th day.
On the 5th day, the bride introduces herself to the groom’s house unit of measurement in addition to makes a formal entry into the large house of the groom’s parents. The entry is called mana aseeennaa. Before the miss leaves the piffling house, the twain in addition to the miinjotaa feed from the marqaa (A breadstuff made from grain flour, usually barley served with butter) in addition to qorii (Barley roasted in addition to serve with special butter) provided past times the groom’s mother.
When she leaves her little hose the groom shaves her qarree, which is some other sign of her novel status, in addition to she also shaves a little portion of her husband’s hair. Following this the twain come inwards the house of the parents followed past times the miinjotaa in addition to at the door her husband’s manlike individual parent hope her cows, in addition to she reciprocates past times providing the manlike individual parent with heavy bullukko (A large garment usually worn past times men. It is local production made from cotton) in addition to the woman parent with kutaa (A cotton wool cloth which is real long worn past times the women from the top to the bottom. It is usually worn on the appointment of festivals) in addition to nuptials in addition to sabbata ( It is a long stair of cloth, which is worn past times Oromos of Gidda expanse circular their waist.)
The miinjee also brings many things for the ceremony such as qorii, nutrient served with chicken dish, in addition to pot total of farsoo. All the house unit of measurement with their relatives relish the feast prepared for the ceremony. From that twenty-four sixty minutes time period on wards the miinjotaa go their homes in addition to the bride lives with her married adult man without feeling of loneliness.
After calendar month or 2 the bride house unit of measurement invite the twain with miinjotaa to render home. This firstly homecoming is known as miinje deebii (returning of the best man). For that twenty-four sixty minutes time period the groom prepare a caprine animal that volition live killed at the house of the bride’s family. His woman parent prepares qorii, araqee in addition to kukkutaa (A nutrient soaked inwards a meat soup), which the bride takes with her when she goes for the miinjee deebii.
Red nuptials horseman,Gondar,Ethiopia
After getting prepared, the twain in addition to the companion go with few friends on fixed date. At the house of the bride’s family, immature girls gather in addition to sing together. On the arrival they are given seats inwards the temporary staying rooms. The bride’s house unit of measurement provides them with nutrient in addition to drink. After eating in addition to drinking, the bride stands upward to exchange greetings with her house unit of measurement in addition to relatives. Following this the best men dances at the middle of the girls dancing out side, declaring the virginity of the miss piece the bride serving the nutrient she has brought. People rarely slumber that night; usually rest all dark eating, drinking in addition to singing. Early inwards the morning, the groom brings into the front end the caprine animal he has brought in addition to the firstly best adult man kills it.
From the killed goat, steer or ram what ever it may be, the right hind limb volition non live consumed at that spot but the newly weds take it to their home. And also the pare belongs to the best men. The couple, the best men in addition to friends who accompanied the twain in addition to relatives of the bride’s house unit of measurement eat meat from the caprine animal prepared past times the bride’s woman parent in addition to women from the surrounding. After this, few friends who accompanied the twain render spot piece the twain in addition to the best men rest for some other 1 or 2 days. Before the twain render to their home, the house unit of measurement of the bride ready a appointment for their miss to come upward dorsum for yet some other see which is called toorban taa’umsa (a rest for a twain of weeks).
An Oromo adult woman sings a traditional vocal piece holding onto her baby.
On this fixed appointment the bride goes to her house unit of measurement accompanied past times her married adult man who volition turn spot inwards the morning. She carries 1 time to a greater extent than flour in addition to spiced butter to supply to her family. After her rest for a calendar week with her parents the married adult man takes her home.
From this twenty-four sixty minutes time period on, the twain volition take hold the chance to see the bride’s parents when invited for annual festivals in addition to other domestic celebrations. This invitation in addition to frequent see is non 1 sided but reciprocal.
Oromo adult woman performing traditional java ceremony. By Wellington City Libraries
4.OTHER TYPES OF MARRIAGE
Other types of union experienced amid Gidda Oromos were: (1) Sabbat marii (2) Hawwii (3) Butii (4) Aseennaa in addition to (5) Dhaala
4.1SABBAT MARII
Next to naqataa (Betrothal) type of marriage, sabbat marii is the 2nd most often exercised type of union amid this society. Indirectly it is a forceful marriage, which is practiced inwards a hurry. It is asking a miss for union which is done past times breaching appointment arrangements or it is asking a miss for union without prior arrangement. Sabbat marii literally agency rolling or folding a sabbataa in addition to it connotes a province of fact where the specific fourth dimension set for a affair is flexure in addition to the representative is desired to acquire its conclusion right there. Its
conclusion takes 1 of the 2 forms, which are discussed subsequently.
One of the inwards a higher spot 2 forms is that where a twenty-four sixty minutes time period is set for the betrothal past times the families of the man child in addition to the girl, the parents of the man child before the twenty-four sixty minutes time period set for the union volition prepare a feast inwards underground past times breaching the appointment. Then the man child volition live made gather a fellowship of men accompanying him inwards a underground in addition to prepare nuptials twenty-four sixty minutes time period clothes for the miss he would similar to marry. Elders in addition to the fellowship of men volition live sent to the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement to asking the conclusion of union before the appointment previously set for the marriage. These attendants when they approach the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement volition transportation people from around the neighborhoods (of the girl’s family) to asking the girl’s house unit of measurement permit the unconditional conclusion of marriage. The girl’s house unit of measurement volition for certain endure from shocking in addition to anger when they hear to such news. The people living inwards that community gather when they come upward to know that a boy of so in addition to so has come upward to beg a miss of so in addition to so inwards union through sabbat marii. Elder people inwards the vicinity in addition to so plead betwixt the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to the man child together with his fellowship arguing that 1 time union is agreed upward on, the girl’s house unit of measurement should have in addition to hear to the men falling at the door of the house of the bride’s family. At this stage, mostly the girl’s woman parent volition create trouble.
beautiful Oromo girl
Sometimes the elders in addition to the fellowship volition rest at that spot during the twenty-four sixty minutes time period in addition to fifty-fifty the dark without loosing hope of getting the girl. During this fourth dimension the neighbors volition supply the elders in addition to the fellowship with nutrient in addition to drinks as much as they tin can furnish. The parents of the girl, fifty-fifty if they are griped strongly, volition consent to the conclusion of union if the elders concur to each dot inwards the erstwhile contract without whatever alterations or reservations. If at that spot is no prior understanding on that point, the girl’s house unit of measurement volition usually impose expensive terms of understanding on the boy. This is to avoid the conclusion of union inwards this way. The elders inwards this representative take whatever term of understanding proposed past times the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to volition asking the exchange of less onerous terms for the most onerous ones.Hereafter, the contract of union volition live concluded after the gradual
negotiation on the terms. Finally, the elders give thank y'all the girl’s house unit of measurement for agreeing with them in addition to the miss live made acquire ready. According to the situations, nutrient in addition to potable volition live prepared from the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to the neighbors. Then the man child volition take the miss to his house.
The other cast of sabbat marii type of union is where the house unit of measurement of the miss has no prior cognition of the union intended past times the boy’s family. The physical care for followed inwards this from is inwards most cases differ to the inwards a higher spot mentioned. In the olden days, the man child prepares different things when he is intending to go the house of the girl’s family. Such things are stone, dry out things, invites all sorts of the hand-capped people (dead, beggars mostly who know to bless or dam people). In such cases the girl’s house unit of measurement does non pass upward their miss in
union to the man child propose. So, they give the miss than existence blamed or damned. To lose the miss is preferred than violating traditional beliefs of the society. Nowadays, sabbat marii is going past times having coqorsa (Running grass. It implies that the goodness wishing for the twain to create children), ulumaa’ii (A tree with a dainty odor. This is a wishing that the couples would take hold a dainty aroma betwixt them after they got married) in addition to alangaa (Whip. It implies a wishing that the spouse live together with love as if they were coiled together similar a whip).
In the middle of the night, the man child with 2 or 3 wise old men in addition to a dozen of his friends silently approaches the house of the girl’s parents. On arrival they position ulumaa’ii in addition to alanga on the gets of the girl’s house unit of measurement in addition to slumber exterior the surrounding hose until morning. Early inwards the morning, when the girl’s manlike individual parent or woman parent opened upward the door of their house, 1 of the elders from the boy’s side telephone phone them in addition to say that ilmi aagaa dhufeeraa intalli aagaa mana jirtii? which agency “Here is the boy of a good, is at that spot the miss of a goodness inwards the house”? After this, a few of them search elderberry people from the surrounding to assist them plead their case. The miss in addition to her woman parent are non allowed to go out of the house stepping on the alangaa in addition to ulumaa’ii, which was position on the door until negotiation, begin. As inwards the representative of the firstly cast of sabbat marii type of union discussed above, hither also the advocacies essay to convince the girl’s parents so that they may take the request. If understanding tin can live reached on theissues of marriage, the groom gives some amount of money to purchase the miss clothes, shoes, umbrella in addition to uwwisa for the parents.
Beautiful Oromo girl close the hot springs at the border of lake Shalah.© Steven Goethals
Following this, girls gather in addition to sing at the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement piece the groom’s political party eat nutrient in addition to potable araqee. Since the girl’s house unit of measurement did non hold back the union of their miss through sabbat marii type, which is concluded inwards a hurry, they do non supply the groom’s parties with farsoo rather they supply them with araqee, which is relatively slow to acquire it from their neighbor.
If it is decided that the union volition live at some fourth dimension inwards the future, both families prepare farsoo in addition to araqee for the wedding. After the groom’s political party feast what ever they take hold been provided with, the physical care for of harkafuudha in addition to the approving ceremony takes spot leading to the girl’s departure. The best men also takes an oath as inwards the representative of naqata type of marriage. If understanding cannot live reached on the number of marriage, search volition live conducted to obtain some other married adult woman for the man child as a commonly held belief inwards theOromo gild affirms that it is non goodness to the boy’s life to take hold no married adult woman after he began seeking the same. Therefore, the search continues until 1 is obtained.
4.2HAWWII
This mode is characterized past times that when a man child remains qerroo (bachelor) for several ground either because he is non handsome or he is from a house unit of measurement of depression social status, the way he gets married is advised past times his parents. The man child has no consent of the house unit of measurement of the girl. Sometimes, the girl’s woman parent is involved inwards arranging union of her miss through hawwii, but she keeps the underground inwards monastic enjoin non to brand it known to her married adult man (the girl’s father). This type of union is mutual amid poor people in addition to because of this the best alternative is underground selection type of marriage. Then the man child tells his manlike individual parent to go on negotiating the union where past times in addition to so the manlike individual parent or whatever representative, or fifty-fifty the man child him self starts finding a friend around her house. It is mostly the girl’s sayyuu (wife of the girl’s brother) that the man child approaches in addition to whom he thinks
that she tin can hold underground in addition to acts on a go-between.
The boy’s manlike individual parent tin can go investigation of her parents to which she belongs. If the criteria of union discussed inwards chapter 2 is non fulfilled, the boy’s manlike individual parent refuses the thought proposed past times his boy in addition to the affair ceases. On the other hand, if the criteria is fulfilled the manlike individual parent stimulates the physical care for in addition to gives the money to
his boy to purchase clothes, shoes in addition to umbrella for the girl. After she has been convinced past times the go between, the appointment of union is fixed. As inwards the representative of formal type of union (naqataa) the man child does non go to the house of the girl’s house unit of measurement to take the miss on the fixed appointment of marriage. But at that spot are places where the man child in addition to miss with their fellowship tin can mostly hold back each other. Such places are either inwards the bush or past times a river. She signs an understanding saying that she was non taken against her volition in addition to she volition live taken to 1 of the boy’s relatives until his parents prepare feast for marriage. In the adjacent twenty-four sixty minutes time period early on inwards the morning time elders are sent from the boy’s house unit of measurement to the girl’s house unit of measurement to brand the reconciliation.
Oromo people
The girl’s house unit of measurement easily convinced past times the elders in addition to they take the union in addition to have a sizeable total of money. Because the girl’s house unit of measurement know that at that spot is no forcefulness application involved inwards union of their miss in addition to at that spot is no hope that they tin can acquire their miss back, they usually soften to take the union. The
payment inwards this type of union is usually betwixt 50 in addition to 100 Ethiopian Birr, which is much less that other types of union except aseennaa. After the boy’s house unit of measurement prepares the feast, the nuptials ceremony takes spot a calendar week after thefirst date. The parents of the girl’s also invite the couple, which is equal to miinjee deebii. Misiraachoo is also completed on the appointment of miinjee deebii.
Oromo girls
4.3 BUTII
The Oromo of this expanse telephone phone butii the type of marriage, which is accomplished past times force. This mode of acquiring married adult woman inwards the Gidda Oromo has its ground of taking spot especially on the constituent of the man, when the man child is refused past times girl’s parents, past times the miss herself, if he is asked too much money as a bride wealth and
different sort of gifts which he cannot afford. This type of union takes of the next 2 forms. The firstly is when the miss has consented she is induced to live abducted. The 2nd is cast is accomplished past times compulsion without whatever prior cognition of the abduction (unlike the firstly from) on the constituent of the girl.
The firstly cast of butii type of union conducted where the girl’s house unit of measurement suffers from economical problems. In this case, almost every trunk dares non to enquire the miss of this house unit of measurement for marriage. Here, as years roll the girl’s historic time period volition go over the inwards a higher spot historic time period customarily required for marriage. Consequently, the gild develops a negative mental attitude towards the miss in addition to stigmatizes the miss as haftuu, which agency remaining unmarried. Thus, the girls at this stage desires to escape the curse of her house unit of measurement for marrying without their permission, past times arranging for her subsequent abduction past times the man child whom she is inwards love with. She does this without the cognition of her family. She usually specifies the way of abduction, which the man child should take into action. Such ways are when she collects firewood, fetching drinking H2O in addition to other similar situations. The boy
is often informed of 1 of the inwards a higher spot satiations in addition to abducts the miss accordingly.
The 2nd cast of butii is that where the man child with his friends abducts the miss from where he hides himself. The boy, however, waits for the miss inwards this hiding until she comes to his share. In this situation, if it happens that the miss is non alone, a combat is almost ever likely to occur betwixt the boy’s friends on the 1 manus in addition to the women or men with the miss on the other. In this combat the man child is likely to succeed inwards the fighting as he often goes out prepared for abduction. Thereafter, the man child takes the miss with him in addition to and so places her inwards a
sure house of his relatives or bush so that no 1 from the girl’s house unit of measurement mightiness regain her whereabouts. The same night, where the abduction carried out, the man child deflowers the miss for a miss who has lost her virginity volition non go dorsum to her family.
Oromo women
On the tomorrow of the twenty-four sixty minutes time period of abduction, the boy’s house unit of measurement sends elders to the girl’s house unit of measurement to settle the matter. Settlement is usually difficult. Nevertheless, 1 time the virginity of the miss is consummated, the girl’s house unit of measurement never ever wants to retake their miss in addition to so that they tin can concur to the matter. This existence so, the house unit of measurement of the miss usually enquire high compensation sums for the moral in addition to physical harm sustained past times them as a resultant of the abduction. However, elders mediate betwixt the 2 families to ready a reasonable total agreeable past times both sides. Then, the total fixed past times elders volition live paid in addition to the dispute volition consequently come upward to an end. After-wards, understanding in addition to peace set out to reign in addition to the union for which the man child has carried out the abduction volition live conducted.
Oromo people
ASEENNAA
For a adult woman to remain single into her twenties is incomprehensible, though, she must go beyond her self, called aseennaa, literally agency “entry”. Nowadays, the people who do aseennaa are insignificant inwards number. When a miss is left single or when her manlike individual parent wants to give her to some 1 whom she does non like, she chooses single immature adult man in addition to and so runs a way to his house without the cognition of the adult man mostly inwards the evening.
On the arrival she enters into the main room of the house (diinqa), scatters iddii (solanaceous fruit) in addition to holding qadabukoo (big dough container gourd). The scattered iddii implies that she wishes to a greater extent than wealth to the house unit of measurement she has joined piece that of qadabukoo is an appear of her status as the housewife inwards that family. She does this mostly when the boy’s woman parent in addition to some members of household are non at home. The immature adult man whom the miss wanted to acquire married cannot reject the union whether he likes it or not. The rejection of this type of union results inwards ostracism past times the society. The adjacent twenty-four sixty minutes time period the parents of the miss are informed that the miss has come upward to the house of somebody.
Oromo adult man in addition to adult woman inwards traditional dress
DHAALA
Dhaala literally agency “inheritance”. It is a type of union betwixt a adult woman in addition to the blood brother of a deceased married adult man or levirate. The ground behind this is to save the children of the deceased adult man within the house unit of measurement in addition to relieve them frommistreatment past times the stepfather to whom the widow may marry. According to the
traditional practices of the Oromo society, the adult woman is obliged to rest idly thinking of her husband’s expiry for a time period of at to the lowest degree 1 year.
After her rest for 1 or 2 years without married adult man she is given the deceased husband’s brother, classificatory or total brother. The deceased man’s blood brother pass upward to get hitched with the widow thinking that as if she is his ain blood relative. But he accepts when he is told to do so either past times his house unit of measurement or elders inwards the community. This type of union depends on the number of children born to the twain in addition to on how good the widow is liked past times the parents of the deceased man. If the adult man has married his ain married adult woman before this arrangement, he turn to piece of work inwards the fields betwixt the 2 households, but if he is a bachelor (qeerroo), he volition latter get hitched with a miss because it is culturally credible in addition to socially valued to get hitched with a
immature miss in addition to shave the qarree.
On the other hand, if at that spot were no children born to the deceased adult man in addition to the widow, she volition render to her parents in addition to gets married at that spot unless she is beyond her kid bearing age. Levirate union volition also non live arranged for older widow, but her adult son’s volition back upward her.
Source:http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol15num3/beyene.pdf
Beautiful Oromo girl
TRADITIONAL OROMO RELIGION
AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
2.l The Oromo Concept of "Waaqa" in addition to Human Destiny
There are 3 religions inwards Oromiya: traditional religion, Islam in addition to Christianity. Many Oromo do traditional faith parallel with Islam or Christianity. Oromo religious, belief is based on the take in that at that spot is only 1 Waaqa (God). The Standard Arabic give-and-take Rabbi is also used past times the Muslim Oromo in addition to others to refer to their supreme being. According to the Oromo traditional religion, Waaqa has multiple attributes. Waaqa is He Who is before everything else. Waaqa is Uumaa (a creator of everything inwards the world). Waaqa is
Hunda beekaa (omniscient). Waaqa is hundaa tolaa (omni benevolent). Waaqa is hunda danda'aa (omnipotent). Waaqa is the source in addition to lover of dhugaa (truth). Waaqa is Qulqulluu (pure). Waaqa is intolerant of injustice, crime, sin in addition to all falsehood. The Oromo never worshiped carved statues, trees, rivers, mountains' or animals as substitutes.
But who is the creator of Waaqa? All of my informants concur that Waaqa is non a created being. Waaqa does non take hold an elder. There is nada that has powerfulness over Waaqa. For the Oromo Waaqa is eternal in addition to the terminal cause of all things. The Oromo thus had the concept of the monotheistic supreme God from fourth dimension immemorial although the Oroma 'conception of God is quite distinct from the Western one. The Oromo
conception of Waaqa illustrates that Momoh's generalization is unfounded. "There is extremely generated on business concern human relationship of oUr colonia{ expOsure" (Momoh 1996,62). Momoh contends that Africans take hold gods. He identified 3 gods, such as the ancestors in addition to founders of the clan, the god of the water, mountain, wood or desert in addition to the god of the staple crop or animal. He adds, "there are gods of the elements -wars, trade, hunting, moral gods -vengeance, protection; destiny gods-luck, blessing, misfortune in addition to fate" (Momoh 1996, 63). Momoh farther argues that "[t]here are no known Afri.can people who take hold 1 give-and-take for God. What nosotros take hold are attributes, expressions in addition to 'litanies describing in addition to designating God. This, inwards line with what nosotros take hold been arguing, is absolute proof that the notion of God inwards Africa is a resultant of Christian a.nd Islamic
Influences" (Momoh 1996, 64). The absence of proverbs, said Momoh, is a clear indication of the absence of the concept of God inwards traditional Africa (Momoh 1996, 67). .
However, as has been stated earlier, the Oromo take hold 1 give-and-take for the supreme beingWaaqa. There are various Oromo proverbs6 which praise Waaqa. Examples include:
• Waaqa malee, gaariin hin jiru (BABO 1998, 624) (There is no 1 who is
sort except Waaqa /God).
• Waan Waaqni fide lafti ba'aa hin dadhabu (BABO 1998, 122) (Whatever
Waaqa brings the world does non neglect to carry it).
• Namni yaa Waaqijedhe Waaqarraa hindhabu (BABO 1998,481) (One who
worships God volition acquire everything).
Some writers reported that the Oromo also talked virtually Waaqa diimaa (the reddish Waaqa). Bartels writes, "for the sake of completeness ... people sometimes also speak of 'Waqa dema' - the light-colored Waaqa (or 'the reddish Waaqa') inwards contrast to 'Waqa gurraacha' - the dark-colored Waaqa' (Bartels 1983,107). Daniel also reported that through his interviews he has found out that at that spot are 3 meanings of Waaqa. The concept of Waaqa could live used to refer to the expanse of the sky as seen from the Earth, a supreme being, in addition to also could live understood to hateful the heaven, as the abode of the Supreme Being (Daniel 1984, 105). Daniel states that "[t]he 'black' aspect of Waaqa is usually regarded as the guardian in addition to protector; whereas -- the "red" 1 is considered to live the aspect of Waaqa which is at that spot to punish men inwards representative of wrongdoing" (Daniel 1984, 106). Tippet on the other manus said the following:
"[iJn some places [Waaqa] is conceptualized as 2 gods, resident inwards the sky ... 1 dark in addition to one
reddish ... either the reddish god existence provoked to anger manifests this inwards displays of lightning which the
dark god muffles in addition to turns to thunder, or the 2 gods manifest themselves inwards cloudy in addition to sunny
days. For some informants these are manifestations of the 1 god, for others they are 2 gods.
Where they are regarded as 2 gods the dark 1 is the to a greater extent than friendly to adult man ... in addition to spoken of as
creator in addition to manlike individual parent (Tippet 1970, 153)."
The concept of "the reddish Waaqa" is non-existent inwards their belief. The Ambo Oromo identified Waaqa as gurraacha (the dark Waaqa). They believe that Waaqa is inwards a higher spot the sky, the cloud. In fact, they mentioned that biduu (the rainbow) has 3 colors 1 of which is red. Biduu is believed to live the belt of Waaqa.
Some Western in addition to Ethiopian writers defined Waaqa`s sk.y=God. Accordingto Bartels (1983), the give-and-take Waaqa has a double meaning: sky, i.e., the vault of the sky as nosotros take in it in addition to God. Tilahun inwards his Dromo English linguistic communication Dictionary defined Waaqa as God in addition to sky (1989, 586). Mudee (1995, 330) defines Waaqa as the creator of human beings. Ludolphus (1982) reported that Waaqa for the Oromo agency "the Heaven" which
governs the world. Ceruli (1922) viewed Waaqa both as sky in addition to as God.
Oromo Guji girl
Thus Waaqa is non the visible bluish sky (Informants (hereafter: inf(s): Emanssa; Fufa; Merga Jara). Some informants signal that Waaqa is ever with us although we;don't take in Him (Infs: Duresso; Merga Jara; Nagara Fite). Likewise, the Akans of Ghan'a. say that "if y'all wishing to say something to God, tell it to the wind" (Abraham 1995,52) for God-is with the people. It seems to me that the Definition of Waaqa as a sky God is a recent phenomenon in addition to has go pop through European writers. The Europeans in addition to the Hebrews advanced the notion of a heavenly or celestial God, located at a sure distance inwards the sky. God has been called the heavenly God, the celestial God, or the God of sky (Danquah 1995, 101). In most cases European writers tend to work their ain concepts inwards their anthropological study of African people.
The of import interrogation to the Oromo is : how did the thought occur to Waaqa to create human beings in addition to the world inwards which nosotros live? The Oromo believe that inwards a higher spot all things Waaqa stretched out the Earth, in addition to created all other things. Waaqa created the firstly human existence from the soil past times breathing at it. After the appearance of the firstly human being, the world cried in addition to asked Waaqa the ground why He took its meat in addition to os to create a human being. Waaqa replied that similar the call of the world human beings volition call in addition to render to the world when they die, whereas, His breath volition go to Him. Unlike some ethnic groups inwards Africa, the Oromo do non believe that the soul of departed ancestors retakes bodily cast inwards novel babies inwards their families in addition to clans. Instead, they believe that at the minute of expiry the soul volition live separated from the trunk in addition to goes to Waaqa. In fact, the Oromo prayed to the spirit of the dead.
They prepare a thick local bread, cheese with melted butter, local beer, in addition to dear in addition to celebrate the Ekeraa ritual inwards Dec every year. Waaqa also created devils, vultures, dogs, wild animals in addition to so on. One may wonder why Waaqa created goodness in addition to bad things. According to the informants, illness in addition to misfortune inwards full general is often considered a penalty from Waaqa for sins a individual has committed. It is because of the errors of human beings that Waaqa allowed evil things to be inwards the world. Otherwise- Waaqa is all-good. If Waaqa had non tolerated both goodness in addition to evil things, he would take hold been ungrateful; His omnipotence in addition to omniscience would non take hold been known. The Oromo believe that the coexistence of goodness in addition to bad, beauty in addition to ugly is necessary. In the absence of wise men, the unwise cannot improve their cognition Emanssa; Erko; Fufa; Gamachu; Nagara Fite; Nagassa).
The Oromo believe that humans tin can influence Waaqa's actions. Individuals who live in addition to deed inwards accordance with Waaqa's monastic enjoin volition live happy, in addition to live respected members of their society. On the contrary, when a individual fails to deed inwards accordance with Waaqa's order, Waaqa volition punish himlher. Waaqa tin can brand him/her blind, in addition to tin can cutting hislher hands (Infs: Merga Jara; Ragassa). These supernatural sanctions tin can resultant inwards various types of misfortunes ranging from illness, mishaps, in addition to bad luck for the guilty individual in addition to his/her relatives.
As has been stated earlier, the Oromo do non take hold a dualistic conception of reality. They believe that Waaqa in addition to La/a (Earth) are inseparable. They cofl"1)ider the world as their mother. They underscore that they suck the thorax of the world as the babe sucks,its mother's breast. All things originate from the world in addition to depend on the resources of the world for their survival. The world is the source of nourishment, survival in addition to life (Infs:
Fufa; Gamtessa).
Nothing tin can live exterior the Earth. The next maxim illustrates this:
" Allaattiin hanga /eete barartullee duuti isii lafuma (The birds that flew inwards the air
come upward in addition to go out upon the Earth) (BABO 1996, 325). This shows that the world is the final
abiding spot of all things that lived in addition to grew. For the Oromo, Waaqa is similar a father.
He gives them pelting in addition to helps the world grow different plants. In fact, the Oromo do not
say that the world is Waaqa's wife. What is clear is that Waaqa is.considered as a male
whereas the world is considered as a female. I take hold a serious dubiety concerning
Haberland's assertion that the Eastern Arsi Oromo believe that "Iafti niitii Waaqaati"--
"the world is Waaqa's wife" ( Haberland 1963,607). Bartels (1983, 108) also said that
the Western Matcha Oromo do non consider the world as Waaqa's wife. As I take hold argued_
elsewhere (1997a), the link betwixt Waaqa in addition to the world has been expressed inwards certain
myths of Oromo origin, people's blessings, oaths, curses, rituals, proverbs in addition to so forth.
As Knutsson noted, "the ground itself is superhuman inwards character, although it is not
equivalent to the heaven. To give weight to the truth of what 1 says or to a request-for
something, evidence is presented or a interrogation posed 'in the call of Waka in addition to La/a"
(Knutsson 1967, 56)."
My informants disagree whether the the world belongs to all, the living the dead in addition to the unborn included. Most of them concur that before the conquest of the Oromo past times the Abyssinians inwards the 19th century, the the world was free, in addition to no trunk owned it. Land couldn't live bought or sold. People had use-rights over the the world resource, which belongs to Waaqa. The the world did non take hold a boundary inwards the strict sense of the term. But Emperor Menelik in addition to his followers proclaimed that the the world belongs to the government. He apportioned the Oromo the world in addition to gave it to his soldiers, relatives in addition to churches. Some informants fence that the the world belongs to the living, for they work the resources of the the world for survival. They maintain that the dead take hold already left -the the world and
couldn't claim it. The living volition manus it over to the adjacent generation (lnfs: Fufa; Gonfa-; Galata). Others combat that the the world is the private belongings of the dead;, they were buried inwards the land! in addition to no trunk tin can forcefulness them to leave of absence the the world or to modify their place.
Human beings originated from the the world in addition to returned to it (Infs: Oagaga Kana'a; Gamtessa). The 3rd grouping believes that the the world belongs' to all, living, dead in addition to unborn included. The living acquire the necessities of life from the land. The dead were buried inwards the land. The unborn'will live born on the the world (Infs: Daksissa; Nagara Fite). The 3rd grouping the take in held past times many Africans. "For Africans the world belongs to all, living in addition to dead. We volition live inwards this the world where our for parents lived in addition to where our greatgreat-grand children volition live. To brand sure that all do goodness from this wealth, nosotros take hold to take attention of it properly now. This value scheme cuts across all ethnic groups inwards Africa" (Omari 1990, 174). Generally, the Oromo people believe that the nowadays generation is nether moral obligation to save the the world in addition to manus it over to the futurity generation.
Oromo woman
2.2 The Concept of "Ayyaana"
Oromo traditional faith teaches that at that spot are many saint-like divinities called Ayyaana, each seen as a manifestation of the 1 Waaqa. Ayyaana is believed to live the angel of Waaqa. It is the intermediary betwixt human beings in addition to Waaqa. Ayyaana is created past times Waaqa in addition to cannot create anything. Ayyaana tin can only communicate the problems of humans to Waaqa. During possession the Ayyaana speaks inwards the oral fissure of the Ayyaantuu (Qaalluu) with the people. When individuals enquire Ayyaana for help, the latter volition say s(he) volition enquire in addition to beg Waaqa for himlher. Ayyaana acts according to the volition of Waaqa. Ayyaana lonely cannot wound or kill individuals. But with the assist of Waaqa Ayyaana tin can live invoked to convey misfortune upon ' the individual unwilling to comply with the traditions of the gild (Infs: Emanssa; Fufa). Thus, Ambo Oromo
mental attitude towards the Ayyaana (spirit) is at variance with Lewis' view. Lewis reports that the Ayyaana(spirits) "can straight comport upon all aspects of life. They tin can kill a adult man or cure him; slay his ox' or increment his herd; brand him mad or destroy his enemy. They tin can live vengeful toward the impious or benevolent to the faithful" (Lewis 1970, 174).
Unlike Waaqa the color of Ayyaana is unknown. It should live reiterated that Waaqa could only create or destroy human beings in addition to other things (lnfs: Emanssa; Fufa; Nagara Fite). The take in of my-informants is at variance with the thought that "one's ayyaana determines one's destiny, since it is assumed that when some 1 is born, th\!' individual is born into an ayyaana that determines his or her future" (Daniel 1984, 107). As I volition demonstrate later, the Oromo believed that Waaqa with their respective Ayyaana created the days inwards each
month. But for the Ambo Oromo, it is non the Ayyaana that determines one's destiny but Waaqa. According to Oromo traditional religion, all created things inwards the universe take hold their ain Ayyaana. Thus at that spot are numerous Ayyaanas. For instance, hunters are expected to sacrifice animals for the wild animals they killed during hunting. Otherwise the guardian spirit of the concerned wild brute volition assail the hunter.
The Ayyaana is attached to private Qaalluu in addition to speaks through his oral fissure during possession. Both are inseparable. The 'Qaalluu serves as an intermediary betwixt human in addition to the Ayyaana (spirit). The role of a Qaalluu is similar to the role of a Bishop inwards the Christian world in addition to of Imam inwards the Muslim world. He or she is expected to observe traditional taboos (Safuu) in addition to ritual observances in addition to follow the truth in addition to avoid sin. The Ambo Oromo identifies several Ayyaanas. Each lineage (balbala) has its ain Ayyaana, in addition to each clan (lammii) has its ain Ayyaana. The erstwhile may live called Ayyaana xinnaa (small Ayyaana) whereas the latter tin can live called Ayyaana Guddaa (big Ayyaana). The qaalluu is the leader of religious rituals. The Qaalluu is also known as the Ayyaantu for s(he) has the Ayyaana of his lineage or clan.
The Ayyaana Abbaa ( Ayyaana of one's father) is invoked for assist inwards monastic enjoin to fulfill one's duties, to live successful, in addition to to avoid evil acts, for it is believed to live to a greater extent than powerful than one's ain Ayyaana. Likewise, the Ayyaana of the clan is to a greater extent than powerful than a father's Ayyaana (Infs: Fufa; Nagara Fite).
The Dromo also work "Ayyaana" to refer to a holiday. The days on which the Oromo perform traditional ceremonies are called Ayyaana. Some days take hold been assigned to some of the spirits in addition to conceived as Ayyaana. Also the concept of Ayyaana tin can live used to refer to a person's fate ( Bartels 1983; Daniel 1984). That someone is Ayyaantuu may hateful she is lucky. • Nabi is believed to live the ancient Ayyaana of the Dromo (lnf: Emanssa). To give nascency to a child, the spirit called Araashittii should possess pregnant woman. Booranticha is a manlike individual spirit, in addition to is believed to live the protector of ox in addition to calf. It is also known as the spirit of the river. An private is required to prepare traditional beer, Niger seed, flour of roasted barley with butter, salt, pancake-like bread, sauce of lentils, ix buddena (large local breadstuff cooked only on 1 side) in addition to celebrate the Booranticha ritual at the river-bed so as to appease the spirit of the river (Inf: Kumalcha).
What is interesting is that the Qaalluu establishment has had a positive impact on the environment. The Dromo build Galma (traditional Oromo ritual hall/Church) at a special place. The qaalluu lives in addition to worships inwards this place. Although the Oromo tin can build Galma on a hill, they to a greater extent than often than non believe that a gradient or a loma is non a favorable place, for it exposes the Galma to different dangers. For this matter, they build a Galma nether a
hill, past times the side of hideout, or past times the side of isolated places (Infs: Emanssa, Merga Jara).
Oromo Karrayyu adult man with hhis traditional Ganfura hairstyle
These places should live complimentary from yell. Women who take hold catamenia are forbidden to come inwards the Galma. Such women are considered impure. The believers see the Galma in addition to dance, sing in addition to trounce drums to perform a ritual called dalaga inwards monastic enjoin to make a province of ecstasy, which often culminates inwards possession. It is at the tiptop of this that the possessing Ayyaana speaks through the Qaalluu's oral fissure in addition to respond prayers in addition to predict the future. It should live noted that the Oromo perform prayer ceremonies also permanently flowing rivers, past times the side of large mountains, hills, stones in addition to trees. The the world around the Galma in addition to the natural resources on this the world are viewed as sacred in addition to are good protected.
In Dromo traditional culture, some individuals claim to know the mystery of human nature in addition to predict the future. These individuals are known as Xibaartuu Or Warra Waa beeku (those who know something) or Warra siinii ilaalu (those who appear at the lees of a loving cup of java in addition to predict the future). They also claim to know the message of the smoke of incense. When people acquire sick in addition to human face life crisis, they see these yam
spinners. The Qaalluu leaders also advise individuals to see them in addition to empathise what to do inwards monastic enjoin to avoid their problems. It should benoted that Xibaartuu has a lower social status than the Qaalluu leaders. Some informants believe that Xibaartuu is knowledgeable in addition to tin can assist the people (Infs: Duresso; Emanssa). The bulk of my informants, however, said that the Xibaartuu is a deceiver, in addition to does non know anything.
The yarn spinners exploit the people past times fabricating faux stories. Some fifty-fifty say · that they are the instruments of the Qoolluu leaders. They advise people to offering money, animals in addition to other gifts to the Qoolluu so that the Ayyoonti volition solve their problem. But the advice of xiboortuu is groundless (Infs: Eticha, Gamtessa; Merga Jara; Ragassa).
Beautiful Oromo people
On the other hand, the Oromo believe that at that spot are hidden Seexanas (devils) which are the enemies of the people in addition to Waaqa. Wooqa "has go the enemy of devils whom he tin can effect at whatever time" (Bartels 1983, 121). In fact, Waaqa creates the devils. Like human beings they are mortal. But they tin can live the cause of conflict betwixt human beings, in addition to they tin can convey harm to individuals in addition to disturb their health. Devils are
invisible, destructive in addition to the sources of evil things, misfortunes, in addition to all kinds of human sufferings. When people suspect that a devil brought harm to their child, they volition take the latter to Ayyoona Guddaa (Big Ayyoona). The Qoolluu tin can forcefulness the devil to release the child. The Qoolluu tin can brand the devil swear non to disturb the kid inwards the futurity (Infs: Gutema Mitafa; Nagassa). Rivers, ash, mountains, various trees, in addition to the spot hitting past times lightening, in addition to draft is believed to live the abode of devils. The Oromo are used to appease devils past times providing various offerings.
2.3 The Concept of "Maaram"
Mooram is believed to live the divinity of women. Mooram was created past times Waaqa in addition to addressed· as haadha boor (the woman parent of ocean). I think this is to signal that Mooram came to the Oromo from outside. The Oromo believe that Mooram is the woman parent of a child. The Oromo women perform traditional ceremonies inwards observe of Mooram. It is believed that Mooram volition assist barren women to beget a child, in addition to assist pregnant
women to give nascency to a child. When a adult woman gives nascency to a kid Oromo women volition gather in addition to ululate (say ilili ilili). They also prepare porridge, in addition to splash butter. It is normal for the Oromo to sacrifice an brute during this ceremony. Moreover, Mooram is worshipped for the wellness of the environment, animals, human beings in addition to crops. The Oromo Qoolluu leaders pray to Mooram every 2 weeks for the continuation of
offspring of humans. Mooram has her ain ritual house. Ritual goods include 100100 (earthen caldron), in addition to Qoloo (traditional shirt). It has also madabii (raised platform of Earth). The dancing ceremony is performed on Tuesdays, Thursdays,. in addition to Saturdays (Iofs: Duresso; Emanssa; Fufa).
2.4 The Concept of "Ateetee"
Some writers take hold explained the nature e.of Ateetee in addition to Mooram. Knutsson states that the names Ateetee in addition to Mooram are used interchangeably for the same sort of existence (Kmitsson 1967,55). Daniel states t/1at the various songs of Ateetee imply that "[a]teete is a ceremony prepared for Ayyolee, Mooram in addition to Waaqa as thanksgiving past times those who take hold children in addition to a lamentation past times the barren women" (Daniel 1984, 111). Bartels, however, questioned this assertion. To the Oromo of Western Matcha, Ateetee is the call of the ritual inwards which Mooram is invoked (Bartels 1983). Baxter (1979) had similar observation concerning the belief of the Arsi Oromo. For Cerulli, Ateetee is conceived as the goddess of fecundity (Cerulli 1922,127; Harris 1968,50).
The take in of the Ambo Oromo is at variance with Knutsson' s argument. According to the Ambo Oromo, Ateetee in addition to Maaram are different in addition to take hold different functions in. Oromo religion. The materials used during' ceremonies are different. But both Ateetee in addition to Maaram are believed to live females. ' For the Ambo Oromo, Ateetee is the woman parent of cattle in addition to the spirit of baksaa (melted or processed butter). The Oromo also identified Ateetee as Aayyoo Baar (the Mother of Ocean) in addition to as Hadha Dambal (the woman parent of overflow, full). The purpose 'of the Ateetee ritual is to assist cattle breed well, in addition to to assist oxen plough well. There are Ateetee cattle inwards Oromo culture. When a heifer drops a calf, her butter volition live stored in addition to used during the Ateetee ceremony. Yogurt is also required to live kept for 2 weeks before the Ateetee ritual. The Ateetee ritual tin can live performed inwards June in addition to Jan or inwards whatever other month. Most of the time, the Ateetee ritual is performed on Tuesday, Th in addition to Sat (Inf: Gutama Mitafa; Urgessa Gutama). The women tin can set out to celebrate the Ateetee ritual on Friday, in addition to splash butter on Saturday. Or they tin can set out on
Wednesday, Th in addition to splash butter on Th in addition to Friday, respectively. Traditionally, it is believed that Mon is the twenty-four sixty minutes time period of the ghost. Midweek is believed to harden its pump towards the people. But the proper appointment for Ateetee ritual is determined past times fourth dimension reckoning experts. The Ambo Oromo perform Ateetee ceremonies every 2 years (Infs: Duresso; Lami; Merga Jara).
Five or to a greater extent than women are required to participate inwards Ateetee rituals. The married adult woman of Guu,laa (an private who take hold gone through all the rituals of the Gadaa in addition to who has his-ruling time period behind him)--Kalaalee volition live elected in addition to tumble the melted butter over the women who perform Ateetee ceremony. When the boy of Kalaalee has gone through all the rituals of the Gadaa, the Kalaalee would live called Cifiree (Inf: Lemo). The women should non perform Ateetee ritual with plaited hair. Their pilus should' live daabee (it should flow downwards the neck, the front end in addition to 'the sides). She should curf her pilus with leaves of Qobboo (Ricinus communis). Her married adult man is expected to carry Caaccuu (necklace of beads). On the 3rd twenty-four sixty minutes time period the 5 women perform fertility ritual past times splashing their chest, in addition to cervix with warm butter. Women are expected to eat porridge. Porridge volition live served with laaloo (tray made of straw). On the 5th day, the married adult man volition take his cattle to the spot where the cattle volition potable horra (mineral water). On mid-day, the married adult man volition render cattle to his premises. When the cattle render home, the volition milk cows in addition to pour the milk on the dorsum of cows. This is believed to assist cows breed well.
Oromo adult woman cervix wearing beads
During Ateetee ritual, an old salubrious moo-cow should live sacrificed for the cattle to breed well, for a bull to serve a cow, for a to live successful in addition to for a the world to live leveled. It is a taboo to a moo-cow with broken horns, blind eye, incorrect tail in addition to other defects. If a individual does non take hold a cow, he tin can slaughter java (coffee fruits
stewed inwards butter) (Inf: Fufa). The slaughtering of java may take hold been symbolic. "The cherry-like java fruits are bitten opened upward in addition to stewed inwards melted butter. The butter enters the fruits in addition to reaches the beans inside. These beans which, because of their shape, business concern human relationship for the java fruits 'use as a symbol of the woman: their shape is reminder of the woman individual organ much as cowry-shells are" (Bartels 1983, 287). When the husband
sacrifices a cow, the Ateetee spirit volition possess his spouse. The people anoint stick with butter in addition to prop it against their body. The married adult man volition brand libations past times curdled milk. He is also expected to set upward 2 greenish poles inwards front end of the house. The people eat meat, potable yogurt, unfermented ale, in addition to traditional beer. The milk volition live served with Guchuma !large gourd). The people in addition to so praise the cattle inwards their song. The women
trip the lite fantastic during the dark (Infs: Emanssa; Lemo).
It is believed that if a individual fails to perform Ateetee cattle cannot breed well, the calf cannot grow, the teat of animals volition live closed, in addition to a individual tin can live visually, impaired in addition to crippled. The Oromo say "Ateetee ijaaf ijoof gabbaru" (Ateete ritual is. performed for the sake of the eyes in addition to destiny). In general, the Ateetee ritual has symbolic meanings. The anointment of sticks with butter, the planting of greenish poles, the shedding of old cows blood, the splashing of the thorax in addition to the cervix with butter are the symbols of fertility, procreation, in addition to continuation' of life on Earth. They symbolize that the survival of most Oromos depend on the survival in addition to rebirth of herds.
2.5 Ute Mowata Tradition
Ethiopian in addition to non-Ethiopian anthropologists who take hold studied the nature of Waaqa'i Maaram, Ateetee in addition to Ayyaana take hold been soundless virtually the nature of the Mowata civilization amid the Ambo Oromo. In what follows, I volition nowadays a preliminary observation virtually how Mowata has been practiced past times the Ambo Oromo. My analysis relies solely on oral information both from the study sites in addition to outside. Those .who take hold been practicing the Mowata cult in addition to other peasants were interviewed. The readers are advised to consider each spot in addition to cast their ain position.
My informants concur that Mowata came to Ambo from Soddo via Waliss although they could non spot the exact appointment of the appearance of Mowata inwards Ambo. It is believed that originally Damaamitii (the deity of Mowata) came downwards to the world from the sky; it is an innovation of Waaqa in addition to it cannot live inherited through blood ties. I think that the Mowata tradition has religious in addition to social dimensions. The Mowata ritual is largely associated with women, although men mostly Fugaa (woodworkers who are socially despised) in addition to hermaphrodites participate inwards Mowata spirit possession. The Mowata gild has its ain leader who is called Habaqii. In most cases, a Fugaa is the leader of the Mowata society. There is the saying that "Dubartiin qeetti dhirsaan nakkarte ala baateet jaarsi fugaa dha doobbiif goraan reeba':, (A adult woman who challenges her married adult man inwards his premises volition live beaten past times a Fugaa elderberry outdoors with nettle in addition to raspberry plant" (Inf: Ragassa). Each locality has its ain Habaqii in addition to those who reside· inwards the expanse participate inwards Mowata spirit possession through the guidance of their Habaqii. The Habaq;; is required to live given a whip made from the pare of a hippopotamus past times the Ayyaana. For instance, Obboo Kumalcha, the Habaqii
around the metropolis of Ambo, reported that the spirit called Danfaa of the Qaalluu leader Obboo Fayissa Inika gave him a whip. When the Habaqii ties the whip inwards a business solid knot, the members of the Mowata gild volition live possessed past times the spirit in addition to gather around the Habaqii's premises. By tying the whip, the Habaqii tin can brand them unconscious, in addition to may forcefulness them to stimulate crying at a funeral, to fetch water, to eat food, in addition to to
perform whatever other duties. In particular, when the Qaalluu of Danfaa in addition to Maaram (well-known spirits inwards Ambo) in addition to 1 of the members of the Mowata gild dies, the members of the Mowata gild volition cause crying at the funeral.
To do this the Habaqii should live informed virtually the expiry of the concerned individual. When the Habaqii thinks that they take hold performed their duties, slhe volition dispossess the members of the Mowata gild of the spirit past times untying the whip. The Habaqii tin can pacify a individual who is possessed past times the spirit in addition to unconsciously tries to assail other people past times using fire, thorny bushes in addition to the like. The Habaqii employs various phrases to Pb the spirit possession. These phrases are considered the linguistic communication of Mowata. For instance:
• Ashimmoo damaamitii (Be possessed past times the spirit)
• Sebir (Leave him or her)
• Tadumdumii (Be silent)
• Tonyii (Sit down) (Infs: Kurnalchaa; Lemmo).
Individuals who participate inwards the Mowata spirit possession cutting the leaves of various trees, whereas, those who do non properly celebrate the Mowata ritual cutting the thorns of different trees in addition to take constituent inwards a funeral.
The Mowata tradition .is much to a greater extent than complicated than what has been stated. According to informants, the Mowata spirit tin can possess a individual inwards 2 different ways. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Qeerransa (leopard) can, on the 1 hand, kidnap a person. Initially, a individual volition live afflicted bodily or mentally (Infs: Duresso; Kurnalcha; Lemo). Obboo Kurnalcha's personal story illustrates this.
"I was sick for virtually 14 months. I suffered from diarrhea in addition to vomiting. I was non able to eat well.
I only drank java in addition to water. Sometimes I ate roasted grains. After the firstly 4 months, a reddish snake
with long pilus came to my bed. My parents looked after me during my illness for I was non married. My parents didndt empathise the cause of my illness in addition to why the serpent came to my place. They suspected
that the serpent is a symbol of Ayyaana. They had to position butter on my caput several times a day. The serpent was licking butter. If the serpent had non found butter, it could take hold pierced my caput in addition to thereby killed me.
After 14 months a leopard took me. In the meantime, the members of Mowata gild began to
appear for me. The leopard fed me rootworm, beetle in addition to other insects, in addition to protected me from other wild animals. Two or 3 leopards did this. When the firstly 1 collected worms in addition to insects, the other 1 stayed with the patient. These leopards were special in addition to different from other leopards. Personally, I did
non take in whatever of them for I was unconscious at that time.
Finally, the Mowata expedition saw me after aweek. At that fourth dimension I was with a leopard.
All persons who were possessed past times the spirit knelt downwards in
front end of the leopard to influence it. Then a leopard was given a caprine animal in addition to left me. The fact
of the affair is that a leopard id non eat caprine animal given to it. It hitting it in addition to thereby killed it.
Some times a leopard mightiness pass upward to leave of absence the patient alone. When this occurs, Fugaa
volition grab it in addition to throw it away in addition to enquire the relatives of the patient whether the latter
belongs to them past times pacifying the Mowata members for they may assail the former. Later.
the Fugaa volition create clean the patient in addition to enquire the members of the Mowata to convey the patient
to his premise on a stretcher. In my case, after going home, I drank warm H2O to clean
my tum from worms in addition to insects. Later on I was given a whip made from the pare of
a hippopotamuswith viii bells past times Danfaa (the spirit) of Obboo Fayissa Inika so as to
relieve pregnant women from pain themselves during spirit possession. Consequently I
became a Habaqii in addition to prepared a Mowata ceremony inwards observe of the whip. The whip
has its ain ceremony.
After 1 year, a leopard came to my spot inwards May for the 2nd time. Firstly it made
my woman parent unconscious past times tying its tail. My woman parent was a fellow member of the Mowata
society. Hereafter, a leopard took me out of the house past times lifting upward the door. It then
returned to my parent's house in addition to released my woman parent from the spirit past times untying its tail.
But nobody saw it when it did all this. The members of the Mowata saw me after five
days. After performing all the necessary conditions, they returned me to my place. Since
in addition to so I take hold been the Habaqii of the Mowata. I take hold personally observed the leopard
during our search for a patient (lnf: Kumalcha). "
It is also believed that a leopard tin can take a adult woman if she leaves her house during the night. The leopard-may kill a patient if it is non given a caprine animal on time. Some fourth dimension ago, the members of Mowata failed to take in a sure Merge, a immature girl, for 6 weeks. Eventually they realized that this miss was killed past times a leopard in addition to eaten past times a wild animal. They only found her plaited hair, cervix in addition to leg at Fincha valleyl inwards Wollega. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 patient
taken past times a leopard tin can only live seen past times the Mowata members for the spirit helps them to do so. Unlike other Ayyaana the Mowata spirit does non require a special gift of a bull to live sacrificed (Inf: Kumalcha).
There is also a 2nd way past times which a individual tin can live possessed past times the Mowata spirit. From the outset, a individual volition endure from diarrhea, vomiting in addition to other diseases. Following this, 2 snakes volition come upward to his or her place--one lying at the caput of the bed in addition to the other lying at the lower destination of the bed. The patient volition live unconscious for virtually 1 calendar week or two. When the patient seems to halt breathing, his parents volition enshroud him or her in addition to set out to cry, which inwards tum volition Pb to the gathering of the Mowata members.
Meanwhile, the spirit tin can possess women if a serpent coils itself. Consequently, these women volition assail those who are non the followers of Mowata spirit in addition to forcefulness them to leave of absence the house. The members of the Mowata cult volition in addition to so leave of absence a patient with an old in addition to respected adult woman in addition to go out for labsii (announcement). They volition inform other followers of the Mowata spirit virtually the patient in addition to come upward dorsum to the patient's place.
The Habaqii volition in addition to so complimentary the women from the spirit in addition to give them boiled grain. The adjacent morning time the Habaqii volition give the patient a stick. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 stick volition rest on the lap of the patient for 7 days. The Habaqii volition give the patient food. Finally, the Habaqii volition complimentary the patient from the spirit. The patient volition in addition to so live healthy.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 individual tin can also enquire the followers of Mowata to cause crying during his or her funeral past times preparing a large feast. The individual is·not required to live possessed past times the Mowata spirit. The individual is expected to prepare traditional Oromo beer, food, bread, a sacrificial cow, in addition to inform the Habaqii to adapt the Mowata ritual. Two Guulaas in addition to the followers of the Mowata spirit are required to take constituent inwards this special ritual. The two
Guulaas are expected to Pb the ritual past times beating the law for the funeral purpose.
Source:http://www.ossrea.net/publications/images/stories/ossrea/ssrr-19-p-3.pdf
Systematic repression in addition to rampant human rights
abuses against the Oromo People inwards Ethiopia
Tarekegn Chimdi
Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Victoria
Abstract
From the fourth dimension of colonization of Oromia at the destination of 19th century, the Oromo people were faced with discrimination in addition to marginalisation. Their egalitarian democratic establishment of governance the Gada system; their cultural traditions in addition to linguistic communication were banned; their meansof subsistence, the world was confiscated in addition to as a resultant forced to slavery in addition to servitude. The policy of successive regimes inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia including the electrical flow regime has been implementing similar tactics of furthering their subjugation in addition to repression live it nether the guise of republic or socialism.
The electrical flow TPLF/ PRDF dominated regime is a political, economical in addition to social powerhouse for nearly past times 2 decades after ousting the Amhara hegemony inwards 1991. In contrast to the Tigrayans which constitute virtually 5% of the total population, the Oromo people encounter rampant human rights abuses, absurd relocation in addition to eviction from their lands, experimented with unplanned resettlement schemes inwards hostile environments, human face abysmal poverty in addition to contamination of epidemic diseases.
Since this regime came to powerfulness inwards 1991, serious systematic repression in addition to pervasive human rights abuses against the Oromo people has been reported past times international human rights organisations. So far, these abuses take hold been largely ignored past times the international community, in all probability far from the eyes in addition to ears of the international observers inwards Finfinne (Addis Ababa).
Residents of the Oromia are specially vulnerable to targeted atrocities due to their remote geography, lack of quick carry in addition to communication infrastructure for rapid exchange of information, absence of human rights monitoring groups in addition to lack of independent media coverage. Knowing this, EPRDF is acting with impunity. The authorities routinely subjects its critics to harassment, extrajudicial killings, imprisonment in addition to torture. Police in addition to armed services officials often imprison such people on charges of involvement with "anti-peace" or fifty-fifty "anti-people" groups, but convictions in addition to fifty-fifty trials are rare.
In general, people are existence terrorized past times federal constabulary working-hand-in glove with local officials in addition to militias. Such crackdown on citizens from all walks of life is a twenty-four sixty minutes time period to twenty-four sixty minutes time period activity inwards Oromia, including children as immature as 1110. According to a renowned international human in addition to peoples rights organisation, gfbV “If intellectuals, students, teachers, journalists, assistance agency workers, artists, human rights activists in addition to peasant farmers are subjected to human rights abuses solely on the footing of their origin, in addition to so Gesellschaft für
bedrohte Völker believes that the Ethiopian authorities are guilty of racism”.
Oromo people,Woliso market,Ethiopia
I. Introduction
Numerically, the Oromo people is the single largest national grouping inwards Ethiopia, accounting for virtually 35 1 chiliad one thousand (40%) of 75 1 chiliad one thousand population. The Oromo people are 1 of the indigenous peoples inhabiting the Horn of Africa since fourth dimension immemorial, belong to the Cushitic origin. The Oromo people are the majority, but inwards a minority similar situation. Their political, economical social in addition to cultural life inwards the Ethiopian empire assert , discrimination in addition to marginalisation due to colonization of their country, Oromia ,by the Abyssinians at the
destination of 19th century. Millions decimated inwards the state of war against colonization inwards betwixt 1868-1900 through different means. Their egalitarian democratic establishment of governance the Gada system; their cultural traditions in addition to linguistic communication were banned; their agency of subsistence,land was confiscated in addition to as a resultant forced to slavery in addition to servitude.
Oromo Karrayyu adult man holding a knife (gile)
From that fourth dimension then, successive regimes inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia including the electrical flow regime has been implementing similar tactics of furthering their subjugation in addition to repression live it nether the guise of republic or socialism. The electrical flow TPLF /EPRDF dominated regime is a political, economical in addition to social powerhouse for nearly past times 2 decades after ousting the Amhara hegemony inwards 1991. In contrast to the Tigrayans which constitute virtually 5% of the total population, the Oromo people encounter rampant human rights abuses, absurd relocation in addition to eviction from their lands, experimented with unplanned resettlement schemes inwards hostile environments, human face abysmal poverty in addition to contamination of epidemic diseases.
II. Rampant Human Rights Abuses
Since this regime came to powerfulness inwards 1991, serious systematic repression in addition to pervasive human rights abuses against the Oromo people has been reported past times international human rights organisations. So far, these abuses take hold been largely ignored past times the international community, in all probability far from the eyes in addition to ears of the international observers inwards Finfinne (Addis Ababa). Residents of the Oromia are specially vulnerable to targeted atrocities due to their remote geography, lack of quick carry in addition to communication infrastructure for rapid exchange of information, absence of human rights monitoring groups in addition to lack of independent media coverage. Knowing this, EPRDF is acting with impunity. The authorities routinely subjects its critics to harassment, extrajudicial killings, imprisonment in addition to torture20. Police in addition to armed services officials often imprison such people on charges of involvement with "anti-peace" or fifty-fifty "anti-people" groups, but convictions in addition to fifty-fifty trials are rare.
In general, people are existence terrorized past times federal constabulary working-hand-in glove with local officials in addition to militias. Such crackdown on citizens from all walks of life is a twenty-four sixty minutes time period to twenty-four sixty minutes time period activity inwards Oromia, including children as immature as 1123 . According to a renowned international human in addition to peoples rights organisation, gfbV “If intellectuals, students, teachers, journalists, assistance agency workers, artists, human rights activists in addition to peasant farmers are subjected to human rights abuses solely on the footing of their origin, in addition to so Gesellschaft für
bedrohte Völker believes that the Ethiopian authorities are guilty of racism”. Similarly the human rights study 200825 discusses the unabated human rights abuses as follows.
“ In Oromia, Ethiopia’s most populous state, authorities authorities take hold used the
fact of a long-standing insurgency past times the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) to imprison,
harass, in addition to physically abuse critics, including schoolhouse children. Victims are informally
defendant of supporting the OLF... , but supporters of the Oromo National Congress
(ONC) in addition to the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (OFDM), registered
opposition political parties, endure similar treatment.“
In May 2008, the Ethiopian authorities trained in addition to fully armed Gumuz militia had massacred Oromo civilians killing mothers, burning children live inwards locked houses, amputating those they grab live in addition to destroyed properties, inwards several districts of Eastern constituent of Wollega, Western Oromia. While the Oromos were non allowed to comport arms in addition to those who possessed firearms inwards the past times were forced to disarm prior to the staged incident. In over 2 weeks of assail against the civilians after May 17, 2008 to a greater extent than than 400 people were killed, thousands of houses burnt down, hundreds of elders, children in addition to women were
amputated in addition to over 20,000 forced to flee their homes.
In some other incident on Feb 5, 2008, inwards the Puntland’s Bosasso metropolis of Somalia , over 65 Oromo refugees were bombed to expiry in addition to over 100 wounded from 2 explosions on 2 restaurants frequented past times Oromo refugees. Local residents accuse that it was sponsored past times no 1 other than Ethiopian government.
II. b. Arrests in addition to detentions, banning civic associations in addition to students
The Macca Tulama self-help Association (MTA) board members, teachers & students, journalists, businessmen, farmers, members of the Oromo opposition parties Oromo National Congress (ONC), Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement were highly targeted for arrests in addition to detentions inwards the recent years on baseless allegations of involvement with the OLF. As an active constituent of the Oromo society, the Oromo students were protesting against the Ethiopian authorities policies such as deforestation, levied taxes in addition to rising inwards the toll of fertilizers, educational policies, modify of the upper-case alphabetic character metropolis of Oromia from Finfinne to Adama etc. starting from 2000. In Jan 2004, the MTA leaders called protestation against the displace the
upper-case alphabetic character metropolis of Oromia from Finfinne to Adama. The Oromo journalists who reported the reality of the protests were implicated in addition to labelled. Finally, those peaceful protests targeted with killings, injuries with live bullets, torture, imprisonment, expulsion from schools in addition to flee
the country.
Several hundreds of Oromo students in addition to teachers from different parts of Oromia in addition to Finfinne (Addis Ababa) were arrested, severely beaten in addition to tortured after Jan 4, 2004 peaceful demonstration called past times the Mecha Tulema association (MTA) against the displace the upper-case alphabetic character metropolis of Oromia from Finfinne to Adama. On the same day, hundreds of Oromos severely beaten in addition to taken to custody. This deed of the Ethiopian authorities is against the UDHR Articles nine in addition to convention against torture.
On Jan 21,2004, 350 Addis Ababa University Oromo students were rounded upward from the front end of the President’s business office piece requesting the release of their viii colleagues arrested on 18 Jan 2004 defendant of damaging the academy property30. The students were ill-treated in addition to forced to walk on the gravel for long hours without nutrient at Kolfe constabulary grooming in addition to later released on Jan 24,200. The ID cards of the students were registered in addition to ordered non to go to the university. On their release, the constabulary authorities could non create whatever criminal accuse against them. Their suspension was announced on the authorities volume media the adjacent day. Such deed diametrically opposes the UDHR Article 26(1) in addition to shows the Ethiopian
authorities discriminatory policies against the Oromo people. They take hold nowhere to go, had no subsistence in addition to accommodation as most of them are from the rural areas in addition to far from family. They were unable to go to their house unit of measurement as they were hunted in addition to arrested past times the local authorities at their nascency place. The Oromo elders requested the academy president in addition to the prime number government minister to readmit the students. They did non acquire reply to this appointment to peacefully destination this crisis. The Macha Tulema association later appealed to the citizens in addition to co-ordinated fiscal back upward to earn minimal living for suspended students, for which the government
defendant in addition to arrested its leadership.
The Ethiopian authorities arrested the leaders of indigenous MTA association, banned in addition to confiscated the properties of the association contravening the UDHR Articles 20(1) in addition to 17(1,2). On July 2,2004, it issued the alphabetic character with reference number 11/7469/07-04 from the registration business office of associations for the closure in addition to confiscation of MTA’s belongings quoting the peaceful demonstration staged on 4 Jan 2004 was illegal. The leaders of MTA Dirribi Demissie ( President), Gemechu Feyera, Sintayehu Workneh in addition to Ayelu Ittisa in addition to to a greater extent than than a dozen of Oromo academy students in addition to journalists Shiferaw Insarmu in addition to Dhabasa Wakjira were inwards custody until early on 2007 fifty-fifty though different benches of courtroom ordered their release
on several occasions. Amnesty International in addition to other human rights organisations consider them as prisoners of conscience in addition to appealed for their release since 2004. Still some of the association leaders are languishing inwards prison.
Again starting from Nov 9, 2005 , the Oromo students from all over Oromia in addition to different higher educational institutions launched a protestation telephone phone with pop demands. Some of the demands of the students are an immediate halt to the killing of Oromo students, observe in addition to implementation for the right to self-determination of the Oromo people, release of members in addition to leadership of the Macca Tulama Self-help Association, the unconditional reopening of the Macca Tulama Association office, unconditional release of thousands of Oromo political prisoners- students, journalists, civic organisation leaders etc, selfadministration of Oromia past times the Oromos, restoration of all Oromian cities to their proper names in addition to the administrations of Finfinne in addition to Dirre Dhawa to live nether the jurisdiction of Oromia state.
Oromo Borana girl
These peaceful demands of students continued inwards the high schools in addition to universities across Oromia in addition to most of the schools left closed after protests were turned violent past times the involvement of the authorities safety forces. As a result, dozens of students were killed in addition to wounded from live bullet from safety forces, several thousands of Oromo nationals were detained inwards different prisons inwards Oromia province in addition to Finfinne (Addis Ababa) since Nov 2005. Most of the detainees were nether torture in addition to severe beatings, held incommunicado in addition to were non brought to court. Credible reports signal 3 detained students Alemayehu Gerba, Morkata Iddosa in addition to Gaddissa Hirphasa were killed from torture in addition to injuries from live bullet piece held imprisoned. Those reportedly alleged for torture were non brought to court. In the recent years 7 Oromo detainees had been tortured to expiry in addition to others had died after existence shot or existence denied medical attention inwards Maikalawi in addition to Kalitti prisons alone. Even though few of the MTA leaders in addition to students were released on bail inwards the early on months of 2007, at that spot are tens of thousands still languish inwards jail including the MTA board members
Mengistu Desta, (MTA General Secretary), Tsegaye W/Yohannes, Kumsa Gire (both aged over 80), Solomon Bekele, Taddesse Dagafa, Dechasa Benti, Legesse W/Selassie in addition to others.
Most of them were detained without charges for over viii years. After these years, some of the detainees were sentenced to death, life imprisonment. Only few got a judgement term of 10 years from the partisan in addition to unqualified judges affiliated with or members of the ruling political party TPLF/EPRDF.
In all these years since this regime came to power, inwards different parts of Oromia, the unparalleled huge forcefulness from the authorities were mobilised to quell peaceful dissent in addition to protests. They are terrorizing the local population in addition to affecting peaceful life of the residents in addition to students; kill, torture in addition to rape citizens. Prisons are total of the Oromos from all walks of life. Mr. Siye Abraha who had been the government minister of defense forcefulness nether the same regime in addition to had 1 time been real vicious against the Oromo people described the constituency of the Oromo inwards the prison house cells as “the prison house speaks Afan Oromo”. He had been imprisoned for 6 years of after he led the dissident faction inwards the TPLF. The paramilitary in addition to the safety forces are terrorizing the local population in addition to affecting peaceful life of the residents in addition to students; kill, torture in addition to rape citizens. Sound learning teaching processes were obstructed past times the provocations of these forces. Contamination of epidemic diseases similar HIV/AIDS is also feared from huge presence of mobilized federal forces in addition to militias.
III. Evictions in addition to relocations
Government actions may take hold led to forced displacement of thousands of people during 2005 in addition to prior. Report confirm that the EPRDF authorities has unleashed on the people its special troops, supported past times its paramilitary forces in addition to armed local authorities officials. In what increasingly bears genocidal characteristics, numerous ordinary people are existence indiscriminately killed in addition to wounded. Many are existence tortured in addition to intimidated. According to the same report, repression includes the burning of houses in addition to property, in addition to the confiscation of the world in addition to farm animals.
The Ethiopian authorities is evicting Oromo farmers inwards the call of investment at a real unprecedented charge per unit of measurement in addition to hundreds of thousands of farmers around the cities inwards Oromia were turned destitute as a result. So far according to authorities sources, betwixt May 1992 in addition to March 2005, over 900 agricultural projects were handed 149,126.1hectraes of the world inwards the cast of lease from 10 to 99 years with no or lowest compensation ( a maximum of ETB 20,000 equivalent to USD 2000) to the indigenous the world owners36. Though farther enquiry is needed, this figure had been quadrupled inwards the finally 3 years with dire consequences on the ground to the farmers. In these years, the Ethiopian authorities had been working hard for its geopolitical leverage past times providing agricultural lands to the countries similar Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , Republic of Djibouti in addition to to a greater extent than countries are still nether negotiation. In his interview with Arab news, Meles Zenawi, the prime number government minister of Ethiopia, said latterly its authorities was “very eager” to supply hundreds of thousands of hectares of agricultural the world for investment.
According to recent reports of United Nations specialized agencies , Middle Eastern in addition to North African countries, which import most of their food, are leading the race to invest overseas inwards countries similar Ethiopia. Jacques Diouf, director-general of the Food in addition to Agriculture Organisation (FAO) warned the race past times food-importing countries to secure farmland overseas to improve their nutrient safety risks creating a “neo-colonial” system. In add-on the same newspaper noted concern over the the world rights in addition to the interrogation of how much nutrient would live left for the host country. At this stage at that spot are virtually 6.4 1 chiliad one thousand people are starving inwards Ethiopia. The greenest
in addition to surplus nutrient producing areas of Oromia in addition to Southern States are the ones highly vulnerable.
Uncompensated evictions of Oromo farmers from around the cities inwards Oromia especially Finfinne (Addis Ababa) inwards the call of investment is at worrying storey for the ground families do non take hold whatever agency of subsistence other than their ancestral plots of land. In the call of investment today Oromo farmers from the vicinity of Finfinne (Addis Ababa) in addition to other major cities in addition to towns were turned to live landless in addition to forced to live victims of ecological degradation in addition to hazardous wellness problems. Cut bloom in addition to the bio-fuel production are also the top ranking investments of massive the world holding to comport upon the life of millions of farmers in addition to their
dependents inwards the years to come.
Until the middle of 2006, out of 65 cutting bloom plantations operating inwards Ethiopia, 63 of them are found inwards Oromia, specifically inwards the radius of 13-50km at the outskirts of Finfinne, on a total of 2400 ha of land. About 20,000 labourers (90% women) are working on these farms with a daily income of an average of 0.5 USD compared to 1USD inwards Republic of Kenya in addition to 2 USD inwards Colombia. They are underpaid in addition to their working conditions is comparable to slavery; in addition to unable to organise their union to deal collectively. Even though the authorities propagate it benefits rural women inwards terms employment, un-repairable damages to their wellness in addition to environmental problems associated with them outweighs. Rather, the Ethiopian authorities has given due attending to the bloom manufacture because of growing revenue it collects from export taxes to finance its expanding armed services expenditure. Currently, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia exports to a greater extent than than lxxx 1 chiliad one thousand stems a calendar month to 40 countries ($166 1 chiliad one thousand of revenue) at the expense of evicted in addition to vulnerable Oromian farmers disposed their lands. Seventy percent go to the Netherlands, from where they are sent around the world. It also exports to Germany, Britain, Russian Federation and, inwards smaller amounts, to the U.S. in addition to the Middle East. Tamiru L. Obole of Jimma Times summarized that the manufacture has brought with it much controversy: allegations of environmental mismanagement, labour abuse in addition to unfair the world holding.
According to sources unopen to the Ministry of Agriculture in addition to Rural Development inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia at that spot are around 120 chemicals in addition to pesticides41 come inwards into the the world for the work inwards floriculture manufacture are registered to the World Health Organizations’ negative pesticide listing for their carcinogenic potential. These highly hazardous chemicals include Flucythrinate, Chlorothalonil, Cyproconazone, FOLPET in addition to MANCOZEB including xv other chemicals are used inwards the bloom farming sector inwards Ethiopia.
If precautions are non taken, pesticides in addition to sprays for handling of flowers, disposal of waste materials water, depression temperatures for preservation inwards mutual coldness rooms, muscular-skeletal disorders due to poorly designed piece of work stations, long - standing hours cause such disorders or diseases as congenital defect legs in addition to hands, cerebral palsy, encephalon cancer, toxic dermatitis, hydrocephalous, lymph tumour. They are carcinogens, endocrine disruptors in addition to cholinesterase inhibitors. Pregnant or thorax – feeding women into contact with pesticides
may take hold high run a risk of their off-spring or children encounter 1 of the inwards a higher spot mentioned disorders. Pollution in addition to depletion of H2O resources due to intensive work of H2O in addition to air pollution due to spray drifts, burning of plastics roofing materials or containers are also major concerns for the communities living inwards the vicinity of these farms. Chemists farther explicate the long term effect of these chemicals could cause miscarriages, depression immunity in addition to fifty-fifty deteriorate encephalon cells over fourth dimension with symptoms of fainting spells, nausea or extreme vomiting.
According to local sources every pregnant adult woman involved inwards the production encountered the expiry of their offspring inwards the firstly few days of birth. Biofuel the other source of concern for amassing millions of hectares of the world is underway inwards Oromia. According to reliable sources, virtually 24 millions of hectares inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia take hold been identified as suitable for biofuel production, in addition to many unusual companies take hold already been allocated the world from farmland, forests in addition to wilderness areas. Even protected areas are non rubber from the spread of biofuels. For example, German linguistic communication fellowship Flora Eco Power for the finally few years had been investing 671 1 chiliad one thousand birr (€57/US$77 million) for biofuel production on 13,000 hectares (enough the world to screen over 16,000 soccer fields) of the world inwards Oromia state; 87% of which is the Babile Elephant Sanctuary, a spot to rare in addition to endangered elephants.
The displace for the production of biofuels- “green gilt rush” with appropriation large volume of the world was protested from different angles: from NGOs, churches, scientists to the United Nations specialized agencies for driving the rural communities into destitution in addition to starvation44 from to a greater extent than nutrient insecurity in addition to rocketing nutrient prices. 30 African NGOs petitioned against the production of Biofuels inwards Africa as follows.
"It is geared to supplant millions of hectares of local agricultural systems, in addition to the
rural communities working inwards them, with large plantations. It is oriented to substitute
biodiversity-based indigenous cropping, grazing in addition to pasture farming systems by
monocultures in addition to genetically engineered agrofuel crops." In understanding with several
new scientific analyses, they take hold that "the electrical flow force for agrofuels exacerbate,
rather than solve, the job of climate change."
The Gallagher report: biofuels are driving people into hunger of 08 July 200845 published past times ActionAid says that piece most types of biofuels volition non assist to cut back climate change, they volition brand life harder for millions of poor people around the world. Adding to that Dr Claire Melamed, ActionAid caput of policy said: “Grain in addition to vegetable stone oil are existence diverted to biofuels, leading to scarcity in addition to rocketing nutrient prices. In the developing world, the world on which farmers in addition to pastoralists depend is existence converted into biofuel monocultures”. The same concern was also echoed past times the main United Nations agencies involved inwards agriculture in addition to nutrient aid, WFP in addition to FAO, also warn that the increased acreage used for biofuels is already contributing to
higher nutrient prices in addition to may Pb to to a greater extent than hunger inwards the world .
As evidences suggest, from dot of take in the mentality of the electrical flow regime inwards Ethiopia, the manufacture would take hold moved to the highlands of Tigray had at that spot take hold been no adverse effects to the environs in addition to health. Independent investigations on the effect of these farms on the indigenous population demand to live carried out past times concerned international organisations.
IV. Government Borne Conflicts in addition to Internally Displaced Persons
The Ethiopian authorities had been calling for plebiscite over the Oromo localities inwards the regions of Borana, Bale, East in addition to due west Hararge of Oromia at the destination of 2004. The results of plebiscite on these areas were culminated inwards favour of Oromia. However, the authorities instigated conflicts after the decisions were made. Deliberate incitement of conflicts amid the Oromo clans – Borena, Gabra in addition to Guji- in addition to national groups neighbouring Oromia ( betwixt Karrayyu Oromo in addition to Afar, somali in addition to Ittu Oromo) past times the authorities officials in addition to safety forces are the major cause of internal displacement for over 170,000 people inwards Borena, West Hararge, Bale zones of Oromia over the finally 3 years. According to reliable local sources, authorities forces are either arm/ disarm 1 of the competition clan against the other or side on the battleground with 1 of them. For example, inwards the representative of karrayyu in addition to Afar the authorities armed the later against the erstwhile in addition to appeared as a mediators of peacemaking. The local somali (region 5) authorities militia sided against the Oromo civilians Cheraro Doba district inwards Hararge zone of Oromia.
Several thousands of somali returnees in addition to settlers were issued with the ID cards to brand them eligible for voting in addition to also provided with armaments inwards those areas of Oromia from the government. In several places the plebiscite favoured the dominion nether Oromia. These armed somali militias supported past times Ethiopian safety forces started attacking civilians inwards the respective villages. In 2005, Over 100 civilians killed, hundreds of houses burnt, upward to over 100,000 people internally displaced without back upward inwards Cheraro Doba, Miesso in addition to other districts of West Hararge region. On Jan 19,2005, these militias engulfed the villages inwards the Cheraro Doba district inwards western Harerge. They opened flaming killing eleven Oromo civilians, wounding 18 others in addition to some 12,000 displaced in addition to over 500 houses were burnt, crop-fields in addition to depots of the residents of xxx farmers associations were position nether fire. Similarly, inwards August 2004, 73 people were killed in addition to to a greater extent than than 85,000 flee their homes from villages inwards Miesso.
According to reports past times humanitarian organisations, conflict betwixt the Gabra in addition to the Guji, in addition to betwixt the Gabra in addition to the Borena displaced over 40,000 people inwards 2005. Many remain displaced, in addition to local authorities do non consider them eligible for emergency nutrient distribution in addition to other basic services in addition to protection. This makes their province of affairs real precarious, specially inwards the context of the electrical flow drought. In the middle of 2006, to a greater extent than than 100 people died in addition to 90,000 displaced inwards tearing clashes betwixt the Borena in addition to the Guji Oromo clans . Most of these IDPs are living inwards poor conditions with no food, H2O in addition to shelter in addition to receiving real limited assistance. In the recent years, the conflicts were exacerbated past times the authorities forces to include to a greater extent than clans or land groups similar Gedeo, Burji, Guji, Amaro in addition to Sidama, Gumuz in addition to Afar 1 against the other to elongate their rest inwards power.
Such calculated instigation of violence amid the neighbouring communities past times the Ethiopian authorities should live condemned, the perpetuators of such crimes should live brought into justice in addition to vulnerable displaced peoples demand to acquire plenty attending from the humanitarian organisations. In these conflicts the authorities agents are the both players in addition to the referees. For the peacemaking in addition to direction of their affairs, these groups demand their conflict resolution mechanisms traditions that existed for centuries live harnessed without the intervention of the government.
V. Agricultural input for political gain
Surprisingly, the basic agricultural commodities for the farmers inwards Oromia is allocated based on the affiliation to the ruling political party inwards power. Farmers in addition to low-income town residents inwards Oromia who neglect to back upward the governing political political party are denied fertilizer, other agricultural aids in addition to nutrient items provided to the affiliates at subsidized prices. The others are fired from their piece of work for non sympathizing with the EPRDF ruling party. In the rural areas of Oromia where virtually 87% live on agriculture, local in addition to regional officials to a greater extent than often than non take hold swell powerfulness in addition to influence over the population in addition to over the distribution of goods in addition to services.
Good relations with the local officials are crucial for obtaining land, farming aid, access to wellness attention in addition to education, in addition to identity cards. In the meantime, command over some agricultural input goes far beyond their authority. Control over fertilizer in addition to agricultural inputs inwards full general take hold given Meles’s authorities a remarkably effective tool for quashing dissent inwards rural parts of Oromia. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 TPLF owned fellowship inwards accuse of importing fertilizers often regulates on the price. In case, fertilizer toll is so expensive that farmers often regain it hard to repay their debts, local officials routinely throw them into prison house for days or weeks at a fourth dimension if they fail.
According to Human Rights Watch farmers were forced to auction off livestock or household goods to acquire out of prison. Farmers who openly criticize the authorities or its policies often regain themselves denounced inwards populace meetings as “troublemakers,” “anti-development” saboteurs or fifty-fifty as members of unsafe “anti-people” organizations.
VI. Conclusions
The newspaper tried to shed lite on the systematic repression in addition to worst human rights records of the Ethiopian authorities inwards its heavy-handed policy against the Oromo people. Criticisms in addition to reports from international human rights organisations were also sited. Despite all the criminal offense it commits against humanity, this authorities is the largest beneficiary of US armed services in addition to evolution assistance in addition to 1 of the top recipients of European assistance inwards the sub-Saharan Africa.
These major powers along with China in addition to Russian Federation take hold increased their merchandise partnership inwards such it farther give economical boost to the regime so as to farther suppress the subjugated peoples inwards Ethiopia.
It is high fourth dimension that the governments of the US in addition to European Union countries press the Ethiopian authorities for its worst records of human rights tape in addition to business concern human relationship for the suffering of millions of Oromo in addition to other peoples from eviction, internal displacement in addition to hunger that partly resulted from its policy.
source:http://www.gadaa.com/SystematicRepressionAgainstOromoByEthiopianRegime.pdf
WHAT IS NEXT FOR THE OROMO PEOPLE
Asafa Jalata, PhD,
Professors of Sociology in addition to Global Studies, in addition to Interim Chair of the Africana Studies Program
at the University of Tennessee – Knoxville
The Past in addition to Current Status of the Oromo People
The Ethiopian colonial terrorism in addition to genocide that started during the finally decades of the 19th century still proceed inwards the 21st century. Ethiopia, erstwhile Abyssinia, terrorized in addition to committed genocide on the Oromo people during the Scramble for Africa with the assist of European imperial powers in addition to the modern weapons they received from them. During Ethiopian colonial expansion, Oromia, “the charming Oromo land, [would] live ploughed past times the Fe in addition to the fire; flooded with blood in addition to the orgy of pillage.” Calling this lawsuit as “the house of a swell massacre,” Martial De Salviac states,
"The conduct of Abyssinian armies invading a the world is simply barbaric. They contrive a abrupt irruption,
to a greater extent than often at night. At daybreak, the flaming begins; surprised men inwards the huts or inwards the fields are 3 quarter
massacred in addition to horribly mutilated; the women in addition to the children in addition to many men are reduced to captivity; the
soldiers Pb the frightened herds toward the camp, take away the grain in addition to the flour which they charge on
the shoulders of their prisoners spurred on past times blows of the whip, destroy the harvest, then, glutted with
booty in addition to intoxicated with blood, go to walk a chip farther from the devastation. That is what they call
‘civilizing a land."
Oromo Barentu people
The Oromo oral story also testifies that Ethiopians/Abyssinians destroyed in addition to looted the resources of Oromia, in addition to committed genocide on the Oromo people through massacre, slavery, depopulation, cutting hands, famine, in addition to diseases during in addition to after the colonization of Oromia. Recognizing this tragedy, “the Oromo said: ‘It is Waaqa [God] … who has subjected us to the Amhara.’” According to Martial De Salviac, “With equal arms, the Abyssinia [would] never [conquer] an inch of land. With the powerfulness of firearms imported from Europe, Menelik [Abyssinian warlord] began a murderous revenge.”
The colonization of Oromia involved human tragedy in addition to destruction: “The Abyssinian, inwards bloody raids, operated past times surprise, mowed downwards without pity, inwards the the world of the Oromo population, a mournful harvest of slaves for which the Muslims were thirsty in addition to whom they bought at real high price. An Oromo kid [boy] would cost upward to 800 francs inwards Cairo; an Oromo miss would good live worth 2 chiliad francs in
Constantinople”. The Ethiopian authorities massacred one-half of the Oromo population (five 1 chiliad one thousand out of ten million) in addition to their leadership during its colonial expansion.
According to Alexander Bulatovich (2000: 68-69), “The dreadful annihilation of to a greater extent than than one-half of the population during the conquest took away from the Gallas [Oromos] all possibilities of thinking virtually whatever sort of uprising. . . . Without a doubt, the Galla, with their to the lowest degree 5 1 chiliad one thousand population, occupying the best land, all speaking 1 language, could stand upward for a tremendous forcefulness if united.” The devastation of Oromo lives, institutions, in addition to Oromian natural beauty were aspects of Ethiopian colonial terrorism. The surviving Oromos who used to relish an egalitarian republic known as the gada scheme were forced to human face province terrorism, political repression, in addition to an impoverished life. Bulatovich explains virtually the gada direction in addition to notes that “the peaceful complimentary way of life, which could take hold go the ideal for philosophers in addition to writers of the eighteenth century, if they had known it, was completely changed. Their peaceful way of life is broken; liberty is lost; in addition to the independent, liberty loving Gallas regain themselves nether the severe control of
the Abyssinian conquerors.”
Ethiopian colonialists also destroyed Oromo natural resources in addition to the beauty of Oromia. Oromia was “an oasis luxuriant with large trees” in addition to known for its “opulent in addition to dark greenery used to shoot upward from the soil.” De Salviac also notes that “the greenery in addition to the shade please the eyes all over in addition to give the landscape richness in addition to a variety which brand it similar a garden without boundary. Healthful climate, uniform in addition to temperate, fertility of the soil, beauty of the inhabitants, the safety inwards which their houses seem to live situated, makes 1 dream of remaining inwards such a beautiful country.” The Abyssinian colonialists devastated “the forests past times pulling from it the laths for their houses in addition to [made] campfires or firewood for their dwellings. . .
. [They were] the swell destructors of trees, others [accused] them of exercising their barbarity against the forests for the sole pleasance of ravaging.”13 Bulatovich applied to Oromia the phrase “flowing inwards milk in addition to honey” to signal its abundant wealth inwards cattle in addition to honey.
The Ethiopian colonial province gradually established settler colonialism inwards Oromia in addition to developed 5 major types of colonial institutions, namely, slavery, the colonial landholding system, the nafxanya-gabbar scheme (semi-slavery), the Oromo collaborative class, in addition to garrison in addition to non-garrison cities. It introduced the physical care for of forced recruitment of labor via slavery in addition to the nafxanya-gabbar (semi-slavery) system. (The Ethiopian settlers continued to depopulate Oromia through slave merchandise until the 1930s when the Italian fascists abolished slavery to recruit adequate labor for their agricultural plantations inwards the Horn of Africa. The nafxanya-gabbar scheme was also abolished during this fourth dimension through the same process.) The colonial province expropriated almost all Oromo lands in addition to divided upward the Oromo amid colonial officials in addition to soldiers in addition to their collaborators to forcefulness them to create agricultural commodities in addition to nutrient for local consumption in addition to an
international market. The Oromo farmers were reduced to serfs or slaves or semi-slaves in addition to coerced to piece of work without remuneration for the settlers, intermediaries, in addition to the colonial province for sure days every week. Whenever they failed to supply complimentary labor or pay taxes or tributes, the settlers enslaved their children or wives.
The colonial terrorism that started during the reign of Menelik has continued nether successive Ethiopian governments. The Haile Selassie authorities continued the policies of Menelik until it was overthrown past times the pop revolt of 1974. The Selassie authorities terrorized the Oromo of Raya-Azabo, Wallo, Hararghe, Bale in addition to other regions because of their political in addition to cultural resistance to the Amhara-Tigray domination. It also imprisoned, tortured or hanged prominent Oromo leaders, such as Mamo Mazamir in addition to Haile Mariam Gamada who organized in addition to led the Macca-Tuulama Self-Help Association inwards the early on 1960s. The military
regime that emerged inwards 1974 nether the leadership Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam continued province terrorism, dictatorship, in addition to Ethiopian colonial policies. Currently, the Meles regime is continuing similar colonial policies in addition to practices inwards Oromia in addition to other places.
When Oromo activists in addition to the people started to resist the armed services regime, it intensified its province terrorism. The Military regime (derg) in addition to its supporters committed massive human rights violations inwards the call of the so-called Revolution. According to Norman J. Singer,
"Those killed inwards the firstly 3 months of the cause of the ‘Red Revolutionary Terror' . . . numbered
around 4000-5000 [in Finfinnee (Addis Ababa) alone], the killings continued inwards March 1978, spreading to
the relaxation of the the world . . . Those detained for political instruction numbered from 30,000 upwards . . .
Torture methods emphasized inwards the Red Terror . . . included severe beating on the head, soles of the feet . .
in addition to shoulders, with the victim hung past times the wrists or suspended past times wrists in addition to feet from a horizontal bar . . .
; sexual torture of boys in addition to girls, including pushing bottles or red-hot Fe bars into girls' vaginas; in addition to other
cruel methods."
The derg continued its volume imprisonments in addition to killings. In 1980, 1 Oromo source mentioned that "the Oromo constitutes the bulk of the to a greater extent than than 2 1 chiliad one thousand prisoners that glut Ethiopia's jails today". In the 1980s, thousands of Oromo nationalists were murdered or imprisoned; the regime also terrorized other elements of Oromo society. According to Gunnar Hasselblatt, the:military government"
"repeatedly held volume shooting amid the Oromo population, hoping to pause the free, independent Oromo
spirit. Sometimes a hundred, sometimes 2 hundred men were shot on this raised dry out patch . . . in addition to were
buried with bulldozers. Over years this physical care for was repeated several times. When the method did not
piece of work in addition to the Oromo population could non live forced into submission, other methods were used. The victims
were made to prevarication downwards with their heads on stone, in addition to their skulls were smashed with some other stone. The . . .
authorities . . . tried everything to consolidate its reign of terror in addition to exploitation of Oromia . . . . When the
Oromo motion could non live quenched past times shooting or past times the smashing of skulls, [the government] came
upward with a novel idea. Men’s testicles were smashed betwixt a hammer in addition to an anvil. Three men tortured and
maimed inwards this way are still living."
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has maintained its oppressive in addition to repressive structures on the Oromo past times the assistance of successive global powers, namely, Great Britain, the United States, erstwhile Soviet Union, in addition to China. As the erstwhile USSR supported the Mengistu regime, the US, powerful European countries in addition to China are supporting the Tigrayan-led Ethiopian government.Since 1992, the Tigrayan authoritarian-terrorist regime has controlled the Oromo in addition to denied them the liberty of expression, association, organization, the media, in addition to all forms of communication in addition to information networks. This authorities has been focusing on brutally
attacking the Oromo national motion led past times the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) in addition to on robbing the economical resources of Oromia inwards monastic enjoin to enrich the Tigrayan elites in addition to their collaborators in addition to to specifically develop the Tigrayan region. To make its political in addition to economical objectives, the regime primarily uses its puppet organisation known as the Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO) which was created in addition to is today controlled past times the Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front (TPLF); the OPDO is led past times Tigrayan cadres, elements of Oromo speaking colonial settlers, in addition to opportunistic Oromos who would do anything inwards exchange for luxurious lifestyles.
The minority Tigrayan-led Ethiopian authorities is attempting to give a terminal solution for a large political job that has existed for several centuries—the human relationship betwixt the Oromos in addition to their Amhara-Tigrayan colonizers. As nosotros know from history, the policy of targeting in addition to exterminating indigenous peoples exists inwards different parts of the world, in addition to it has been an integral do of the racialized capitalist world scheme since the 16th century. While claiming to promote Christian civilization, modernity, in addition to commerce, European colonialists exterminated indigenous peoples inwards the Americas, Australia, Asia, in addition to Africa over a time period of several centuries inwards monastic enjoin to transfer their resources to European colonial settlers in addition to their descendants. Specifically, the plans in addition to actions that King Leopold of Kingdom of Belgium had for the Congo or Andrew
Jackson of the U.S. for the Cherokees or colonial FRG for the Herero in addition to Nama peoples inwards South West Africa (Nambia) are real similar to the grand computer program in addition to activeness the Meles authorities has for the Oromo nation.
Read farther here:http://www.gadaa.com/JalataWhatsNextForOromo.pdf
Gadaa as the Totality of the Oromo Civilization
Asafa Jalata, PhD,
Professors of Sociology in addition to Global Studies, in addition to Interim Chair of the Africana Studies Program
at the University of Tennessee – Knoxville
The critical in addition to comprehensive understanding of the classical Oromo civilization requires studying the historical, cultural, political, philosophical, religious, linguistic, in addition to geographical foundations of Oromo society. This is a monumental chore that cannot live adequately achieved at this historical moment. Currently our cognition of the social in addition to cultural history of Oromia (the Oromo nation) is real limited in addition to fragmented. For generations, the Oromo take hold mainly transmitted their history in addition to civilization through oral discourse.
Since Oromo scholars in addition to others take hold been discouraged or prohibited past times the Ethiopian colonial province from documenting Oromo oral traditions, adequate information is lacking. Due to the dominant role of oral history, Oromo historiography requires a thorough in addition to critical study of oral traditions. For the Oromo, as for
many African societies, the observation applies that “each fourth dimension an old adult man [or a woman] dies a library is lost.” The Ethiopian colonial province has suppressed the production, reproduction, in addition to dissemination of the intellectual cognition of the people past times destroying and/or suppressing Oromo institutions, culture, in addition to history.
For most Ethiopian in addition to Ethiopianist scholars, Oromo history began inwards the 16th century when the Oromo were actively recapturing their territories in addition to rolling dorsum the Christian in addition to Muslim empires (Jalata, 2005). The Oromo had at that fourth dimension a cast of constitutional authorities known as gadaa (Luling, 1965; Baissa, 2004: 101). Although nosotros take hold limited cognition of Oromo history before the 16th century, it is reasonable to think that this people did non invent the gadaa scheme just at the minute they were consolidating themselves through defensive in addition to offensive wars in addition to thereby entering "recorded history." Between the 16th in addition to 19th, when various peoples were fighting over economical resources inwards the Horn of Africa, the Oromo were effectively organized nether the gadaa establishment for both offensive in addition to defensive wars.
As Virginia Luling (1965: 191) mentions, "from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century the [Oromo] were dominant on their ain territories; no people of other cultures were inwards a spot to exercise compulsion over them." There are adequate evidences that signal the Oromo people dominated the areas from Abyssinia, the Amhara-Tigray homeland, to Mombasa in addition to from Somalia to the Sudan (albeit at that spot were no good demarcated boundaries) before they were partitioned in addition to colonized during the Scramble for Africa (Hambly, 1930: 176). To increment our understanding of the classical Oromo civilization, it is necessary to demonstrate the connections amid Oromo peoplehood, culture, worldview, philosophy, religion, in addition to politics. Let us start our analysis of the Oromo classical civilization with indigenous Oromo republic as
the key foundation of social in addition to political institutions.
Oromo adult woman selling an art, Selale,Ethiopia: Joakim Larsen
Oromo Democracy in addition to its Major Principles
The indigenous gadaa scheme organized in addition to ordered gild around political, economic, social, cultural, in addition to religious institutions (Baissa, 1971, 1993; Legesse, 1973). We do non know when in addition to how this scheme emerged. However, nosotros know that it existed as a full-fledged scheme at the firstly of the sixteenth century. During this century, the Oromo were nether 1 gadaa direction (Baissa, 1993). According to Lemmu Baissa (2004: 101), Gadaa authorities comprised a hierarchy of triple levels of government: the national, the regional in addition to the local. At the pan-Oromo level, the national authorities was led past times an elected luba council [leaders] formed from representatives of the major Oromo moieties, clan families in addition to clans, nether the presidency of the abbaa gadaa in addition to his 2 deputies . . . The national leadership was responsible for such of import matters as legislation in addition to enforcement of full general laws, handling issues of state of war in addition to peace in addition to coordinating the nation’s defense, direction of intra-Oromo clan conflicts in addition to dealing with non-Oromo people.
Oromo karrayyu warrior at Gadaa ceremony
Gadaa has 3 interrelated meanings: it is the grade during which a grade of people assumes politico-ritual leadership, a time period of viii years during which elected officials take powerfulness from the previous ones, in addition to the establishment of Oromo gild (Legesse, 1973; 2006). Discussing the philosophy of Oromo democracy, Asmarom Legesse (1973: 2) notes, "What is astonishing virtually this cultural tradition is how far Oromo take hold gone to ensure that powerfulness does non autumn inwards the manus of state of war chiefs in addition to despots. They make this goal past times creating a scheme of checks in addition to balances that is at to the lowest degree as complex as the systems nosotros regain inwards Western democracies." Bonnie Holcomb (1991: 4) asserts that the gadaa scheme “organized the Oromo people inwards an all-encompassing democratic republic fifty-fifty before the few European pilgrims arrived from England on the shores of North America in addition to only later built a democracy.”
The gadaa scheme has the principles of checks in addition to balances (through periodic succession of every viii years), in addition to partition of powerfulness (among executive, legislative, in addition to judicial branches), balanced opposition (among 5 parties), in addition to powerfulness sharing betwixt higher in addition to lower administrative organs to forbid powerfulness from falling into the hands of despots. Other principles of the scheme take hold included balanced representation of all clans, lineages, regions in addition to confederacies, accountability of leaders, the settlement of disputes through reconciliation, in addition to the observe for basic rights in addition to liberties (Baissa, 1971, 1993). There take hold been 5 miseensas (parties) inwards gadaa; these parties take hold different names inwards different parts of Oromia as the resultant of
Oromo expansion in addition to the establishment of different autonomous administrative systems (Lepisa, 1975; Ibssa 1992).
All gadaa officials were elected for viii years past times universal adult manlike individual suffrage. The scheme organized manlike individual Oromos according to age-sets (hirya) based on chronological age, in addition to according to generation-sets (luba) based on genealogical generation, for social, political in addition to economical purposes. These 2 concepts – gadaa-sets (age-sets) in addition to gadaa-grades (generationsets) – are of import to a clear understanding of gadaa. All newly born males would come inwards a gadaa-set at birth, which they would belong to along with other boys of the same age, in addition to for the adjacent xl years they would go through 5 eight-year initiation periods; the gadaa-grade would live entered on the footing of generation, in addition to boys would come inwards their luba xl years after their
fathers (Legesse, 1973: 81). In incorporating the age-classification system, gadaa is similar to age-sets practiced past times the Masai, Kikuyu in addition to the Nuer. However, its work of genealogical generations as its organizing elements makes it different in addition to unique.
In 1522, the Oromo had already begun to participate inwards the extensive in addition to intensive struggle inwards the Horn of Africa. This was before the Muslims seriously confronted Christian Abyssinia inwards 1527. In the firstly one-half of the 16th century, after 2 centuries of domination, the Muslims destroyed Christian dominion in addition to established their ain nether the leadership of 1 Ahmed Gragn for to a greater extent than than a decade.
The Oromo were caught inwards the wars of the Christian in addition to Muslim empire-builders, in addition to according to Darrel Bates (1979: 7), "The [Oromo] . . . of the southern in addition to western highlands had suffered inwards their fourth dimension from both parties, in addition to were waiting inwards the wings for opportunities . . . to recover lands which had been taken from them." Internally, an increment inwards both population in addition to cattle had exhausted the scarce resources; externally, the wars with both the Christians in addition to the Muslims endangered the Oromo's survival as people.
Oromo common salt collector inwards in Crater lake
Butta wars occurred every viii years past times the Oromo, when powerfulness transferred from 1 gadaa grade to the next, in addition to were organized for revenge, or for defensive in addition to offensive purposes. In the firstly of the 16th century, when they began to intensify their territorial recovery in addition to expansion through the butta wars, all Oromo were nether 1 gadaa government.
This factor, according to Asmarom Legesse (1973: 8, 10, 74), in addition to the powerfulness of the gadaa scheme to consolidate the people both militarily in addition to organizationally enabled them to expand or recover their territories in addition to accommodate their increased population in addition to stock. Their recovery in addition to expansion signaled their survivability (Ta’a, 1986: 17). The Oromo fought twelve butta wars betwixt 1522 in addition to 1618, recovering, expanding, in addition to establishing Oromia (the Oromo country) to its nowadays boundaries (Ta’a, 1986: 21-28). In the course of study of their continued expansion into various regions, different groups established autonomous gadaa governments. Various Oromo groups kept their relations through the business office of Abbaa Muuda (the manlike individual parent of anointment) (Ta’a,1986:10) in addition to formed alliances or confederations during times of difficulty. The gadaa scheme has a real logical structure, but because of the interlinking of the 2 concepts of belonging and
responsibleness that are at its core, it is non easily accessible at firstly glance. Several descriptions are offered here. John Hinnant (1978: 213-214) says:
"[Gadaa] divides the stages of life, from childhood to old age, into a serial of formal steps,
each marked past times a transition ceremony defined inwards terms of both what is permitted in addition to what
is forbidden. The aspect of gadaa, which throws the concept of historic time period grading into confusion
is that of recruitment. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 strict age-grade scheme assumes that an individual’s social passage
through life is inwards melody with his biological development. An private enters the scheme at a
specific historic time period in addition to passes through transition rites at intervals appropriate to the passage from
childhood through total adulthood to senility. However, recruitment into the gadaa scheme is
non based upon biological age, but upon the recruitment that an private remain exactly
5 stages below his father’s level. Recruitment is thus based on the maintenance of one
socially defined generation betwixt manlike individual parent in addition to son.
Oromo adult woman returning from market,Ethiopia
Describing how gadaa currently works inwards the Borana part of Oromia, Asmarom Legesse (1973: 8) asserts that “[Gadaa] is a scheme of classes (luba) that succeed each other every viii years inwards assuming military, economic, political, in addition to ritual responsibilities. Each gadaa grade remains inwards powerfulness during a specific term (gadaa), which begins in addition to ends with a formal transfer ceremony.” And “[society is organized] into 2 distinct but cross-cutting systems of peer grouping structures. One is a scheme inwards which the members of each grade are recruited strictly on the footing of chronological age. The other is a scheme inwards which the members are recruited as strictly on the footing genealogical generations. The firstly has nada to do with genealogical ties. The 2nd has piffling to do. Both types of social groups are formed every viii years. Both sets of
groups turn over from 1 stage of evolution to the adjacent every viii years” (Legesse, 1973: 50- 51).
Despite the emergence of various autonomous gadaa administrations after the mid-17th
century, the key principles of the scheme remained intact. While establishing these
autonomous local governments, the Oromo formed alliances, federations, in addition to confederations to
maintain their cultural in addition to political solidarity in addition to defend their safety in addition to involvement from their
mutual enemies (Bulcha, 1996: 50; Etefa, 2008). The possession of establishment of qaallu (the
spiritual leader) in addition to the mutual gadaa authorities seems to take hold been what Mohamed Hassen
(1990: 9) terms “‘the special mark’ of the Oromo nation.” We take hold seen that Oromo males are
involuntarily recruited to both age-sets in addition to generation-sets. Male children bring together age-sets as newly
born infants. Males born inwards the same eight-year time period belong to an age-set. But they come inwards into
the scheme of gadaa grades xl years after their fathers, in addition to since 1 grade is viii years,
fathers in addition to sons are 5 grades apart. Male children tin can bring together advanced grades at birth, in addition to may
bring together men or old men who are considered to live members of their genealogical generations. Older
men mentor immature males inwards teaching rules in addition to rituals, but the erstwhile care for the later as equals
since at that spot is no status difference betwixt the 2 groups inwards a gadaa class. Members of a gadaa
grade part the same status in addition to roles in addition to perform their rights of passage from 1 grade to
some other collectively.
Although some Oromo accepted Islam past times forcefulness or as resistance to Ethiopian colonial
domination, in addition to others were forced to take Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity or willingly
accepted other forms of Christianity, their worldviews “are still hidden nether the surface”
(Lambert, 1990: 42). Oromo prayers, blessings, in addition to greetings manifest the Oromo worldview.
“The words of prayers, blessings in addition to greetings continuously create in addition to recreate connections
betwixt the organizational in addition to the cosmological structures,” P. T. W. Baxter (1990: 247) writes,
“such as the moieties in addition to gaada.” Discussing the original scheme of Oromo thought and
worldview, Lambert Bartels asserts (1990: 15) that “whether they became Christians or Muslims,
the Oromo’s traditional modes of experiencing the divine take hold continued almost unaffected, in
spite of the fact that several rituals in addition to social institutions inwards which it was expressed take hold been
real diminished or obviously submerged inwards novel ritual cloaks.”
In Oromo society, cognition in addition to information take hold been mainly transmitted from
generation to generation through the institutions of family, religion, in addition to gadaa. Young Oromo
are expected to acquire of import things that are necessary for social integration in addition to community
development. They acquire appropriate social demeanor past times joining age-sets in addition to generation-sets.
From their families, communities in addition to experts, they acquire stories, folk tales, riddles, in addition to other
mental games that assist acquiring the cognition of society. As age-mates, they part many
things because of their ages; members of generation-sets also part many duties in addition to roles
because of their membership inwards grades or classes.
At the stage of grade 4 “the gadaa classes in addition to the historic time period set come upward into existence as a formal
corporate group: Leaders are elected for both groups. The call of the most senior adult man inwards each
grouping becomes the call of the grouping as a whole. The 2 groups in addition to so go cross-linked,
cross-cutting, structural units that operate as complementary institutions so long as they are
both represented past times living members “ (Legessee, 1973: 58) [author’s emphasis]. Between the
3rd in addition to 4th gadaa grades, boys go adolescent in addition to initiated into taking serious social
responsibilities. The ruling grouping has responsibleness to assign senior leaders in addition to experts to
instruct in addition to council these immature men inwards the importance of leadership, organization, in addition to warfare.
They also acquire songs, parables, proverbs, cultural in addition to historical maps, in addition to other social skills
that they tin can work inwards populace spoken language to praise the living in addition to dead heroes or to criticize in addition to ridicule
cowardice in addition to traitors. Oratory, the fine art of populace speaking, is highly valued inwards Oromo society;
“the forms of delivery, the wit of the speaker, his tone of voice, his posture, oculus contact and
powerfulness to command the attending of the audience” are skills to live honed in addition to admired (Megersa,
1993: 36).
Young men are also trained to go junior warriors past times taking constituent inwards state of war campaigns and
hunting large animals; they acquire the practical skills of warfare, armed services organization, and
fighting so that they tin can engage inwards battle to defend their the world in addition to economical resources (Baxter,
1979: 69-95). P. T. W. Baxter (1979: 177) argues that the Oromo take hold used age-sets because
generation-sets “cannot live an efficient agency to mobilise troops, in addition to a quite distinct organisation
based on closeness of historic time period . . . exists for that purpose.” In the Borana community, where many
elements of the gadaa scheme still exist, the assembly known as Gumi Gayyo (the assembly of
multitudes) brings together every type of of import living leaders, such as living– Abba Gaddas,
the qaallus, age-set councilors, clan leaders in addition to gadaa councilors, in addition to other concerned
individuals – to brand or amend or modify laws in addition to rules every viii years (Huqqaa, 1998). The
Gumi Gayyo assembly has the highest grade of control than the gadaa in addition to other assemblies,
in addition to other assemblies cannot opposite its decisions (Legessee, 1973: 93).
The Abbaa Boku (the manlike individual parent of scepter) was a ‘chairman’ who presided over the assembly.
According to G. W. B. Huntingford (1955: 54): “The Abbaa Boku in addition to his 2 colleagues are
chosen from the oldest or most distinguished families, which are known as `families of Hayu.'
The principal constituent of the Abbaa Boku is to preside over the parliament . . . to proclaim the
laws, in addition to to deed when necessary as ritual proficient inwards the gadaa-ceremonies.” Abbaa Gadaa is
some other call for Abbaa Boku.
The Abbaa Duula (the defense forcefulness minister) was also 1 of the leading figures inwards the gadaa
government. He was the leader of qondala (army) in addition to was elected past times the people. His main
responsibleness included assisting the Abbaa Boku, especially during the fourth dimension of war. The Abbaa
Boku was also supported past times a council, known as shanee or salgee, in addition to retired gadaa officials.
Gadaa laws were passed past times the caafee (assembly) in addition to implemented past times officials. There was no
taxation nether this scheme except that gadaa leaders in addition to their families were provided with
necessary materials, such as food.
Despite kinship relationships are existence such an of import factors inwards Oromo society, those
who are elected to business office are expected to serve without regard to kinship ties. Nobody is above
the dominion of law inwards Oromo democracy. Lemmu Baissa (1993: 11) expresses the take in that the
gadaa scheme “as a whole “provided . . . the mechanism for democratic dominion in addition to enjoyment of
maximum liberty for the people.” Despite the gadaa scheme existence an egalitarian social system,
women were excluded from passing through age-sets in addition to generation-sets. Gadaa effectively
enforced a gender-based partition of labor inwards Oromo society, although it allowed 2 equally
of import separate in addition to interdependent economical domains.
Explaining how the gadaa scheme brought these 2 domains together past times establishing
mechanisms of balancing, regulating, in addition to safeguarding these domains, Qabbannee Waqayyo
(1991: 8) argues that “men take hold controlled the mobile resources -- those that required going out
from the homestead – herding, defense forcefulness of livestock in addition to land, tilling novel fields, plowing, etc.
Women take hold controlled the stationary resources – the house, the grain in addition to other products of the
fields 1 time they are brought into gotara for storage, etc. Even the cattle around the house are
nether their control; women milk them, create upward one's heed how much milk goes to the calves, how much to
the people inwards the household for drinking, how much for butter or cheese to eat or sell, how much
to guests who convey valuable information, go friends inwards fourth dimension of need.”
The balancing of the domains of women in addition to men in addition to maintaining their interdependence
take hold been preconditions for keeping peace betwixt the sexes in addition to for promoting safu (moral and
ethical order) inwards gild (Kelly, 1992). “By exercising a existent day-to-day command over the
disposition of the resources at every dot of the decision-making physical care for inwards ways that are
protected past times the value scheme of society,” Waqayyo (1991: 9) writes, “the adult woman wields
determinative influence inwards the gild as a whole.” The gadaa scheme in addition to the siiqqee institution
had influenced the value scheme of Oromo society. In pre-colonial Oromo society, women had
the siiqqee institution, a parallel establishment to the gadaa scheme that “functioned manus inwards hand
with Gadaa [sic] scheme as 1 of its built-in mechanisms of checks in addition to balances” (Kumsa,
1997: 119). These 2 institutions helped maintain safu inwards Oromo gild past times enabling Oromo
women to take hold command over resources in addition to private spaces, social status in addition to respect, and
sisterhood in addition to solidarity past times deterring men from infringing upon their private in addition to collective
rights (Kumsa, 1997: 115-145). If the residuum betwixt men in addition to women was broken, a siqqee
rebellion was initiated to restore the law of God in addition to the moral in addition to ethical monastic enjoin of society.
When at that spot were violations of their rights, women left their homes, children, in addition to resources
in addition to traveled to a spot where at that spot was a large tree called qilxxu in addition to assembled at that spot until the
problems were solved through negotiation past times elders of men in addition to women (Kumsa, 1997: 129-
130). According to Kuwee Kumsa (1997: 126), “Married women take hold the right to organize and
cast the siiqqee sisterhood in addition to solidarity. Because women as a grouping are considered halaga
[non-relative] in addition to excluded from the Gadaa grades, they stick together in addition to count on 1 another
through siiqqee which they all take hold inwards mutual . . . inwards the unusual gosa [lineage] where women
live as strangers, siiqqee represents the woman parent in addition to they fifty-fifty address each other as `daughters of
a mother.’
They acquire together regularly for prayers as good as for other of import private in addition to community
matters. If men essay to halt women from attending these walargee (meetings), it is considered
against safu.”
Oromo women used different siiqqee mechanisms to maintain their rights; such
mechanisms included the law of muuka laaftu (soften wood), the abarsa (curse), iyya siiqqee
(scream), in addition to godaana siiqqee (trek). As Kumsa comments, “because of their liminality, women
wield a special religious powerfulness where they draw an enormous moral in addition to ritual authority. Men,
therefore, essay to avoid their curse in addition to seek their blessings . . . `Women inwards full general are
symbolically in addition to politically liminal in addition to correspondingly relish special sacred powerfulness as a class.’ .
. . people observe in addition to revere a adult woman because Waaq made her to live respected in addition to revered . . . .
Interference with a woman’s sacred control is regarded as violating seera Waaq in addition to safu”
(Kumsa, 1997: 127).
A adult man who violated women’s private in addition to collective rights could live corrected through
reconciliation in addition to pledging non to repeat the mistakes or through women’s reprisal ritual: A
grouping of women “ambush the offender inwards the bush or on the road, bind him, insult him verbally
using obscene linguistic communication that they would non unremarkably utter inwards the direct presence of an adult male
. . . pinch him, in addition to whip him with leafy branches or knotted strips of cloth. In extreme cases,
they may forcefulness him to crawl over thorny or rocky ground piece they whip him . . . They demand
livestock sacrifice as the toll to cease their attack. If he refuses, they may necktie him to a tree inwards the
bush in addition to seize 1 of his animals themselves. Other men rarely intervene ” (Kelly, 1992: 187).
With the colonization of the Oromo people in addition to the devastation of gadaa in addition to siiqqee institutions
Oromo women take hold been subjected to 3 levels of oppression: racial/ethno-national, class,
in addition to gender oppression. How did the social structures of the Oromo gild piece of work before
colonization?
The Origin in addition to Branches of the Oromo
Between the twelfth in addition to 13th centuries, the Oromo were already organized into 2 confederations or moieties known as Barentu in addition to Borana (Hassen, 1990: 4-6). All Oromo subgroups tin can in addition to do describe their genealogies to these confederations. Practically, however, it is non possible “to describe inwards item the mode inwards which farther partition in addition to the formation of” these moieties, sub-moieties, clans, in addition to lineages did occur (Haberland, 1963: 775). According to the Oromo oral tradition, these Borana in addition to Barentu moieties descended from the same house unit of measurement stock called Oromo (Baxter 1983: 129-149).
Despite the fact that the Oromo claim that they descended from the same house unit of measurement stock,
Oromo, they do non boundary their kinships to biological ancestry. The Oromo kinship scheme has
been based on a biological in addition to social descent. The Oromo recognize social ancestry in addition to avoid
the distinction betwixt the biological in addition to social descent since they know that the formation of
Oromo peoplehood was based on the biological in addition to social kinship.
The Oromo take hold had a long history of cultural contacts with non-Oromo through war, marriage, economical relationship, in addition to grouping adoption (Baxter, 1994: 174; Braukamper, 1989: 428). However, when at that spot were wars in addition to conflicts betwixt the Oromo in addition to their neighbors on economical in addition to cultural resources, such as land, water, territory, merchandise route, in addition to religious in addition to political issues, the erstwhile imposed specific cultural policies to structurally in addition to culturally modify the conquered people inwards monastic enjoin to Oromoize them in addition to consolidate Oromo society. Oromo laws strictly forbade the distinction betwixt the social in addition to biological descents (Megerssa, 1993: 27). P. T. W. Baxter (1994: 174) explains that “the adoption of adults, in addition to often all their dependents
used to live a mutual practice, which thereby incorporated them in addition to their descendants into the family, in addition to hence into the lineage, clan . . . These practices, though almost certainly widespread in addition to frequent, took spot despite the business solid ideological contention that descent in addition to inheritance were both rigidly patrilineal. Oromo social theory, similar most others, was often real flexible inwards practice.”
Oromo people
Through the physical care for of grouping or private adoption known as moggaasa or guudifacha, non-Oromo were adopted to Oromo gossa (confederation of clans), in addition to were structurally in addition to culturally Oromoized; these assimilated Oromo describe their descent to Oromo moieties in addition to to the original Oromo (Braukamper, 1980: 25). Non-Oromo neighbors who were defeated inwards state of war or who wanted to part resources with Oromo groups would live adopted to the Oromo gossa: “The adopted groups at nowadays go collectively the `sons’ of gossa . . . this organisation was inspired past times political, armed services in addition to economical considerations, though clearly it is couched inwards the symbolism of kinship in addition to affiliation” (Blackhurst, 1978: 243). The original 2 moieties, Borana in addition to Barentu, had 1 overarching political construction called the gadaa scheme that helped fashion.
Oromo relations within themselves in addition to with outsiders, but evolved the mechanisms for incorporating novel members. According to Hector Blackhurst (1978: 243-244), “Oromo political construction as it existed before [the sixteenth century] expansion began was flexibly centralized, inwards that major business office holders were located at fixed points but powerfulness was sufficiently diffused throughout the scheme to enable local-level conclusion making to proceed without constant reference dorsum to the center. However, the whole scheme was renewed spiritually in addition to structurally past times the meetings at the caafee where legal matters were discussed in addition to the law set downwards or reiterated.”
Oromo Karrayu woman,Ethiopia
Although the Oromo had a biologically- in addition to socially-constructed complex kinship system, as nosotros volition take in below, the formation in addition to appear of Oromo peoplehood are mainly culturally shaped (Baxter 1994: 248). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 meliorate understanding of Oromo people-hood in addition to cultural identity requires the identification in addition to exploration of the main characteristics in addition to essence of Oromo social organizations in addition to politico-religious institutions. Let us take hold some understanding of the Oromo kinship scheme on macro in addition to micro-levels since it has been the basic social construction for defining mutual interests inwards resources direction in addition to utilization in addition to inwards the physical care for of establishing political in addition to religious leadership in addition to inwards forming leagues or confederations amid Oromo society.
These leagues or confederations were based on a complex kinship system. The Oromo telephone phone the largest kinship scheme gossa, which is subdivided into moiety, sub-moiety in addition to qomo (clan). These subdivisions take hold lower-order branches of kinship known as mana (lineage), balbala (minor lineages), in addition to warra (minimal lineage or extended family) (Legesse, 1973: 37-42; Knutsson, 1967; Kelly, 1992: 40-63).
Wherever the Oromo were divided into sub-moieties in addition to clans, at that spot is “clear distinction betwixt clans in addition to lineages. The clan (qomo) is firstly of all a social group, consisting of several descent groups who demand non all live Oromo. The pump of every clan is compounded of a cluster of lineages tracing their descent to the ancestor who gave his call to the clan” (Bartels, 1990: 205). There were 5 sets of sub-moieties that extended from the Borana in addition to Barentu moieties: the Sabbo in addition to the Gona, the Macha in addition to Tulama, in addition to the Raya in addition to Assabo, the Siko in addition to the Mando, in addition to the Itu in addition to Humbana (Megerssa, 1993: 24-37). The firstly 3 sets belong to Borana, in addition to the 2nd 2 sets are branches of Barentu. The descendants of these moieties occupy specific areas inwards Oromia today: The Raya in addition to Assabo branches occupy northern Oromia (i.e., include some constituent of Tigray, the whole of Wallo in addition to some constituent of northern Shawa). The regions of Macha in addition to Tulama include most of the nowadays regions of Shawa, Wallaga, Ilubabor, in addition to the Gibe region.
The branches of Sabbo in addition to Gona occupy some constituent of the nowadays Sidamo, constituent of Gammu-Gofa, in addition to Borana, Gabra, in addition to Guji lands, in addition to some constituent of Kenya. The descendants of Siko in addition to Mando occupy the Arssi in addition to Bale lands, in addition to some constituent of the Rift Valley. Finally, the branches of Itu in addition to Humbana live inwards most of Haraghe in addition to some constituent of Wallo inwards the north. Nevertheless, at that spot take hold non been demarcated boundaries amid these parts of Oromia.
Whenever members of these moieties are asked to spot their descents, they ever supply the call of their moieties, rather than their lineages. The complexity of the Oromo kinship scheme is demonstrated past times the existence of similarly named putative descent groups on the macro in addition to micro kinship levels across the whole spectrum of Oromo gild (Baxter, 1994: 177). Because of these complexities in addition to the paucity of data, it is impossible at this fourth dimension to fully reconstruct the Oromo kinship system. Linguistic, anthropological in addition to historical information take hold linked the Oromo to the so-called eastern Cushitic-speaking peoples who take hold been inwards the Horn of Africa as far as their history is known (Lewis, 1966). These so-called eastern Cushitic speakers were historically, geographically, culturally in addition to linguistically connected peoples. The Oromo take hold lived for their known history inwards the Horn of Africa as these related peoples (Greenfield in addition to Hassen, 1980: 3).
Before the Arab elements immigrated to the Horn of Africa in addition to mixed with some indigenous African peoples in addition to developed into the Abyssinians or Habashas, the Horn of Africa was the spot of the so-called Cushitic in addition to other peoples. The Cushitic-speaking peoples settled on the key “Abyssinia/Ethiopian” Plateau, in addition to were differentiated into subgroups. The Oromo were 1 of these groups that moved southward (Melbaa 1980: 5; Ehret, 1976). The Oromo take hold complex worldview, philosophy, in addition to religion, as nosotros shall take in below.
Oromo Worldview, Philosophy, in addition to Religion
Oromo gild similar whatever gild has been witting of its cultural identity, its relation to nature,
in addition to the existence of a powerful forcefulness that regulates the connexion betwixt nature in addition to society.
The Oromo cognition of gild in addition to the world tin can live classified into two: a) cultural and
customary cognition known as beekumsa aadaa, in addition to b) cognition of laws known as beekumsa
seera. The cognition of laws is farther subdivided into seera Waaqa (the laws of God), and
seera nama (the laws of human beings). The laws of God are immutable, in addition to the laws of human
beings tin can live changed thorough consensus in addition to democratic means. Oromo customary knowledge
is a populace in addition to mutual cognition that guides in addition to regulates the activities of members of
society; some elements of this customary cognition tin can develop into rules or laws depending on
the involvement of gild (Megerssa, 1993: 20-23).
Every individual is expected to acquire in addition to recognize seera Waaqa in addition to seera aadaa; however,
should someone does non know the laws of gild or the laws of God, at that spot are Oromo experts
who tin can live referred to. These experts study in addition to know the organizing principles of the Oromo
worldview that reverberate Oromo cultural retention in addition to identity both temporally in addition to religiously
(Megerssa, 1993: 20-23). Oromo institutions tin can live meliorate understood past times studying the Oromo
concept of social evolution (finna). As inwards whatever society, social changes occur inwards Oromo society
past times combining the cumulative historical experiences with the contemporary condition. Hence
finna “represents the legacy of the past times which each generation inherits from its forefathers [and
foremothers] in addition to which it transforms; it is the fertile patrimony held inwards trust past times the present
generation which it volition enrich in addition to bequeath to futurity generations . . . [it describes] a developing
of the inner potential of gild based on the cultural roots it has already set down” (Kassam,
2007).
The Oromo concept of social evolution is constructed inwards 7 interconnected phases: Gudina, gabbina, ballina, badhaadha, hoormata, dagaaga, in addition to dagaa-hoora. When gudina indicates an improvement inwards cultural life due to the introduction of novel experiences to Oromo society, gabbina involves the physical care for of integrating cumulative cultural experiences with contemporary social conditions through broadening in addition to deepening the scheme of cognition in addition to worldview. According to Aneesa Kassam (2007) “This tin can only live achieved through the total knowledge, consent in addition to active participation of all members of the community. This implies the existence of a political organization, the forum for debate in addition to the democratic agency of reaching a consensus on all decisions affecting the mutual good. This should live obtained without forcefulness or coercion, without excluding the interests of whatever group, within the Oromo gild in addition to exterior it, inwards the broader context of the national or international arena. To this end, the Oromo evolved a political physical care for of powerfulness sharing reputed for its highly egalitarian nature: Gadaa.”
Oromo Karrayyu people at Gadaa ceremony
Without gadaa or Oromo republic at that spot cannot live finna (development), peace, social justice, kao (freedom, peace, prosperity, success, in addition to happiness), in addition to safu. Gabbina emerges through democracy, peace, cooperation in addition to consensus of all members of Oromo gild of different levels to improve economic, cultural, in addition to political conditions. Next to gabbina, at that spot is a ballina phase. Ballina involves the expansion of enriched cultural in addition to political experiences from Oromo gild to some other gild through reciprocity of cultural borrowing in addition to resources sharing in addition to interdependence, based on the principles of democracy. This is the stage that focuses on unusual relations. It allows Oromo gild to involve inwards cultural exchange and
cooperation with neighboring peoples. The cumulative experiences of gudina, gabbina, in addition to ballina Pb to the stage of badhaadha (richness). Theoretically badhaadha is a stage at which the Oromo in addition to their neighbors who take their philosophy of social evolution obtain peace, prosperity, in addition to wholeness since at that spot are no incidences of conflict, poverty, disease, in addition to natural calamities.
The badhaadha stage of evolution tin can only live achieved when at that spot is peace betwixt Waaqa (God), uuma (nature), in addition to society. According to Baxter (1990: 238), human beings “must hold right with each other inwards monastic enjoin to hold right with God, in addition to they must hold right with God to hold right with each other. Good social relationships in addition to proper ritual relationships are reflexes of each other. Violence betwixt men is both a cause in addition to effect of God’s displeasure.” The evolution of this stage facilitates the emergence of the hoormaata phase. During this phase, animals in addition to people reproduce in addition to multiply because of availability of abundant resources in addition to peace. Following this stage at that spot is a evolution stage known as dagaaga; this is the stage at which evolution cycles are assessed in addition to integrated to maintain fifty-fifty in addition to sustainable
development. At the terminal stage of evolution called daga-hoora, Oromo gild expands its cumulative cultural experiences of evolution to neighboring peoples through different mechanisms depending on a given condition. Sometimes, at this stage the Oromo had conflict with their neighbors because of the competition over resources, such as the world in addition to water.
Until the finally decades of the nineteenth century, when European imperialist intervention changed the residuum of powerfulness inwards favor of the Abyssinians, the Oromo easily defeated their competitors due to their gadaa organizational capacity in addition to armed services capability. The Oromo faith called Waaqeefana, worldview, philosophy, in addition to politics take hold been interconnected in addition to influenced 1 another. Oromo religious in addition to philosophical worldview considers the organisation of spiritual, physical in addition to human worlds as interconnected phenomena, in addition to Waaqa, the creator, regulates their existence in addition to functions inwards balanced ways. Explaining how Oromos believe that Waaqa directs the world from inwards a higher spot in addition to controls everything from within, Kassam (2007) expounds that the “image of creation has of import consequences for the Oromo vision of the
universe as a whole. It has influenced amid other aspects of its traditional culture, its political in addition to economical thought, in addition to determined its traditional scheme of authorities in addition to modes of production.”
The Oromo work 3 concepts to explicate the organisation in addition to interconnection of human, spiritual in addition to physical worlds. These 3 concepts are ayaana (spirit), uuma (nature), in addition to safu (moral in addition to ethical order). The Oromo believe that through ayaana, Waaqa (God) creates in addition to regulates human in addition to physical worlds inwards balanced ways. This ayaana also maintains the connexion betwixt the creator in addition to the created. Oromo gild has organizing principles for its known in addition to unknown universe similar whatever society; in addition to ayaana is a major organizing regulation of Oromo cosmology through which the concepts of fourth dimension in addition to creation are ordered (Kassam, 2007).
Oromo adult woman with her kid on her back
Ayaana as a scheme of classification in addition to an organizing regulation of Oromo cosmology establishes the connexion betwixt Waaqa (the Creator/God) in addition to the created (nature in addition to society) past times differentiating in addition to at the same fourth dimension uniting the created things in addition to the Creator (Kassam, 2007). The Oromo believe that Waaqa, the Supreme Being, created ayaana in addition to uses it to organize scattered things into order. As Gemetchu Megerssa (1993: 95) explains, “ayaana is the mechanism past times which the creator propels itself into becoming its ain opposite, in addition to dwells inwards that which it creates. This is in addition to so transposed to explicate the basic principles that embed themselves inwards the various Oromo institutions, since at that spot is no distinction betwixt the laws of thought, the laws of nature, history in addition to society.” The concept uuma includes everything created past times Waaqa including ayaana. Safu is an ethical in addition to moral “code that Oromos work to differentiate bad from goodness in addition to incorrect from right . . . [S]afu `constitutes the ethical footing upon which all human activeness should live founded; it is that which directs 1 on the right path; it shows the way inwards which life tin can live best lived’” (Megerssa, 1993: 255).
Oromo woman
The Oromo claim that the understanding of laws of Waaqa, nature, in addition to gild both morally in addition to ethically in addition to living accordingly is necessary. They believe inwards God’s law in addition to the law of gild that they found through the gadaa scheme of republic to maintain nagaa (peace) in addition to safu amid Waaqa, society, in addition to nature to make their total human destiny known as kao or kayyo (Hinnant, 1978: 210). Respect for the laws of Waaqa in addition to gadaa take hold been essential to maintain nagaa Oromo (Oromo peace) in addition to safu (moral balance) inwards gild (Hinnant, 1978: 207- 243: Knutsson, 1967; de Loo, 1991).
Most Oromos believe that they had total kao before their colonization since they had liberty to develop their independent political, economic, cultural in addition to religious institutions. Original Oromo religious leaders, qaallus, take hold had a moral control in addition to social obligation to oppose tyrants in addition to back upward pop Oromo republic in addition to gadaa leaders, in addition to to encourage harmonious in addition to democratic relations based on the principles of safu, kao, Waaqa, in addition to uuma. The qaallu “is thought to possess sacred characteristics that enable him to deed as intermediary betwixt the people in addition to . . . [God],” in addition to “he had no administrative power, but could bless or withhold blessings from gadaa leadership, in addition to had an extraordinary powerfulness to curse anyone who threatened the wellbeing of the entire community past times deviating from . . . [God’s] order” (Kelly,
1992: 166)
The qaallu establishment has been committed to social justice, the laws of God, in addition to the dominion of law, in addition to fair deliberation; the qaallu “residence was considered politically neutral ground, suitable for debating controversial issues in addition to for adjudicating highly charged disputes, although he himself mightiness non take a prominent role inwards proceedings” (Kelly, 1992: 166). The qaallu establishment has played an of import role inwards protecting original Oromo culture, religion, worldview, in addition to identity. When those Oromos who were influenced past times this establishment kept their Oromo names, most Oromos who were converted to Islam or Christianity willingly or past times forcefulness abandoned their Oromo names in addition to adopted Muslim or Christian names depending on their borrowed religion. The qaallu tin can live credited with having played an indirect role inwards the
preservation of the Oromo identity in addition to the Oromo political system. The criteria to live a qallu included seniority inwards lineages, respectability inwards the community, expertise inwards ritual practices, moral qualification, observe for cultural taboos, audio social status, in addition to other leadership qualities (Knutsson, 1967: 66-67). The leader of all qallus was known as Abbaa Muuda (father of the anointment) who was considered to live the prophet in addition to spiritual leader of Oromo society. Oromo pilgrims traveled to the residence of Abbaa Muuda to have his approving in addition to anointment to live ritual experts inwards their respective regions (Knutsson, 1967: 148).
Abbaa Muuda served as the spiritual middle in addition to symbol of Oromo unity in addition to assisted all Oromo branches to hold inwards touching with 1 some other for several centuries; “as the Jews believe inwards Moses in addition to the Muslims inwards Muhammad, the Oromo believe inwards their Abbaa Muuda [sic]” (Hassen, 1991: 79). Abbaa Muuda similar other qaallu leaders encouraged harmonious in addition to democratic relations inwards Oromo society. According to the qaallu mythology, Abbaa Muuda, the original Oromo religious leader was descended from sky (Knutsson, 1967; Gololcha, 1988).
Oromo representatives traveled to the highlands of the mid-south Oromia to honour Abbaa Muuda in addition to to have his approving in addition to anointment that qualified them as pilgrims known as jilas to live ritual experts inwards their respective areas (Knutsson, 1967: 148). When Oromo representatives went to him from far in addition to close places to have his blessings, Abbaa Muuda commanded them “not to cutting their pilus in addition to to live righteous, non to recognize whatever leader who tries to acquire absolute power,and non to combat amid themselves” (knutsson, 1967: 148).
In its modified form, the qaallu establishment exists inwards some parts of Oromia, such as inwards the Guji in addition to Borana areas; it still protects an Oromo way of life, such as dispensing of local justice based on Oromo customs in addition to providing solutions to problems created past times a changing social status (Knutsson, 1967: 133-135). The qallus of Guji in addition to Borana are ritual leaders, advisors, in addition to ritual experts inwards the gadaa system. The qallus “possess the exclusive prerogative of legitimizing the different gadaa officials, when a novel gadaa grouping is initiated into the politically active class” (Knutsson, 1967: 142). The Oromo still do some elements of Oromo democratic values inwards the areas where the gadaa scheme was suppressed a century ago. The gadaa
scheme is still practiced inwards the Borana in addition to Guji regions nether the command of the Ethiopian colonial scheme inwards its modified form; it helps maintain peace, exchange cognition in addition to do rituals amid some clans in addition to regional groups (de Loo, 1991: 25).
Oromo Guji boy
The electrical flow gadaa of Borana in addition to Guji cannot fully reverberate its original political civilization nether Ethiopian colonialism. Theoretically, most Oromos including those intermediaries who are collaborating with the enemies of the Oromo recognize the importance of gadaa, in addition to some Oromo nationalists struggle to restore genuine Oromo democracy.
Efforts for Reviving in addition to Revitalizing Oromo Democracy
Some heart Oromo nationalist scholars advocate that without refining in addition to restoring elements of the original Oromo political civilization of gadaa, the Oromo gild cannot fully develop Oromummaa, which is absolutely necessary to make national self-determination, statehood, in addition to democratic governance. Recognizing that Oromo identity in addition to peoplehood are an appear of Oromo culture, some Oromo nationalist scholars take hold started to study the cultural foundations of Oromo gild to empathise the whole essence of this society. Such scholars believe that studying, understanding, in addition to restoring the original Oromo political institutions past times refining in addition to adapting them to contemporary conditions are practical steps towards unifying in addition to consolidating
the Oromo national movement.
Oromo dance
Some Oromo nationalists take hold already started to develop Oromummaa ideals based on original Oromo cultural foundations. The Oromo national struggle has initiated the Oromo cultural motion based on the next Oromo concepts: Oromummaa, gootummaa (bravery in addition to patriotism), walabummaa (sovereignty), bilisummaa (liberation), gadaa (popular Oromo democracy), nagaa (peace), in addition to kao or kayyo (prosperity in addition to peace) (Jalata, 2007). Furthermore, heart Oromo nationalist leaders assert today that all concerned Oromos should participate inwards revitalizing the Oromo national motion past times applying some elements of gadaa, aiming at establishing a futurity Oromia state, sharing sovereignty with others, implementing internal peace
within the Oromo society, in addition to promoting peace with Oromia’s neighbors. They also authorities annotation that the Oromo national struggle has at nowadays reached at a storey where it requires volume mobilization in addition to participation inwards monastic enjoin to succeed. In this mobilization, they recommend the motion to work the ideology in addition to principles of gadaa republic enshrined inwards Oromummaa to mobilize the entire land spiritually, financially, militarily, in addition to organizationally to take coordinated political in addition to armed services actions.
Gadaa, as an emblem of an Oromo cultural totality with its democratic traditions, has also go an ideological appear of the Oromo national movement. Holcomb (1993: 4) notes, “Gadaa represented an ideological footing for the appear of Oromo nationalism. This appear empowered the Oromo to resist oppression, go self-conscious as a land inwards the twentieth century inwards the human face of intense subjugation . . . Gadaa represents a repository, a storehouse of concepts, values, beliefs in addition to practices that are accessible to all Oromo. The challenge the Oromo human face at nowadays is the serious of fashioning elements of the heritage into an
ideology, which empowers the land to make the self-determination that the people aspire to.”
Also, a few Oromo scholars suggest that Oromo political organizations demand to work the Oromo political wisdoms in addition to experiences inwards monastic enjoin to make the national organizational capacity in addition to to throw off the chains of Ethiopian colonialism. They also recommend that after bringing together gadaa experts in addition to Oromo intellectuals who are familiar with the Oromo democratic traditions, the Oromo national motion should start to formulate procedures, strategies, in addition to tactics for edifice a national assembly with supreme control called Gumii Oromia. At this national Gumii, they suggest representatives of all Oromo sectors, all serious in addition to independent Oromo liberation fronts in addition to organizations should carry out their national obligations. This
national Gumii must live modeled after the Gumii Gayyo:
In Oromo democratic traditions, the highest control does non reside inwards the swell lawmakers who are celebrated past times the people, nor the rulers who are elected to regulation for viii years, nor hereditary rights, nor the age-sets in addition to age-regiments who furnish the armed services force, nor the abbaa duula who Pb their people inwards battle. It resides, instead, inwards the opened upward national assembly, at which all gadaa councils in addition to assemblies . . . active in addition to retired are represented, in addition to warra Qaallu, the electors, participate as observers. The meetings that take spot every viii years review the conduct of the ruling gadaa council, punish whatever violators of law, in addition to withdraw whatever or all of them from office, should that go necessary. In such sessions, a retired abbaa gadaa
presides. The primary purpose of the meetings of the national assembly, however, it to reexamine the laws of the land, to reiterate them inwards public, to brand novel laws if necessary, in addition to to settle disputes that were non resolved past times lower levels inwards their judicial organisation (Legesse 2006, 211).
Beautiful Oromo woman
The Gumii Gayyo is an appear of the exemplar model of the unwritten Oromo constitution. Reframing in addition to transforming the unwritten Oromo constitution into a novel written national constitution based on Oromo democratic principles require absolute commitment from Oromo nationalists in addition to their organizations. As Asmarom Legesse (2006: 255) puts, “Oromo republic is non perfect: if it were, it would non live democratic. Like all democratic institutions, it is the production of changing human thought that must ever live re-examined inwards relation to changing historic circumstances.” The underlying supposition is that past times establishing the National Assembly of Gumii Oromia, Oromo nationalists in addition to organizations of the Oromo national
motion aim to frame a written Oromo constitution past times adapting older Oromo political traditions to novel circumstances piece also learning from other democratic practices. Those who promote the thought of edifice Gumii Oromia recommend that the Oromo national motion needs to address 3 major issues. The firstly number is to farther develop Oromummaa to its fullest capacity past times overcoming its unevenness in addition to deficiencies. This volition strengthen the Oromo national organizational capacity.
Between the times when the Oromo were colonized in addition to until Oromo nationalism emerged, Oromoness primarily existed on personal in addition to the interpersonal levels since the Oromo were denied opportunities to cast national institutions. Expressed Oromoness was targeted for destruction; colonial administrative regions established to suppress the Oromo people in addition to exploit their resources. As a result, Oromo relational identities take hold been localized in addition to non strongly connected to a collective Oromo national identity. The Oromo were forcibly separated from 1 some other in addition to prevented from exchanging goods in addition to information with 1 some other for to a greater extent than than a century. They were exposed to different cultures (i.e., languages, customs, values, etc.) in addition to religions in addition to borrowed an array of them. Consequently, today at that spot are Oromos who have
internalized these externally imposed regional or religious identities because of their depression storey of political consciousness or because of their political opportunism. The Oromo people who did non develop national political consciousness still confuse clan, regional or religious politics with Oromo national politics.
Oromo woman
Overcoming these political weaknesses past times edifice Oromo national organizational capacity is only possible when Oromummaa as a national vision is accepted, energizes in addition to unites the entire Oromo nation. As an chemical factor of culture, nationalism, in addition to vision, national Oromummaa has the powerfulness to serve as a manifestation of the collective identity of the Oromo national movement. The footing of national Oromummaa must live built on overarching principles that are embedded within Oromo traditions in addition to civilization and, at the same time, take hold universal relevance for all oppressed peoples. The main foundations of national Oromummaa are rooted inwards the rights of private in addition to collective freedom, justice, pop democracy, in addition to human liberation, which are built on the concept of safu (Oromo moral in addition to ethical order) in addition to are enshrined inwards gadaa principles. As the ideology of the Oromo national movement, national Oromummaa enables the Oromo to call back their cultural memories, assess the consequences of Ethiopian colonialism, in addition to give vocalization to their collective grievances. National Oromummaa enables the Oromo people to cast alliances with all political forces in addition to social movements that take the principles of national self-determination in addition to multinational republic inwards advertisement of a global community that volition live complimentary from all forms of oppression in addition to exploitation. Therefore, Oromummaa is seen as a complex in addition to dynamic national in addition to global project.
Oromo (Borana tribe) woman
As a national projection in addition to the key ideology of the Oromo national movement, Oromummaa enables the Oromo to mobilize various cultural resources, interlink Oromo personal, interpersonal in addition to collective (national) relationships, in addition to assists inwards the evolution of Oromo-centric political strategies in addition to tactics that tin can mobilize the land for collective activeness empowering the people for liberation. As a global project, Oromummaa requires that the Oromo national motion live inclusive of all persons operating inwards a democratic fashion. This global Oromummaa enables the Oromo people to cast alliances with all political forces in addition to social movements that take the principles of national self-determination in addition to multinational republic inwards advertisement of a regional in addition to global humanity that volition live complimentary of all forms oppression and
exploitation. In other words, global Oromummaa is based on the principles of mutual solidarity, social justice, in addition to pop democracy.
The foundation of Oromummaa must live built on overarching principles that are embedded within the Oromo democratic tradition in addition to civilization and, at the same time, take hold universal relevance for all oppressed peoples. Although, inwards recent years, many Oromos take hold go adherents of Christianity in addition to Islam, the concept of Waaqa (God) lies at the pump of Oromo traditions in addition to culture. In Oromo traditions, Waaqa is the creator of the universe in addition to the source of all life. The universe created past times Waaaq contains within itself a sense of monastic enjoin in addition to residuum that is to live made manifest inwards human society. Although Oromummaa emerges from Oromo cultural in addition to historical foundations, it goes beyond civilization in addition to history inwards providing a liberative narrative for the futurity of the Oromo land as good as the futurity of other oppressed peoples, specially those who endure nether the Ethiopian Empire. Those Oromos who endorse in addition to glorify Ethiopianism in addition to clan/regional politics are undermining Oromummaa inwards monastic enjoin to relish powerfulness in addition to stuff benefits at the cost of the Oromo land in addition to other peoples.
Without recognizing the centrality of Oromummaa for the national struggle, the Oromo cannot develop a victorious consciousness that equips them with the cognition of liberation. Oromummaa as an intellectual in addition to ideological vision places the Oromo adult man in addition to adult woman at the middle of analysis in addition to at the same fourth dimension goes beyond Oromo gild in addition to aspires to develop global Oromummaa. Oromummaa challenges the thought of glorifying African monarchies, chiefs, or warlords that take hold collaborated with European slavers, colonizers in addition to neo-colonialists in addition to destroyed Africa past times participating inwards the slave merchandise in addition to the projects of colonialism, neocolonialism, in addition to global imperialism.
Oromo (Karrayyu) woman
Those Africanist scholars who degrade African democratic traditions just as their Euro-American counterparts devalue the Oromo democratic scheme in addition to consider indigenous Africans such as the Oromo primitive in addition to “stateless.” Challenging the take in of Euro-American racist in addition to “modernist” scholars, Asmarom Legesse (2000: 30) asserts that “since monarchy was inwards decline inwards most Europe, in addition to the transition to republic became the paradigm of Europe’s highest political aspirations, admitting that some varieties of republic were firmly planted inwards Africa inwards the 16th century when inwards fact they were non fully established inwards Britain, the U.S. in addition to French Republic until the 17th or 18th century would take hold made the ideological premise of the ‘civilizing mission’ somewhat implausible. The thought . . . that African democracies may take hold some
constitutional features, which are to a greater extent than advanced than their European counterpart was in addition to still is considered quite heretical.”
Oromo women
Although the priority of the Oromo national motion is to liberate Oromia in addition to its people, the motion has moral in addition to political obligations to promote social justice in addition to republic for other peoples who take hold suffered nether the successive authoritarian-terrorist governments of the Ethiopian Empire.
Therefore, the Oromo motion needs to build a political alliance with national groups that endorse the principles of national self- determination in addition to multinational democracy. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 democratic Oromia should play a key role inwards a federated multinational democratic province because of its democratic tradition, the size of its population, geopolitics, in addition to abundant economical resources. The Oromo national motion should demonstrate to Oromo gild in addition to their neighbors that the Oromo land is serious virtually statehood, shared sovereignty, in addition to egalitarian multinational democracy.
Oromo woman
Oromummaa, as oppressed nationalism in addition to a critical aspect of Afrocentric worldview, builds on the best elements of Oromo civilization in addition to traditions in addition to endorses an indigenous Oromo democracy. As an aspect of Afrocentric worldview (Asante, 1990) that sees an African civilization as the middle of African life in addition to the African Diaspora, Oromummaa bases its vision on Oromo pop democracy. The aspiration to restore this cast of pop republic is similar to the thought of developing Afrocentric awareness inwards the African in addition to African diaspora communities. According to Molefi Kete Asante (1988: 49), a critical Afrocentric awareness develops “when the individual becomes totally changed to a witting storey of involvement inwards the struggle for his or her ain heed liberation. Only when this happens tin can nosotros say that the individual is aware of the collective consciousness will. An imperative of will, powerful, incessant, alive, in addition to vital, moves to eradicate every describe of powerlessness.”
Those who endorse in addition to glorify Ethiopianism are undermining this Afrocentric awareness inwards monastic enjoin to relish powerfulness in addition to stuff benefits at the cost of various African population groups. Hence progressive Habashas, ordinary Amharas in addition to Tigrayans, other Africans, in addition to the African Diaspora must recognize the negative consequences of Ethiopianism in addition to back upward the struggle for self-determination, multinational democracy, in addition to evolution inwards Oromia, Ethiopia, in addition to beyond. Without recognizing the centrality of Africa for humanity inwards full general in addition to the significance of indigenous African cultures inwards particular, nosotros cannot develop “a victorious consciousness” (Asante, 1988) that equips us with the cognition of liberation. This cognition of liberation
must live a critical Afrocentric 1 that “places the African individual at the middle of analysis” past times making “the African individual subject, in addition to non object, of study” (Asante, 1990). Similarly, Oromummaa places the Oromo adult man in addition to adult woman at the middle of analysis in addition to at the same fourth dimension goes beyond Oromo gild in addition to aspires to develop global Oromummaa past times contributing to the solidarity of all oppressed peoples in addition to promoting the struggle for self-determination in addition to multinational democracy.
Recognizing the existence of various forms of indigenous African republic before Africa was partitioned in addition to colonized in addition to challenging Euro-American-centric scholarship in addition to Ethiopian studies that rationalize in addition to justify racial/ethno-national inequality tin can assist inwards developing a human-centric in addition to original scholarship. Learning virtually Oromo society—with its complex democratic laws, an elaborate legislative tradition, in addition to well-developed methods of dispute settlement—and the Oromo national struggle tin can nowadays a novel perspective for Africana studies in addition to politics.
Africans in addition to the African Diaspora in addition to other oppressed peoples tin can ally with 1 some other on global storey past times exchanging political in addition to cultural experiences in addition to re-creating the ideology of panAfricanism from “below” in addition to past times edifice global mutual solidarity based on the principles of pop republic in addition to egalitarian world order. As globalization in addition to transnational capitalism intensify its barbarism in addition to terrorism through looting in addition to destroying indigenous population groups, such as the Oromo, in addition to others, the selection of establishing regional in addition to global mutual solidarity of the oppressed in addition to exploited human groups on the principles of pop republic in addition to egalitarian world monastic enjoin volition go absolutely necessary. The Oromo classical civilization
tin can immensely contribute to such alternative liberation projects.
source:http://www.jpanafrican.com/docs/vol5no1/5.1Gadaa.pdf
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