Info For Yous Ife People: Ancient Artistic, Highly Spiritual In Addition To The Kickoff Yoruba People
Ife people are ancient, originally spiritual, highly advanced artistic in addition to agriculturalist Yoruboid-speaking people that forms the sub-group of the larger Yoruba people of West Africa, peculiarly inwards Nigeria in addition to the Republic of Benin. The Ife people are "primus inter pares" when it comes the root in addition to spirituality of Yoruba. They are the foremost Yoruba people from which all other Yoruba people emerged in addition to dispersed to shape other Yoruba sub-groups inwards the world. Ife people are found exactly inwards the metropolis of Ile-Ife, which sits inwards the Southwestern Nigerian State of Osun. This ancient "Yoruba Spiritual Mecca" of a metropolis is surrounded past times hills in addition to is nearly l miles (80.467kms) to Ibadan in addition to Osogbo. The metropolis of Ile-Ife is also known as 'Ife' or 'Ilurun' which agency ‘the gateway to heaven’ (Eluyemi 1986:16).
Ife people celebrating their Obatala festival at Ile Ife
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the root of the Yoruba people in addition to it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on menstruum of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to constitute when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the foremost King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) in addition to Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that at that topographic point were betwixt 90 iii to 90 vii kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards in addition to around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to have got encountered indigenous people inwards the part (Falola in addition to Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong take away hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
Ile ife women inwards their traditional dress
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ or and the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the topographic point where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwardly upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher topographic point suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded in addition to situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual root (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental in addition to continuity of groovy bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a middle from which Yoruba civilisation emanates in addition to a topographic point for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997).
Diasporan Ifa priests undergoing their initiation at Ifa temple inwards Ile Ife, Nigeria
The early on written records that mentionss Ife was during the early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era when the well-known adventurer, historian in addition to travelor Ibn Battûta(1325–1354) mentioned them inwards his travelogue. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a ground called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is 1 of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is 1 of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a ground that “No white human tin motion into … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing in addition to mercantile interests, amongst these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, Fe smelting in addition to forging, in addition to textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife have got been found as far due west as Mali, Mauritania, in addition to modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good have got learned of this middle inwards the course of didactics of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the yell Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the representative inwards maps from this era, the yell Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a slow fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions nearly an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amongst others)
Ife is good known as the metropolis of 401 or 201 deities. It is said that every twenty-four hours of the twelvemonth the traditional Ifa worshippers celebrate a festival of 1 of these deities. Often the festivals extend over to a greater extent than than 1 twenty-four hours in addition to they involve both priestly activities inwards the palace in addition to theatrical dramatisations inwards the relaxation of the kingdom. Because of Ife’s importance inwards the realm of creation, it has many traditional festivals to commemorate the many deities known inwards the history of the metropolis in addition to inwards Yoruba land. The most spectacular festivals demand the King's participation. These include the Itapa festival for Obatala in addition to Obameri, the Edi festival for Moremi Ajasoro, in addition to the Igare masqueraders, in addition to the Olojo festival for Ogoun. During the festivals in addition to at other occasions the traditional priests offering prayers for the approbation of their ain cult-group, the metropolis of Ile Ife, the Nigerian land in addition to the whole world.
Ile Ifa Ifa practitioners inwards a street procession inwards celebration of the anniversary of the Orisha Obatala festival.
The Oòni (or king) of Ife claims direct descent from Oduduwa, in addition to is counted foremost amongst the Yoruba kings. He is traditionally considered the 401st deity (òrìshà), the only 1 that speaks. In fact, the royal dynasty of Ife traces its root dorsum to the founding of the metropolis to a greater extent than than 2 one thousand years ago. The nowadays ruler is Alayeluwa Oba Okunade Sijuwade, Olubuse II, styled His Imperial Majesty past times his subjects. The Ooni ascended his throne inwards 1980. Following the formation of the Yoruba Orisha Congress inwards 1986, the Ooni acquired an international status the likes of which the holders of his championship hadn't had since the city's colonisation past times the British. Nationally he had ever been prominent amongst the Federal Republic of Nigeria's companionship of royal Obas, beingness regarded as the principal priest in addition to custodian of the holy metropolis of all the Yorubas. In onetime times, the palace of the Oni of Ife was a construction built of authentic enameled bricks, decorated with artistic porcelain tiles in addition to all sorts of ornaments.
Statue of Oduduwa, the progenitor of Yoruba people
Ife people in addition to their ancient metropolis of Ile Ife which is regarded as the ancient metropolis of Old Yoruba, are so precious in addition to sacred to the Yoruba people so much that every Yoruba sub-group is forbidden to assault them no affair how they provoke a particular sub-group. Attacking an Ife citizen or Ile Ife town is an abomination, high treason in addition to sacrilegious human activity that tin atomic number 82 to consummate extermination of a particular Yoruba group, as all other Yoruba groups volition come upwardly together to care against whatever Yoruba that care or assault Ife citizen or towns. The representative inwards dot is how combined Yoruba forces led past times Ijebu, Ife in addition to their allies completely destroyed the original habitat of Orile-Owu or Owu-Ipole in addition to their Ikija allies forcing them to flee to seek sanctuary at Abeokuta amongst the Egbas, when Owu people nether the leadership of Olowu Amororo attacked Ife towns. The outcome result of Olowu`s activity became a disaster for the Owu people inwards their original abode in addition to threw the whole of Yoruba ground into civil war. In fact, the Owu were thoroughly defeated past times the combined forces of Ibadan in addition to Ijebu, in addition to the Oni of Ife, the spiritual caput of the Yorubas, ordered with his constitutional authority, that the Owu capital, Orile-Owu must live destroyed with no human existence. According to Samuel Johnson inwards his renowned bulk "The History of the Yoruba" Owu was rendered helpless as famine emerged in addition to they "began for the foremost fourth dimension to eat those large beans called popondo (or awuje) hitherto considered unfit for food; hence the taunting songs of the allies : —
"Popondo I'ara Owu nje. (The Owus at nowadays live on propondo)
Aje f'ajaga bo 'run." (That done, their necks for the yoke)
Unto this day, whoever would hum this ditty within the hearing of an Owu man, must hold off out for an accident to his ain person. Ikija was the only Egba town which befriended the metropolis of Owu inwards her straits hence after the autumn of the latter town, the combined armies went to punish her for supplying Owu with provisions during the siege. Being a much smaller town, they shortly made brusk piece of job of it. After the devastation of Ikija,^ the allies returned to their onetime military camp at Idi Ogungun (under the Ogiingun tree). "Owu was thenceforth placed nether an interdict, never to live rebuilt ; in addition to it was resolved that inwards future, withal groovy mightiness live the population of Oje — the nearest town to it — the town walls should non extend as far as the Ogungun tree, where the military camp was pitched. Consequently to this day, although the ground may live cultivated yet no 1 is allowed to build a theater on it." (Johnson, 1928)
According to Fashogbon (1995) recounting the oral historical handout of the ancient Yoruba town of Ile-Ife submits that “it is the foremost creation inwards this world”. Ile-Ife is the holy city, the domicile of divinities in addition to mysterious spirits, the source of all oceans in addition to the gateway to heaven. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 schoolhouse of thought fifty-fifty speculates that Ile-Ife was the topographic point of civilization from where Arab Republic of Egypt received its civilization which later spread to the Hebrews in addition to the Babylonians so to the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans in addition to finally to the Britons (Fabunmi, 1969).
Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' in addition to 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline. Generally, therefore, Ile-Ife has earned many enviable appellations, viz:
Ile-Ife, ile Owuro Ile-Ife, the ground of the most ancient days
Ile-Ife, Oodaye Ile-Ife, where the tidings of creation took place
Ile-Ife, Ibi ti ojumo ti mowa Ile-Ife, where the dawn of the twenty-four hours was foremost experienced
Ile-Ife, Ori yes gbogbo Ile-Ife, caput of the whole universe
Ile-Ife, Ooye Lagbo Ile-Ife the metropolis of the Survivors.
(Fashogbon, op.cit)
Yoruba oral history fifty-fifty testifies to it that Oduduwa the progenitor of the Yoruba, in addition to other ‘Leaders of Mankind’ (deities in addition to divinities) were the Survivors (Ooye Lagbo) after the deluge in addition to that they were the founders of Ile-Ife whence the people migrated to the different territories they presently occupy (Fashogbon, 1995).
Yoruba people take in Ife as a topographic point where the founding deities Oduduwa in addition to Obatala began the creation of the world, as directed past times the paramount deity Olodumare. Obàtálá created the foremost humans out of clay, piece Odùduwà became the foremost divine Rex of the Yoruba. But it must live emphasised that Oduduwa in addition to Obatala met aboriginal people on the land. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all concur on 1 factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established at that topographic point (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to have got come upwardly downward with the foremost political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures in addition to Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the yell of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
Yoruba religious history, emerged most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s instant dynasty inwards nearly 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to have got been made, a menstruum closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, in addition to with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis programme inwards which the palace in addition to marketplace are located inwards the middle surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This programme features iv main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were 1 time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The programme of Ile-Ife, which may have got housed some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology in addition to directional primacy.
Ooni (King) of Ile Ife, Alayeluwa Oba Okunade Sijuwade, Olubuse II. He is also Nigeria`s instant richest King in addition to Africa`s 3rd richest Rex with his internet worth at to the lowest degree $75 1000000 . His coin comes from Construction, Property, in addition to Oil. Source www.fuse.com.
In Ife artistic works, of import people were often depicted with large heads because the artists believed that the Ase was held inwards the head, the Ase beingness the inner powerfulness in addition to unloosen energy of a person. Their rulers were also often depicted with their mouths covered so that the powerfulness of their spoken communication would non live likewise great. They did non idealize private people, but they tended rather to idealize the business office of the king. The metropolis was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th in addition to 12th centuries, with houses featuring potsherd pavements. Ilé-Ifè is known worldwide for its ancient in addition to naturalistic bronze, rock in addition to terra cotta sculptures, which reached their peak of artistic aspect betwixt 1200 in addition to 1400 A.D. After this period, production declined as political in addition to economical powerfulness shifted to the nearby kingdom of Republic of Benin which, similar the Yoruba kingdom of Oyo, developed into a major empire.
Bronze in addition to terra cotta fine art created past times this civilization are important examples of realism inwards pre-colonial African art.
In his book, "The Oral Traditions inwards Ile-Ife," Yemi D. Prince referred to the terra cotta artists of 900 A.D. as the founders of Art Guilds, cultural schools of philosophy, which today tin live likened to many of Europe's old institutions of learning that were originally established as religious bodies. These guilds may good live some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centres of learning to remain as feasible entities inwards the contemporary world. A major exhibition entitled Kingdom of Ife: Sculptures of West Africa, displaying works of fine art found inwards Ife in addition to the surrounding area, was held inwards the British Museum from 4 March to 4 July 2010.
Today a mid-sized city, Ife is domicile to both the Obafemi Awolowo University in addition to the Natural History Museum of Nigeria. Its people are of the Yoruba ethnic group, 1 of the largest ethnolinguistic groups inwards Africa in addition to its diaspora (The population of the Yoruba exterior of their homeland is said to live to a greater extent than than the population of Yoruba inwards Nigeria, nearly 35 million).[citation needed] Ife has a local boob tube station called NTA Ife, in addition to is domicile to various businesses. It is also the merchandise middle for a farming part where yams, cassava, grain, cacao, in addition to tobacco are grown. Cotton is also produced, in addition to is used to weave cloth. Hotels inwards Ilé-Ife include Republic of Cameroon Hotel, Hotel Diganga Ife-Ibadan road, Mayfair Hotel, Obafemi Awolowo University Guest House etc. Ilé-Ife has a stadium with a capacity of 9,000 in addition to a instant sectionalization professional person league football game team.
The Orunmila Barami Agbonmiregun, the World Ifa Festival was held Sabbatum June 4-5, 2011 at Oketase the World Ifa Temple, Ile-Ife.
Mythic root of Ife, the holy city: Creation of the world
The Yoruba claim to have got originated inwards Ife. According to their mythology, Olodumare, the Supreme God, ordered Obatala to create the ground but on his way he found palm wine, drank it in addition to became intoxicated. Therefore the younger blood brother of the latter, Oduduwa, took the iii items of creation from him, climbed downward from the heavens on a chain in addition to threw a handful of ground on the primordial ocean, so set a cockerel on it so that it would scatter the earth, thus creating the ground on which Ile Ife would live built. Oduduwa planted a palm nut inwards a hole inwards the newly formed ground in addition to from at that topographic point sprang a groovy tree with xvi branches, a symbolic representation of the clans of the early on Ife city-state.
The usurpation of creation past times Oduduwa gave rising to the ever lasting conflict betwixt him in addition to his elderberry blood brother Obatala, which is silent re-enacted inwards the modern era past times the cult groups of the 2 clans during the Itapa New Year's Day festival. On business concern human relationship of his creation of the world Oduduwa became the ancestor of the foremost divine Rex of the Yoruba, piece Obatala is believed to have got created the foremost humans out of clay. The pregnant of the tidings "ife" inwards Yoruba is "expansion"; "Ile-Ife" is so inwards reference to the myth of root "The Land of Expansion". Due to this fact, the metropolis is normally regarded as the cradle of non only the Yoruba culture, but all of humanity as well, especially past times the followers of the Yoruba faith.
Oduduwa had sons, daughters in addition to a grandson who went on to found their ain kingdoms in addition to empires, namely Ila Orangun, Owu, Ketu, Sabe, Popo, Oyo in addition to Benin. Oranmiyan, Oduduwa's in conclusion born, was 1 of his father's principal ministers in addition to overseer of the nascent Edo empire after Oduduwa granted the plea of the Edo people for his governance. When Oranmiyan decided to go dorsum to Ile Ife after a menstruum of service inwards Benin, he left behind a kid named Eweka that he had inwards the interim with an indigenous princess. The immature man child went on to acquire the foremost legitimate ruler of the instant Edo dynasty that has ruled what is at nowadays Republic of Benin from that twenty-four hours to this. Oranmiyan later went on to found the Oyo empire that stretched at its peak from the western banks of the river Niger to the Eastern banks of the river Volta. It would serve as 1 of the most powerful of Africa's medieval states prior to its collapse inwards the 19th century.
Language
The people of Ife utter a unique in addition to authentic Central Yoruba (CY) dialect of Yoruba linguistic communication which belongs to the larger Niger-Congo linguistic communication family. Apart from Ife, the other Yoruba sub-groups that utter Central Yoruba (CY) dialects are Igbomina, Yagba, Ilésà, Ekiti, Akurẹ, Ẹfọn, in addition to Ijẹbu areas.
History of Ife Kingdom
In the southern forested part of Nigeria, the largest centralized states were the kingdoms centered on Ile-Ife in addition to Republic of Benin which emerged past times 1500 CE in addition to the origins of the Ife natives are lost inwards antiquity (Falola in addition to Heaton 2008, Osasona et al 2009). According to Biobaku (1955) the town was in all probability founded betwixt the seventh in addition to tenth centuries AD; Jeffrey (1958) opines that it had acquire a flourishing civilization past times the 11th Century. Carbon-dating yielded from piece of job of archaeologists appears to back upwardly these views, as it establishes that Ile Ife “was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th in addition to 12th centuries” (Willett, 1971:367, Smith 1988). Drewal et al (1998)also suggested that the site of Ile–Ife was occupied as early on as 350 B.C. in addition to consisted of a cluster of hamlets; though fiddling is known nearly the early on occupants except for a metropolis wall at Enuwa in addition to later the construction of some other outer metropolis wall. Traditionally, Ile-Ife was divided into 5 quarters namely Iremo, Okerewe, Moore, Ilode in addition to Ilare in addition to within each quarter were compounds with menage unit of measurement lineages (Eluyemi 1978). The traditional Ife kingdom, schematically, could live described as a wheel, with the Oba’s palace as the hub, from which roads radiated similar spokes in addition to inwards relation to which the en-framing town wall represented the rim (Krapf-Askari, 1969; Obateru, 2006). Ile–Ife is regarded so as the metropolis of old Yoruba. Though suggested past times various scholars including Johnson (1921); Lucas (1948); in addition to Ajayi in addition to Crowther (1972) that Ile-Ife is fabled as the spot where God created man, white in addition to dark in addition to from whence they dispersed all over the ground it is yet to live scientifically proven. Fabunmi (1969) farther argued that Ile Ife is farther regarded in addition to believed to live the cradle of the world. The history of Ile Ife though unwritten is based on oral traditions in addition to referred to as the original domicile of all things, the topographic point where the twenty-four hours dawns; the holy city, the domicile of divinities in addition to mysterious spirits (Okelola, 2001). It is withal believed that the tradition of the world in addition to of the root of the peoples in addition to their province centers on Ile Ife, the source whence all the major rulers of the so southern Nigeria derive the sanctions of their kingship where gods, shrines in addition to festivals forms the middle of organized religious belief (Smith 1988).
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ in addition to the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the topographic point where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwardly upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher topographic point suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded in addition to situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual root (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental in addition to continuity of groovy bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a middle from which Yoruba civilisation emanates in addition to a topographic point for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997). There was a monarch called Ogane who reigned inwards ancient Ife whom modern scholars have got identified as the Ooni of Ife (Pereira 1937, Krapf-Askari 1969, Harris, 1997). The Ooni or Onife is regarded as the spiritual caput of the Yoruba whose influence was non confined to his ain kingdom but was also exercised over other Yoruba kingdoms through the sanctions of kinship in addition to past times ancient constitutional devices (Smith 1988). The Ooni is believed to live a sacred beingness because he sits on the throne of Oduduwa at Ile-Ife.
Statue of Moremi at Moremi Hall (UNILAG) . Moremi was the married adult woman of Oranmiyan. A adult woman of tremendous beauty in addition to a faithful in addition to zealous supporter of her hubby in addition to the Kingdom of Ile Ife.
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the root of the Yoruba people in addition to it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on menstruum of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to constitute when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the foremost King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) in addition to Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that at that topographic point were betwixt 90 iii to 90 vii kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards in addition to around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to have got encountered indigenous peop,le inwards the part (Falola in addition to Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa . has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong take away hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
The metropolis of Ile-Ife today sits inwards what is today Osun State inwards southern Nigeria located on the longitude 4.6N in addition to 7.5°N, surrounded past times hills in addition to is nearly l miles (80.467kms) to Ibadan in addition to Osogbo (Philips, 1852; White, 1876). The metropolis popularly known to as Ile-Ife in addition to the people are referred to as 'Ife' who also refer to the town as 'Ife' or 'Ilurun' which agency ‘the gateway to heaven’ (Eluyemi 1986:16). Confirmed to live situated on the site of ancient Ile Ife due to the location of the vii brass castings excavated from the ancient Ife sites which were inwards corresponding stratigraphic positions confirming that a small town of substantial size existed at that topographic point betwixt the 9th in addition to 12th centuries (Willet, 1967). He also confirmed that the terra cotta sculpture in addition to lost wax (cire-perdue) castings were made at that topographic point from early on inwards the nowadays millennium. Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' in addition to 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline.
Freedom’ ceremony. Taken at Ile-Ife inwards nowadays twenty-four hours Osun State. 1968. Freedom ceremonies marked women’s graduation into professions such as nursing in addition to tailoring
Among the foremost of the Ife works to attain the West were those brought to Europe past times the British colonial governor Gilbert Thomas Carter. According to Samuel Johnson (p. 647) "three of those national in addition to ancestral works of fine art known as the 'Ife marbles' "were given to Carter inwards 1896 by
Adelekan, the so latterly crowned Rex of Ife. Johnson explains that the Rex gave them to Governor Carter inwards an travail to gain a positive conclusion concerning the resettlement of Modakeke residents exterior the city.
Past Ooni of Ife
1ST ODUDUWA
2ND OSANGANGAN OBAMAKIN
3RD OGUN
4TH OBALUFON OGBOGBODIRIN
5TH OBALUFON ALAYEMORE
6TH ORANMIYAN
7TH AYETISE
8TH LAJAMISAN
9TH LAJODOOGUN
10TH LAFOGIDO
11TH ODIDIMODE ROGBEESIN
12TH AWOROKOLOKIN
13TH EKUN
14TH AJIMUDA
15TH GBOONIJIO
16TH OKANLAJOSIN
17TH ADEGBALU
18TH OSINKOLA
19TH OGBORUU
20TH GIESI
21ST LUWOO (FEMALE)
22ND LUMOBI
23RD AGBEDEGBEDE
24TH OJELOKUNBIRIN
25TH LAGUNJA
26TH LARUNNKA
27TH ADEMILU
28TH OMOGBOGBO
29TH AJILA-OORUN
30TH ADEJINLE
31ST OLOJO
32ND OKITI
33RD LUGBADE
34TH ARIBIWOSO
35TH OSINLADE
36TH ADAGBA
37TH OJIGIDIRI
38TH AKINMOYERO
1770-1800
39TH GBANLARE
1800-1823
40TH GBEGBAAJE
1823-1835
41ST WUNMONIJE
1835-1839
42ND ADEGUNLE ADEWELA
1839-1849
43RD DEGBINSOKUN
1849-1878
44TH ORARIGBA
1878-1880
45TH DERIN OLOGBENLA- He was a powerful warrior!
1880-1894
46TH ADELEKAN (OLUBUSE I)- He was the foremost Ooni to go exterior Ile-Ife to
Lagos inwards 1903 when he was invited past times the so Governor General to settle the
dispute involving Elepe of Epe. All Yoruba Kings including the Alaafin left
their respective thrones as a grade of observe for the Ooni. They returned to
their respective stools after Ooni returned to Ile-Ife from Lagos. Oba Adelekan
Olubuse was nicknamed 'ERIOGUN'; Akitikori; Ebitikimopiri.
1894-1910
47TH ADEKOLA
1910-1910
48TH ADEMILUYI (AJAGUN) - He also was reputed to live a powerful Monarch.
1910-1930
49TH ADESOJI ADEREMI- Very intelligent with skilful foresight, he was invited to be
government minister without portfolio when he ruled from 1951 to 1955. He was the first
indigenous governor of Western Nigeria. One of his most laudable achievements
was the establishment of the GREAT University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo
University) at Ile-Ife.
1930-1980
His Royal Highness, Aleyeluwa, Oba Okunade Sijuade, Olubuse II, The Oni of Ife, Ile Ife, Osun State, arriving at the National Museum, Onikan Lagos for the opening ceremony inwards his car, on Friday, May 18, 2012..
Religion
Like most towns, the people are organized religious belief conscious. The iii main religions inwards the metropolis are Christianity, Islam in addition to traditional. Traditional organized religious belief appears flourishing than the other 2 as most people who belong to either of the onetime 2 also have got soft spot for the age-long religion. So beingness a Christian or a Moslem does non forestall you lot from the traditional religion, which the elders take away hold inwards high esteem. It is non uncommon to live a leader inwards a denomination in addition to silent take away hold chieftaincy championship that has to do with shrine.
Here, Olojo is the biggest festival on the Ife cultural calendar. This festival is held annually to commemorate Oduduwa’s descent from heaven. It is during the Olojo festival that Ooni wears Aare crown. Aare is a mysterious crown worn only 1 time inwards a twelvemonth in addition to it is believed to possess the powerfulness that straightaway transfigure Ooni to the rank of Orisa (god). With 201 traditional religious festivals, it is only 1 twenty-four hours that is costless that the people do non offering sacrifice at the various shrines that dot the town. This particular twenty-four hours remains a hugger-mugger the principal in addition to priests of the kingdom maintain so dear to the heart.
Ifa is some other sect that attracts skilful number of the people. Unlike what obtains inwards most other towns where Ifa worship is individualized in addition to confined to illiterate priests or Babalawo inwards ramshackled buildings, it has been modernised such that 1 may fault its worship centre for a church. Incidentally, their worship session is on Lord's Day similar their Christian counterparts. When Lord's Day Sun visited the imposing Ifa Auditorium on top of a hill, close Ife Town Hall, children were seen playing unmolested. The children admitted that they also worship inwards the Ifa hall along with the elders. The main auditorium is the Headquarters of Ifa Worship Worldwide, which was beingness prepared to host a coming together of all worshippers circular the globe in conclusion month. Araba is the principal priest.
Some of the main gods they worship include Obatala, Ogun, Olokun, Orunmila, Olojo, Sango, Ifa, Osun, Ela, Oya, Yemoja, Oranmiyan. These are what they telephone telephone ‘sky gods’ that command virtually everything on earth. Many take away hold that Ife is a fetish town ruled past times powers of darkness, but the chiefs in addition to leaders of the town think otherwise. Such views to them tin only live from 1 who is mentally unstable.
One of the oldest Stone buildings inwards Ile-Ife is the beautifully preserved Seventh Day Adventist church building built over a 100 years ago.
Dressing
The people love dressing good inwards either their native attire or westernized way. Though English linguistic communication garb has eroded the traditional pattern of dressing similar inwards other Nigerian cities, native wears are silent prevalent amongst the middle historic menstruum in addition to the elderly. When an Ife human puts on Buba, he dons cap to consummate the dressing. The women are fifty-fifty to a greater extent than compliant inwards matters of tradition. Though Chief Ijaodola claimed that Aso Ofi is the main custume of his people, Ankara cloth is the commonest textile of the people today. The Ooni himself is an representative inwards excellent sartorial taste. Each fourth dimension he comes out, he is pleasant to behold inwards his expensive apparel.
One thing really noticeable inwards the dressing of Ife people is that a high feel of dependent land in addition to morality is silent displayed. It is almost impossible to take in a lady-young or old inwards revealing clothes or inwards 1 that shows the upper or lower cleavage. Not fifty-fifty with Ife beingness a academy town volition 1 take in beckoning types of dressing on its streets.
Sola Omisore has an explanation for the decent dressing. “Discipline is instilled through menage unit of measurement lineage. We know ourselves. So if a lady dresses indecently, people volition say: Is this non the kid of so so? Don’t think because Ife is a metropolis that nosotros don’t know ourselves.”
Art inwards Ancient Ife, Birthplace of the Yoruba
Suzanne Preston Blier
Artists the world over shape noesis in addition to stuff into works of unique historical importance. The artists of ancient Ife, ancestral domicile to the Yoruba in addition to mythic birthplace of gods in addition to humans, clearly were interested inwards creating works that could live read. Breaking the symbolic code that lies behind the unique meanings of Ife’s ancient sculptures, however, has vexed scholars working on this stuff for over a century. While much remains to live learned, cheers to a improve agreement of the larger corpus of ancient Ife arts in addition to the history of this of import southwestern Nigerian center, key aspects of this code tin at nowadays live discerned. In this article I explore how these arts both inform in addition to are enriched past times early on Ife history in addition to the leaders who shaped it.1 In add-on to
core questions of fine art iconography in addition to symbolism, I also address the strong social, political, religious, in addition to historical import of these works in addition to what they let out nearly Ife (Ile-Ife) as an early
cosmopolitan center.
My analysis moves away from the recent framing of ancient Ife fine art from the advantage of Yoruba cultural practices collected inwards Nigeria to a greater extent than broadly, and/or the indiscriminate usage of regional in addition to modern Yoruba proverbs, poems, or linguistic communication idioms to inform this city’s unique 700-year-old sculptural oeuvre. Instead I focus on historical in addition to other considerations inwards metropolitan Ife itself. This shift is an of import 1 because Ife’s history, language, in addition to fine art forms are notably different than those inwards the wider Yoruba part in addition to later eras. My approach also differs from recent studies that either ahistorically superimpose contemporary cultural conventions on the reading of ancient works or unilinearly posit fine art evolution models concerning shape or stuff differences that lack grounding inwards Ife archaeological evidence. My aim instead is to reengage these remarkable ancient works amongst various evidence on this center’s past times in addition to the fourth dimension frame specific to when these sculptures were made. In this way I convey fine art in addition to history into direct engagement with each other, enriching both within this process.
One of the most of import events inwards ancient Ife history with observe to both the early on arts in addition to later era religious in addition to political traditions hither was a devastating civil state of war pitting 1 group, the supporters of Obatala (referencing today at 1 time a god, a deity pantheon, in addition to the region’s autochthonous populations) against affiliates of Odudua (an opposing deity, religious pantheon, in addition to newly arriving dynastic group). The Ikedu oral history text addressing Ife’s history (an annotated kings listing transposed from the early on Ife dialect; Akinjogbin n.d.) indicates that it was during the reign of Ife’s 46th king—what appears to live 2 rulers prior to the famous King Obalufon II (Ekenwa? Fig. 1)—that this vehement civil state of war broke out. This conflict weakened the metropolis plenty so that at that topographic point was fiddling resistance when a military machine forcefulness nether the conqueror Oranmiyan (Fig. 2) arrived inwards this historic city. The dispute likely was framed inwards component division around issues of command of Ife’s rich manufacturing resources (glass beads, amongst these). Conceivably it was 1 of Ife’s feuding polities that invited this outsider forcefulness to come upwardly to Ife to assist rectify the province of affairs for their side.
As Akinjogbin explains (1992:98), Oranmiyan in addition to his calvary, after gaining command of Ife “… stemmed the … uprising past times siding with the weaker … of the disunited pre-Oduduwa groups .…
[driving Obalufon II] into exile at Ilara in addition to became the Ooni.” Eventually, the deposed King Obalufon II with the assist of a large segment of Ife’s population was able to defeat this military
leader in addition to the latter’s supporters. In Ife today, Odudua is identified inwards ways that complement Oranmiyan. As Akintitan explains (p.c.): “It was Odudua who was the in conclusion to come upwardly to Ife, a man
who arrived as a warrior, in addition to took payoff of the province of affairs to impose himself on Ife people.” King Obalufon II, who came to dominion twice at Ife, is positioned inwards local Rex lists both at the end
of the foremost (Obatala) dynasty in addition to at the starting fourth dimension of the instant (Odudua) dynasty. He is also credited with bringing peace (a negotiated truce) to the 1 time feuding parties.
Political History in addition to Art at Ancient Ife
What or whom do these early on arts depict? Many of the ancient Ife sculptures are identified today with individuals who lived inwards the era inwards which Ife King Obalufon II was on the throne and/
or participated inwards the civil state of war associated with his reign. This in addition to other evidence suggests that Obalufon II was a key sponsor or patron of these ancient arts, an thought consistent with this
king’s modern identity as patron deity of bronze casting, textiles, regalia, peace, in addition to wellbeing. It also is possible that a bulk of the ancient Ife arts were created inwards conjunction with the famous
truce that Obalufon II is said to have got brokered 1 time he returned to powerfulness betwixt the embattled Ife citizens as he brought peace to this long embattled metropolis (Adediran 1992:91; Akintitan p.c.).
As component division of his programme to reunite the feuding parties, Obalufon II also is credited with the creation of a novel metropolis programme with a large, high-walled palace at its center. Around the perimeters, the compounds of key chiefs from the 1 time feuding lineages were positioned. King Obalufon II seems at the same fourth dimension to have got pressed for the erection of novel temples inwards the metropolis in addition to the refurbishment of older ones, these serving inwards component division to laurels the leading chiefs on both sides of the dispute. Ife’s ancient fine art works likely functioned as related temple furnishings.
One peculiarly art-rich shrine complex that may have got come upwardly into novel prominence as component division of Obalufon II’s truce is that honoring the ancient hunter Ore, a deity whose yell also features
inwards 1 of Obalufon’s praise names. Ore is identified both as an of import autochthonous Ife resident in addition to as an opponent to “Odudua.” Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of remarkable granite figures inwards the Ore
Grove were the focus of ceremonies into the mid-twentieth century. One of these works called Olofefura (Fig. 4) is believed to correspond the deified Ore (Dennett 1910:21; Talbot 1926 2:339;
Allison 1968:13). Features of the sculpture suggest a dwarf or sufferer of a congenital disorder inwards keeping with the identity of many foremost (Obatala) dynasty shrine figures with body anomalies or disease. Regalia details also offering clues. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 three-strand choker encircles Olofefura’s neck; iii bracelet coils embellish the wrist; iii tassels hang from the left hip knot. These features link this work—and Ore—to the earth, autochthony, in addition to to the Ogboni association, a grouping promoted past times Obalufon II inwards component division to save the rights of autochthonous residents.
The left hip knot shown on the wrapper of this work, as good as that of the taller, to a greater extent than elegant Ore Grove priest or retainer figure (Fig. 5), also recalls 1 of Ife’s little-known root myths within the Obatala priestly menage unit of measurement (Akintitan p.c.). According to this myth, Obatala hid the ase (vital force) necessary for Earth’s solidity within this knot, requiring his younger blood brother Odudua, after his theft of materials from Obatala, to hold off for the latter’s assist inwards completing the task. Consistent with this, Ogboni members are said to necktie their cloth wrappers on the left hip inwards retentivity of Obatala’s usage of this knot to safeguard the requisite ase (Owakinyin p.c.). Iron inserts inwards the coiffure of the taller Ore figure complement those secured inwards the surface of the Oranmiyan staff (Fig. 2), indicating that this sculpture—like many ancient Ife works of stone—were made inwards the same era, e.g. the early
fourteenth century.
An additional noteworthy characteristic of these figures, in addition to others, is the importance of body proportion ratios. Among the Yoruba today, the body is seen to comprise iii principal parts: head, trunk, in addition to legs (Ajibade n.d.:3). Many Ife sculptural examples (see Fig. 4; compare also Figs. 15–16) emphasize a larger-thanlife size scale of the caput (orí) inwards human relationship to the relaxation of the body (a roughly 1:4 ratio). Yoruba scholars have got seen this headprivileging ratio as reinforcing the importance of this body component division as a symbol of ego in addition to destiny (orí), personality (wú), essential
nature (ìwà), in addition to potency (àse) (Abimbola 1975:390ff, Abiodun 1994, Abiodun et. al 1991:12ff).6 Or as Ogunremi suggests (1998:113), such features highlight: “The wealth or poverty of the land … [as] equated with the ‘head’ (orí) of the ruler of a particular locality.”
Both hither in addition to inwards ancient Ife fine art to a greater extent than generally, however, at that topographic point is striking variability inwards related body proportions. Such ratios attain from roughly 1:4 for the Ore grove deity figure (Fig. 4), the consummate copper alloy Rex figure (Fig. 15), the couplet from Ita Yemoo (Fig. 8), in addition to many of the terra cotta sculptures, to roughly 1:6 for the taller rock Ore grove figures (Fig. 5) in addition to the copper seated figure from Tada (Fig. 11). Why these proportional differences be inwards Ife fine art is non clear, but issues of shape and/or status appear to live key. Whereas sculptures of Ife royals in addition to gods often demo 1:4 ratios, most nonroyals demo proportions much closer to life. In ancient Ife art, the higher the status, the greater likelihood that body proportions volition differ from nature inwards ways that greatly heighten the size of the head. This non only highlights the caput as a prominent status in addition to potency marker, but also points to the primacy of social difference inwards visual rendering.
While many Ife (and Yoruba) scholars have got focused on how the caput is privileged inwards human relationship to the body, what also is important, in addition to to appointment overlooked, is that the belly is as important. The full, plump torsos (chest in addition to stomachs) of Ife figures depicting rulers in addition to deities complement modern Yoruba beliefs nearly wellness in addition to good beingness on the 1 hand, in addition to wealth in addition to powerfulness on the other. Related ideas are suggested past times the modern Yoruba term odù (“full”) which, when applied to an individual, agency both “he has approbation inwards abundance” in addition to “fortune shines on him”(Idowu 1962:33). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 total belly is vital to royals in addition to deities non only as a reference to qualities of wellbeing but also as markers of province in addition to religious fullness. In his extended tidings of the concept of odù, the indigenous Ife religious scholar Idowu notes (1962:33) that the same term also indicates a “very
large in addition to deep pot (container)” in addition to past times extension anything that is of “sizable worth” and/or “superior quality.” This tidings features centrally inwards the bespeak the high god, Ol-odù-marè. According to Idowu (1962:34) the latter usage of the term signifies “He is One who is superlative,” odù hither invoking his really extraordinariness. Because large ceramic vessels called odù were employed inwards ancient Ife contexts as containers for highly valued goods such as beads in addition to fine art (including the Ita Yemoo Rex figure, Fig. 16), this idiom offers an interesting modern complement in addition to descriptor for early on Ife sculptural portrayals of gods in addition to kings as containers belongings many benefits. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 complementary characteristic of many ancient Ife works is that of composure or inner calm (àìkominún, “tranquility of the mind” inwards modern Yoruba; Abraham 1958:388). This notable lineament finds potential aspect through the consummate serenity shown inwards their faces of early on Ife fine art (Figs. 1, 15, 16), a lineament that increases the feel of monumentality in addition to powerfulness inwards these remarkable works.
The ancient Ife arts from Ife’s Ore shrine, which appear to have got been carved as a unmarried sculptural group, include a rock vessel with crocodiles on its sides (Fig. 6). On its lid a frog (or toad) is shown inwards the jaws of a snake. The latter motif references the contestation betwixt Obatala in addition to Odudua for the center’s command (Akintitan p.c.; Adelekan p.c.). According Akintitan (p.c.), this pattern addresses the less-than-straight way inwards which Odudua asserted command over Ife, since poisonous snakes are thought non to eat frogs (and toads). The crocodile, similar several other brute figurations from this grove, laurels Ore’s hunting in addition to angling prowess. Carved crocodiles, giant eggs, a mudfish (African lung fish), in addition to an elephant tusk reference the watery realm that dominated primordial Ife. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 granite slab from this same site shows evenly placed holes (Fig. 7). This piece of job served perhaps as a existent or metaphoric measure device for Ife’s changing H2O levels, inwards keeping both with frequent flooding hither (referenced inwards local accounts nearly Obalufon II’s wife
Queen Moremi) as good as Ife root myths inwards which the world is said to have got been formed only after Odudua sprinkled dirt upon the water’s surface (Idowu 1962, Blier 2004). One especially striking art-rich Ife site that also seems to have got been identified with Obalufon II in addition to his famous political truce is Ita Yemoo, the term yemoo serving as the championship for foremost dynasty Ife queens. This temple complex lies close the site where the annual Edi festival terminates. The Edi ritual is dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Moremi, who also at 1 fourth dimension was married to Obalufon II’s adversary, the conqueror Oranmiyan. One of the most striking works from Ita Yemoo is a copper alloy casting of a Rex in addition to queen (Fig. 8) with interlocked arms in addition to legs. The manlike individual royal wears a simian skull on his hip, a symbol of Obatala (monkeys evoking the region’s early on occupants) in addition to this deity’s identity with Ife’s autochthonous residents in addition to foremost dynasty line. The woman individual points toward the ground, gesturing toward Odudua as both instant dynasty founder in addition to later Yoruba ground god. This royal couplet appears to reference inwards this way non only the painful Ife dynastic struggle betwixt competing Ife families in addition to chiefs, but also the political in addition to religious union promoted past times Obalufon II betwixt the these groups as component division of his truce. Interestingly, a steatite caput recovered past times Frobenius at Offa (Moremi’s hometown N of Ife) wears a similar queen’s crown. Offa is next to Esie where a grouping of similar steatite figures were found.
These Esie works conceivably also were identified with Moremi, the local heroine who became Ife’s queen.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 instant copper alloy figure of a queen from the Ita Yemoo site is a tiny sculpture showing a recumbent crowned woman individual circumscribing a vessel laid atop a throne. She holds a scepter inwards 1 hand; the other grasps the throne’s curving grip (Fig.9). Her topographic point depicts a miniature of the quartz in addition to granite stools identified inwards the modern era primarily with Ife’s autochthonous (Obatala-linked) priests. The scepter that she holds is similar to some other piece of job from Ita Yemoo depicting a human with unusual (for Ife) diagonal cheek grade (Willett 2004:M26a), a pattern similar to markings worn past times northern Yoruba residents from Offa amongst other areas. The recumbent queen’s unusual composition appears to reference the transfer of powerfulness at Ife from the foremost dynasty rulership grouping to the novel (second) dynasty line of kings, hither symbolized through a queen, what appears to be
Queen Moremi, the married adult woman of Obalufon II.
Another striking Ita Yemoo sculpture, a Janus staff mountain shares similar symbolism. The piece of job depicts 2 gagged human heads positioned back-to-back, 1 with vertical line facial marks, the other plain-faced, suggesting the union of 2 dynasties. This scepter likely was used as a society and
evokes both the penalty that befell supporters of either dynastic grouping committing serious crimes in addition to the unity of the 2 factions inwards province rituals involving human offerings, amongst these coronations. This scepter mount’s weight in addition to heightened arsenic content reinforces this identity. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 larger Janus scepter mountain from this same site depicts on 1 side a youthful caput in addition to on the other a really elderly man, consistent with 2 different dynasty portrayals, in addition to the complementary royal unification/division themes.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 large Ife copper figure of a seated manlike individual was recovered at Tada (Fig. 11), an of import Niger River crossing dot situated some 200 km northeast of Ife. This sculpture is linked inwards important
ways non only to King Obalufon II, but also to Ife trade, regional economical vitality, in addition to the key role of this ruler inwards promoting Ogboni (called Imole inwards Ife), the association dedicated to both autochthonous rights in addition to trade. The piece of job is stylistically really similar to the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1). Both are made of pure copper in addition to were in all probability cast past times members of the same workshop. Although the forearms in addition to hands of the seated figure are at nowadays missing, plenty remains to suggest that they may have got been positioned inwards front end of the body inwards a way resembling the well-known Ogboni association gestural motif of left mitt fisted to a higher topographic point correct (Fig. 12). This same gesture is referenced inwards the smaller standing figure (also cast of pure copper) from this same Tada shrine (Fig. 13). Obalufon descendant Olojudo reaffirmed (p.c.) the gestural identity of the standing Tada figure. As I have got argued elsewhere (1985) Yoruba works of copper are associated primarily with Ogboni in addition to Obalufon, consistent with the latter ruler’s association with bronze casting in addition to economical wellbeing.
Another notable Ogboni reference inwards these 2 copper works from Tada is the diamond-patterned wrapper (Morton Williams 1960:369, Aronson 1992) tied at the left hip with a knot. How the ancient Ife seated sculpture (and other works) found their way to this Tada shrine has been a dependent of consider able scholarly debate. I concur with Thurstan Shaw inwards his sentiment (1973:237) that these sculptures most likely were brought to this critical river-crossing dot because of the site’s identity with Niger River trade. As Shaw notes (1973:237) these works seem to live linked to Yoruba commercial engagement along the Niger River “… marking perhaps of import toll or command points of that trade.” Specifically, the seated Tada figure offers of import evidence of Ife’s early on command of this critical Niger River crossing point. Copper alloy castings of an elephant in addition to 2 ostriches (animals identified with valuable regional merchandise goods) which were found on this same Tada site likely reference the importance of ivory in addition to exotic feathers inwards the era’s long distance trade. The goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) who spans both the foremost in addition to instant dynasty religious pantheons, is closely identified with promoting related commerce.
Contesting Dynasties: Politics of the Body
Two copper alloy castings depicting royals (Figs. 15–16) offering of import insight into early on Ife society, politics, in addition to history. One is the half-figure of a manlike individual from Ife’s Wunmonije site,
where a corpus of life-size copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed. The other sculpture is the notably similar full-length standing figure from the Ife site of Ita Yemoo, the locale where
the royal couplet (Fig. 8), tiny enthroned queen sculpture (Fig. 9), in addition to metallic scepter (Fig. 10) were created. Based on style in addition to similarities inwards form, the 2 works clearly were fashioned around the
same time, conceivably during Obalufon II’s reign. Their crowns are different from the tall, conical, veiled are crowns worn past times Ife monarchs today. The latter crown a shape also seen on the tiny Ife
figure of a Rex found inwards Republic of Benin (Fig. 17).
Based on both their cap-form caput coverings in addition to the horn each holds inwards the left hand, the figures have got been identified as portraying rulers inwards battle (Odewale p.c.). Not only are the rulers’ caps reminiscent of the smaller crowns (arinla) worn past times Yoruba rulers inwards battle, suggests Odewale (p.c.), but historically, antelope horns similar to those carried inwards their left hands were used inwards battle. These horns were filled with powerful ase (authority/force/command), substances that could plough the course of didactics of state of war inwards one’s favor. When so filled, the horns assured that the king’s words would come upwardly to pass, a key attribute of Yoruba statecraft. The 2 appear to live competitors (e.g. competing lineages) vying for theIfe throne, references to the ruling heads of Ife’s foremost (Obatala) and
instant (Odudua) dynasties shown hither inwards ritual battle.
While these 2 royal sculptures are really similar inwards style in addition to iconography, at that topographic point are notable differences, including the handling of the rulers’ faces—one showing vertical line marks, the
other lacking facial lines. There are also notable distinctions inwards headdress details, specifically the diadem shapes in addition to cap tiers. The diadem of the Wunmojie Rex with striated facial marks (Fig. 15) displays a rosette pattern surmounted past times a pointed plume, this motif resting atop a concentric circle. The headdress diadem on the plain-faced (unstriated) Ita Yemoo Rex figure instead consists of a elementary concentric circle surmounted past times a pointed plume. The rosette diadem of the Rex with facial striations seems to send somewhat higher rank, for his diadem is laid to a higher topographic point the disk-form, as if to grade superior position. Moreover, the cap of the Rex with vertical facial markings integrates four
tiers of beads piece the plain-faced king’s cap shows only three.
These differences both inwards crown diadem shapes in addition to bead rows suggest that, amongst other things, the Rex bearing the vertical line facial marks in addition to rosette-form diadem (the Wunmonije site ruler) carries a rank that is both different from in addition to inwards some ways higher than that of the plain-faced royal.
There also are striking distinctions inwards facial marking in addition to regalia details of these 2 Rex figures, differences that offering additional insight into the pregnant in addition to identity of these in addition to other works from this center. Similar rosette in addition to concentric circle diadem distinctions tin live seen inwards many ancient Ife works. The Aroye vessel (Fig. 18), which displays rosette motifs in addition to a monstrous human caput referencing ancient Ife ground spirits (erunmole, imole; Odewale p.c.), may have got functioned as a divination vessel linked to Obatala, a shape today inwards Ife that employs a water-filled pot. The copper alloy caput of foremost dynasty Ife goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also incorporates a rosette with sixteen
petals. Ife chiefs in addition to priests today sometimes have on beaded pendants (peke) that comprise similar eight-petal bloom forms or rosettes. These individuals include a attain of primarily Obatala (first dynasty) affiliates: Obalale (the priest of Obatala), Obalase (the Oluorogbo priest), Obalara (the Obalufon priest), in addition to Chief Woye Asire (the priest of Ife springs in addition to markets. Rosette-form
diadems such as these also tin live seen on ancient Ife terra cotta animals identified with Obatala, amongst these the elephant (Fig. 20) in addition to duiker antelope heads from the Lafogido site. These
rosettes suggest the importance of plants (flowers), in addition to the primacy of ancient ground ownership in addition to gods to the Obatala group.
Concentric circle-form diadems, inwards contrast, seem to reference political agency as linked inwards component division to the novel Odudua dynasty (Akintitan p.c., Adelekan p.c.). In component division for this reason, a concentric circle is incorporated into the Fe gate at the front end of the modern Ife palace. Agbaje-Williams notes (1991:11) that the burial spots of of import chiefs sometimes are marked with rock circles as well. Concentric circle shape diadems are displayed on the terra cotta sculptures of ram in addition to hippopotamus
heads from Ife’s Lafogido site. Both animals seem to live connected to the Odudua line in addition to the associated sky deity pantheon of Sango amongst others (Idowu 1962:94, 142; Matory 1994:96).
If, as Ekpo Eyo suggests (1977:114; take in also Eyo 1974) the grouping of Lafogido site brute sculptures were conceived as royal emblems, their distinctive crown diadems suggest that these
works, similar the 2 Rex figures, were intended to correspond 2 different dynasties and/or the gods associated with them. The Rex figure with vertical facial markings in addition to a rosette-form diadem
instantiates the foremost dynasty or Obatala rulership line. The plain-faced ruler with concentric circle diadem evokes the instant or Odudua royal line.
Number symbolism inwards diadem in addition to other forms is of import inwards these in addition to other ancient Ife fine art works serving to grade grade in addition to status. According to Ife Obatala Chief Adelekan (p.c), eightpetal rosettes are associated with higher Obatala grades. That the Wunmonije Rex figure wears an eight-petal rosette (Fig. 15) piece the Aroye vessel (Fig. 18) in addition to Olokun caput (Fig. 14) comprise sixteen-petal forms is based on powerfulness difference. Eight is the highest number accorded humans, suggests Chief Adelekan, whereas xvi is used for gods.
Facial Marking Distinctions: Ife as a Cosmopolitan Center
One of the most striking differences inwards the 2 royal figures in addition to other Ife arts tin live seen inwards the variant facial markings. Scholars have got set frontward several explanations for these facial pattern disparities inwards Ife in addition to early on regional arts. Among the earliest were William Fagg in addition to Frank Willett (1960:31), who identified vertical line facial marks with royal crown veils in addition to the “shadows” cast onto the human face past times associated strings of beads. This is highly unlikely, however, since many ancient works depicting women in addition to non-royals without crowns display the same vertical facial patterns. Moreover, of the 2 copper-alloy Rex figures (Figs. 15–16), only 1 shows vertical marks, in addition to they both have on a sort of cap (oro) that does non include a beaded veil. Modern woodcarvings of Ife royals wearing traditional veiled crowns also do non demo vertical line facial marks. Due to related inconsistencies, Willett would later retract his original shade-line theory in addition to Fagg would non 1 time again hash out this inwards his later scholarship. As suggested above, the presence in addition to lack of vertical facial marks on the 2 Ife Rex figures farther reinforces the identity of these rulers as leaders of the 2 competing dynasties.
An array of early on in addition to later artistic evidence supports this. Among these is a Lower Niger style vessel (Fig. 21) collected close Republic of Benin that displays a human human face with vertical markings beneath the caput of an elephant, an brute that inwards Ife is closely identified with Obatala in addition to the foremost dynasty. This elephant caput has its complement inwards the Lafogido site terra cotta elephant caput with a rosette-form diadem (Fig. 20), a site where a terra cotta caput with vertical facial marks also was buried (Eyo 1974). Nineteenth in addition to early on twentieth century royal masks of the Igala (a Yorubalinked group) associated with the ancient Akpoto dynasty (who are ancestors of the electrical current Igala rulers), display similar sparse vertical line facial markings referencing the early on royals of this grouping (Sargent 1988:32; Boston 1968:172) (Fig. 22). The ancient Ife terra cotta caput that represents Obalufon I (Osangangan Obamakin, the manlike individual parent of Obalufon II) displays vertical marks (Fig. 23) consistent with the king’s first-dynasty associations. Vertical line facial marks such as these appear to reference Ife royals (as good as other elites) in addition to ideas of autochthony to a greater extent than generally. The fact that some 50 percentage of the ancient Ife terra cotta heads in addition to figures demo vertical line facial markings suggests
how of import this grouping silent was inwards the early on instant dynasty era when these works were commissioned. The instant largest grouping of Ife terra cotta works—around 35 percent—show no
facial markings at all, inwards keeping with modern Ife traditions forbidding facial marking for members of Ife resident families.
Ife oral tradition maintains that facial marking practices were at 1 dot outlawed. Accordingly, slow nineteenth to early on twentieth century fine art in addition to cultural practices display a strong aversion to facial marks of whatever type. Most likely it was Ife King Obalufon II who helped promote this alter after his homecoming to powerfulness as component division of his programme for a to a greater extent than lasting truce. This change, in addition to the demand sometimes to covert one’s historical menage unit of measurement in addition to dynastic identity for reasons of political expediency, is also suggested past times 2 masks, 1 of terra cotta in addition to 1 of copper, both identified with Obaufon II. One of these (Fig. 1) is plain-faced in addition to the other (Fig. 24) has prominent vertical markings. Consistent with Obalufon II’s role inwards bringing to Ife, in addition to serving as a key early on fine art patron, his association with masking forms that shield (cover) the identities of the once-competing Ife groups is
noteworthy. Like a bulk of ancient Ife sculptures with in addition to without facial marks, these works appear to appointment to the same period, underscoring the fact that different groups were living together at Ife at this time.
Like the Wunmonije Rex figure (Fig. 15), the bronze caput associated with the goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also has vertical facial marks in addition to a rosette-decorated crown. Olokun, the ancient Ife finance government minister in addition to later commerce, bead, in addition to sea god, is said to appointment to Ife’s foremost dynasty. The copper alloy caput at nowadays inwards the British Museum, with both vertical facial marks in addition to a concentric circle diadem, appears to reference a principal inwards 1 of Ife’s autochthonous lineages (e.g. a number of foremost dynasty elite) who lived inwards Ife inwards the early on instant dynasty era before the ban on facial marking took effect.
Several Ife heads demo thick vertical facial lines. These marks seem to depict individuals participating inwards rituals inwards which blister beetles or leaves (from the bùjé plant) were employed to grade the human face with short-term patterns on the peel (Willett 1967:Fig. 23). These temporary “marks” may have got served as references to foremost dynasty elites or their descendants during sure enough Ife rituals
(Owomoyela n.d. n.p.; Willett 1967:Figs. 13–14, pl. 23; take in also tidings inwards Fagg in addition to Willett 1960:31, Drewal 1989:238–39 n. 65). Interestingly, sculptures depicting these thick lines characteristically demo flared nostrils in addition to furled brows, suggesting the hurting that accompanied facial blistering practices such as these. Several Florescence Era Ife terra cotta heads (roughly 5 percentage of the whole) display iii elliptical “cat whisker” facial marks at the corners of the oral fissure (Fig. 25) similar to those associated with to a greater extent than recent northeastern Yagba Yoruba, a grouping who later came nether Nupe rule.17 In 1 such sculpture, the marks extend into the cheeks inwards a way consistent with later Yoruba abaja facial markings, indicating an historic connexion betwixt the two. According to Andrew Apter (p.c.), a grouping of Yagba Yoruba occupy an Ife ward where the Iyagba dialect is silent sometimes spoken. Most historic Yagba communities are found inwards the Ekiti Yoruba part where early on Fe working sites have got been found (Obayemi 1992:73, 74).19 It is possible that Ife’s Yagba population was involved inwards complementary iron-working in addition to smelting activities at this center. This tradition also offers interesting insight into Republic of Benin figures belongings blacksmith tools with iii similar facial marks, works said to depict messengers from Ife.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 rather unusual Janus figure from ancient Ife shows a human with diagonal facial markings similar to those of historic in addition to modern Igbo Nri titleholders, suggesting the role a similar grouping may have got played inwards early on Ife as well. Today it is Chief Obawinrin, caput of Ife’s Iwinrin lineage, who represents Ife’s historic Igbo population during the annual Ife Edi festival. Associated rites are inwards component division dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Queen Moremi, who is credited with stopping local Igbo (Ugbo) groups attacking Ife inwards the era inwards which she lived. Today Igbo residents also live inwards nearby regions due south of Ife, amongst these communities such as Ijale (Abimbola p.c., Lawal p.c., Awolalu 1979:26).21 These Ife expanse Igbo populations appear to live distant relatives of autochthonous Igbo families, many of whom were forced out of the metropolis past times members of the novel Odudua dynasty. Sculptures from Ife’s Iwinrin Grove, an Ife site closely linked to Ife’s “Igbo” population,
characteristically demo vertical line facial markings consistent with works linked to foremost dynasty Ife history in addition to autochthony. Another 5 percentage of Ife sculptures portray Edo (Benin) style facial marks (forehead keloids) or patterns today characteristic of northeastern Yoruba/Nupe communities (a diagonal cheek line and/or vertical forehead line). The remaining 5 percentage of the extant Ife terra cotta works demo unusual “mixed” facial patterns (generally “cat whisker” motifs along with other forms). These marks may reference intermarriages (social or political) at Ife inwards the early on years of the novel dynasty. The notable variety of these facial patterns inwards ancient Ife fine art makes clear the center’s importance as a cosmopolitan metropolis sought out past times people arriving from various regional centers. Features of Ife cosmopolitanism revealed inwards component division through these variant facial markings are consistent with Ife’s identity as a middle of manufacturing in addition to trade. Similar issues are raised inwards Ife root myths that topographic point this metropolis as the domicile (birthplace) of humans of multiple races in addition to ethnicities.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Corpus of Remarkable Copper Heads Personifying Local Ife Chiefs
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 striking grouping of life-size copper in addition to copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed inwards the 1930s at the Wunmonije site behind the Ife palace along with the above-discussed Rex figure
(Fig. 15).23 In add-on to the original corpus of xv life-size heads from this site, a clearly related 4.25 inch high fragment of a copper alloy caput consisting of a portion of a human face showing a
olfactory organ in addition to component division of a oral fissure also was collected at an estate inwards Ado-Ekiti in addition to has been described as “identical with those from Wunmonije” (Werner in addition to Willett 1975: facing p. 142).
These xvi life-size heads appear to have got been created as component division of the truce that Obalufon II established betwixt the embattled Ife residents. One of the heads (Fig. 27) indeed is so similar to the Obalufon mask as to depict the same individual. Frank Willett, who published photographs of many of the life-size metallic heads inwards his monograph on Ife, suggests (1967:26–28) that these works
had of import royal mortuary functions inwards which each was displayed with a crown in addition to robes of office, inwards the course of didactics of ceremonies next each ruler’s death. Willett proposes farther that
the heads were commissioned as memorial sculptures (ako) consistent with a later era Ife in addition to Yoruba tradition of carved wooden ako effigy figures used inwards commemorating deceased hunters. This theory, which identifies the corpus of life-size cast heads as effigies of successive rulers of the Ife metropolis state, however, is premised on an thought (now largely discredited; take in also Lawal 2005:503ff.) that the works were made past times artists over a several-hundred-year menstruum (the reigns of xvi monarchs). This theory is problematic non only because the styles in addition to stuff features of the heads are consistent, but also because the heads were found together (divided into 2 groups) in addition to part a remarkably similar status apart from blows that some of them received during their discovery. The shared status indicates that they were interred for a similar length of fourth dimension in addition to nether similar circumstances.
The formal similarities inwards these heads have got led most scholars, myself included (Blier 1985), to debate that the works were created inwards a brusk menstruum of fourth dimension in addition to past times fewer than a handful of artists. With observe to style, as Thurstan Shaw notes (1978:134), “…they are of a slice in addition to hold off similar the piece of job of 1 generation, fifty-fifty perhaps a unmarried groovy artist.” These heads, I posited inwards this same article, were cast inwards component division to serve as sacred crown supports in addition to used during coronation rituals for a grouping of powerful Ife chiefs who caput the various core foremost in addition to instant dynasty lineages inwards the city. These rites appear also to have got been associated with Obalufon since related priests have got a role inwards Ife coronations silent today. The site where the heads were found today is identified as Obalufon
II’s burial site (Eyo 1976:n.p.). Ife Chief Obalara (Obalufon II’s descendant in addition to priest) crowns each novel monarch at a Obalufon shrine (Igbo Obalara) close the Obatala temple a brusk distance
from hither (Verger 1957:439, Fabunmi 1969:10, Eluyemi 1977:41). Today, when a descendant of King Obalufon wishes to committee shrine arts inwards conjunction with his worship, 2 copper alloy
heads, 1 land faced, the other with vertical line facial markings, are created (Oluyemi p.c.) (Fig. 30). Some of these ancient Ife life-size heads have got land faces. Others demo vertical lines. These facial marking variables back upwardly the likely usage of these heads inwards coronations in addition to other rites associated with the powerful early on Ife first- in addition to second-dynasty-linked chiefs who were brought together as component division of Obalufon II’s truce. The grouping of these heads, which inwards many ways also resemble the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1), together reference (and honor) the leaders of key families (now seen as orisa or gods) who had participated inwards this conflict. Obalufon II also created a novel metropolis programme as component division of this truce, 1 inwards which the homesteads of these lineage leaders were relocated to sites circumscribing the middle of Ife in addition to its palace (Blier 2012). In the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries, when the metropolis came nether attack, the heads appear to have got been buried for security keeping close their original shrine locale after many centuries of usage in addition to their location eventually forgotten.
There are several ways that the heads could have got been displayed inwards early on Ife ritual contexts, amongst these earthen stepform altars in addition to tall supports similar to 1 photographed with heads inwards Republic of Benin inwards the slow nineteenth century (Fig. 29). The latter staff would business concern human relationship for the presence of holes close the bases of these works. Wooden mounts such as those known today hither as ako were fashioned to commemorate Ife elephant hunters. These also could have got been used for display purposes. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 perhaps related Ijebu-Ode known as okute in addition to discussed past times Ogunba (1964:251) features roughly 4-foot wooden staffs with a symbolic human head. These pole-like forms were secured inwards the ground in addition to “dressed” during annual rites commemorating early on (first dynasty) rulers of the region.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 striking terra cotta vessel (Fig. 30) buried at the middle of an elaborate potsherd pavement at Obalara’s Land, an Ife site long affiliated with the Obalufon family, also offers clues important
to early on display contexts of these heads. This vessel incorporates the depiction of a shrine featuring a naturalistic caput with vertical line striations flanked past times 2 cone-shaped motifs described past times Garlake (1974:145) as crowns. The scene seems to portray an Obalufon altar with different types of crowns in addition to a an array of Obalufon in addition to Ogboni ritual symbols that regain usage inwards coronations,
amongst these edan Ogboni, consistent with the usage of the Ife life-size heads inwards chiefly in addition to royal enthronements overseen past times the center’s Obalufon priesthood.
In a community exterior of Ife, I learned of an of import tradition that offers additional insight into this corpus of ancient Ife life size heads. In the local Obalufon shrine are found xvi copper
alloy heads. While I was unable to take in these works, inwards the course of didactics of several interviews with the elderly temple chief, I learned a considerable amount nearly them. He described them as erunmole
(imole, ground spirits).28 This identity underscores the likely association of the heads as sacred icons honoring ongoing offices and/ or titles (Abiodun 1974:138) rather than elementary portraits (i.e. references to a specific person) (Underwood 1967:nos. 9, 11, 12). Consistent with this, each of the xvi copper alloy heads located inwards this rural Obalufon temple is said past times the priest to have got been identified with a “powerful” private from Ife’s distant past times who was afterwards deified, amongst these Oramfe (the thunder god), Obatala (god of the autochthonous residents), Oluorogbo (the early on messenger deity), Obalufon (King Obalufon II), Oranmiyan (Obalufon’s adversary, the military machine conqueror), Obameri (an ancient warrior associated with both dynasties), in addition to Ore (the autochthonous Ife hunter). These names harken dorsum to of import early on personages in addition to gods in
the era of Obalufon II in addition to the Ife civil state of war when the Ife life-size metallic heads were made. The descendants in addition to priests of these ancient heroes silent play a role inwards the ritual life of this center. As
explained to me past times the priest of this temple: “These imole are xvi inwards number, all xvi heads are kings [Oba, hither pregnant also deified chiefs], the xvi kings of erunmole.” The Ogboni
association, of which this rural priest also was a member, similarly comprise hither xvi core members (titled officers). Lisa Aronson (1992:57) notes for the Yoruba middle of Ijebu-Odu
that nearly 90 percentage of the chiefs inwards this middle are members of Ogboni. There are other connections betwixt the tradition of Obalufon metallic heads honoring historic leaders in addition to Ogboni
arts. Not only are a bulk of modern Yoruba copper alloy sculptures identified with both Ogboni in addition to Obalufon, but the “sticks” (staffs) said to live secured to the modern Obalufon heads during display (Oluyemi p.c.), a ritual in addition to aesthetic continuum extending dorsum to the ancient Ife Florescence Era.
*As with the 2 Ife Rex figures (Figs. 15–16), differences inwards the ancient Ife life-size heads’ facial markings in addition to other features offering additional insight to their identity in addition to meaning. Half of these xvi life-size metallic heads display vertical line marks that I have got identified with autochthonous (first dynasty) elites; the others have got land faces complementing the novel dynasty’s denunciation of facial marking. As explained to me past times the priest at the rural Obalufon temple where the grouping of copper alloy heads were housed: “there were xvi crowns inwards the olden days, viii tribal in addition to viii nontribal.” In using the term “tribal” here, he is referring to Ife’s autochthonous residents. Like the novel metropolis programme created past times Obalufon II as component division of his truce, these heads give primacy to the display in addition to sharing of powerfulness past times lineage heads of both dynasties.
Other features of these works also are important. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bulk of the plain-faced heads, but non the striated ones, include holes around the beard line in all probability for the attachment of an artificial beard of beads or hair. In the twentieth century, beards inwards Yoruba fine art often topographic point of import leaders, priests, in addition to others past times signaling senior historic menstruum status in addition to rank.30 Because all the plain-faced heads include beard holes, but only a few with facial markings do, the plain-faced works seem to live linked to powerfulness and/or status different than that of the heads with vertical facial lines. The non-bearded heads conceivably reference ritual status in addition to sacral powerfulness consistent with Obatala lineages today; the bearded heads instead seem to convey ideas of lineage leadership in addition to political status consistent with the center’s novel rulership line.
Interestingly, iv of the viii heads with facial lines are—like the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1) in addition to the 2 of the Tada figures (Figs.11, 13)—cast of nearly pure copper (96.8–99.7 percent), a feat that
artists of ancient Hellenic Republic in addition to Rome, the Italian Renaissance, in addition to Chinese bronze casters never achieved. The pure copper heads inwards this way differ materially from the stylistically similar heads that comprise sizable amounts of alloys along with the copper (the associated copper content ranging from 68.8–79.8percent). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bulk of the latter are without vertical facial lines. The five
nearly-pure copper heads additionally contain no detected zinc, a mineral that inwards the copper alloy heads ranges from 9.3–13.9 percent. Since one-half of the nearly- pure copper striated heads (two of the four) have got beard holes, this pocket-size subset of works may have got been intentionally differentiated inwards monastic enjoin to topographic point chiefs of both sacred in addition to political status. One of these pure copper heads additionally displays carmine in addition to dark lines around the eyes (Fig. 28). This characteristic is said past times Adedinni (p.c.) to topographic point a “most powerful person,” someone who is also a powerful imole (sacral power). To Obatala diviner Akintitan (p.c.), these oculus surrounding lines reference someone who “can really see,” i.e., a individual with unique access to the supernatural powerfulness that imbues 1 with spiritually charged insight.
Metal differences inwards these heads also send of import color differences that were important to the ancient Ife patrons in addition to artists. The pure copper works would have got been redder, piece those made from copper alloys were to a greater extent than yellow. The redder, nearly pure copper heads may have got been linked to ideas of heightened potency or danger. And since casting pure copper is technically far to a greater extent than hard than casting copper with alloy mixtures, the onetime heads also display greater skill, challenge, in addition to peril on the component division of the artist, attributes no uncertainty of import to the meanings of these heads as well. This stuff feature, inwards short, also gives them special iconic power. The usage of nearly pure copper inwards these works suggests non only how knowledgeable Ife artists were inwards the materials in addition to technologies of casting, but also how willing they were to select related risks to attain specific visual in addition to symbolic ends inwards these works.
Dating Ancient Ife Art
How do the various forms in addition to meanings of Ife’s early on arts inform dating in addition to other related questions? Dating ancient Ife fine art has posed many challenges to scholars, largely because many
of these artifacts come upwardly from secondary sites, rather than from contexts that tin live dated scientifically to the menstruum when the works were made in addition to foremost used (e.g. primary sites). While developing a chronology of Ife fine art has proven difficult, several schema have got been published inwards recent decades. Following the slow Eko Eyo, some Ife scholars have got utilized the term “Pavement Era” (and concomitantly “Pre-Pavement” in addition to “Post-Pavement” periods) to distinguish those fine art works that are linked to the menstruum of Ife’s famous potsherd pavements. However, because these
pavements are silent seen (and used) inwards abundance inwards the middle today, in addition to inwards some cases let out several different construction periods, the term “Pavement Era” is problematic. Ife historian
Akinjogbin instead takes upwardly (1992:96) local temporal damage to hash out Ife chronology. Without attributing dates, he notes that 1 such local term, Osangangan Obamakin, inwards some situations
designates Ife King Obalufon I (the manlike individual parent of Obalufon II) in addition to inwards others the early on (first) dynasty with which he was affiliated ....” Drewal ([1989:46] 2009:79) has attempted a temporal ordering
of ancient Ife sculpture based on differences inwards media (stone vs. terra cotta or metal) and/or assumed “expressive” qualities, but this has been dismissed past times archaeologists due to contradictory
evidence from related sites.
Yoruba archeologist Akin Ogundiran (2001:27–28, 2003) provides a to a greater extent than scientifically grounded chronology for Ife in addition to the broader area. His overview of artifact remains in addition to other sources contributes to my ain Ife chronology, 1 that combines archaeological with stylistic, oral historical, in addition to other data. For some periods, however, I employ different damage in addition to distinguishing features than does Professor Ogundiran. Most significantly, I have got simplified this chronology into iii main periods (with subgroupings) using the term Florescence (cultural “flowering”) for the menstruum of Ife’s major artistic in addition to cultural innovation, along with periods prior to (pre-Florescence) in addition to next (post-Florescence) this era. An early on Ife appointment of c. 350 bce. purportedly based on
radiocarbon (Folster inwards Ozanne 1969:32), cited past times both Ogundiran (2002, p.c.) in addition to Drewal
(2009:80), has been rejected past times Frank Willett (2004) in addition to others for lack of supporting
scientific evidence. I concur with this assessment.
The main art-producing era of early on Ife, what I define as the Florescence Period (Ogundiran’s Classical Period) is distinguished past times both roulette- in addition to cord-decorated ceramics. Within a relatively brusk fourth dimension span inwards this period, what I topographic point as Ife’s High Florescence, most of the early on arts appear to have got been made. One tin appointment this menstruum to c. 1250–1350 ce based on a attain of factors, including the thermoluminescence tests of key metallic works in addition to the likely reign era of Obalufon II as delimited inwards Ife oral histories in addition to Rex lists. It is this era that appears to grade the starting fourth dimension of the “Odudua” or instant dynasty of Ife. Associated with this High Florescence era are arts non only inwards “bronze” (Fig. 1) in addition to rock (Fig. 2), but also terra cotta (Fig. 24).
The to a higher topographic point fourth dimension frame is consistent with the dating for Ife in addition to its arts past times Peter Garlake (1977:72), based on his excavations at the Obalara’s Land in addition to Woye Asiri sites, both of which are closely linked to King Obalufon II whose descendant in addition to electrical current priest is Chief Obalara. From piece of job Garlake undertook at the Obalara Land site, he would issue 5 radiocarbon dates reflecting iii likely phases. The foremost is an initial business menstruum of circa the 12th century ce. The instant stage constitutes a c. fourteenth century business menstruum identified with the laying of the pavements, the creation of an array of sculptures, along with the site’s eventual fourteenth–fifteenth century abandonment. The 3rd in addition to terminal stage at the Obalara Land site consists of Post-Florescence era finds subsequent to the main site business in addition to abandonment.
Garlake’s recalibrated radicarbon dates (1974:146) for the Ita Yemoo site layer of terra cotta sculptures excavated past times Willett dot a menstruum potentially coeval with the radiocarbon dates of the Obalara’s Land sculptures (1312–1420 ce). As Garlake observes for this of import in addition to various grouping of terracottas (1974:146): “… on the dating evidence presently available, it seems that Obalara’s Land was occupied at the same fourth dimension as Ita Yemoo although it is likely, but non certain, that Ita Yemoo was foremost occupied at an before appointment than Obalara’s Land.” The likely menstruum of overlap betwixt these 2 sites is 1310–1350 ce, or what I posit as the High Florescence Era. Thermoluminescence dates for the clay cores extracted from 2 of the Wunmonije site life-size heads dot a similar menstruum of 1221–1369 ce (Willett 1997:28). This menstruum also is consistent with the likely reign era of Ife King Obalufon II. This dating additionally conforms with this king’s identity as the ruler who introduced bronze casting at Ife. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bulk of Ife’s ancient arts thus were created inwards a relatively brusk fourth dimension period, within a unmarried generation of artists, inwards the early on fourteenth century.
An in-depth analysis of ancient Ife sculptural style past times fine art historian Barbara Blackmun (n.d. inwards Willett 1994) reveals that works from a variety of Ife sites demo discernable clusters of similarity
consistent with artists working within the same broader fourth dimension frame. Significantly, Garlake also furnishes evidence (1974, 1977) that Ife’s High Florescence Era came to a relatively quick end, a alter accompanied past times a notable shift inwards pottery ornamentation forms, specifically from roulette to cord impressions (see also Shaw 1978:155).
Possible exterior confirmation for this Ife early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era is found inwards a well-known (but unexplored for the Yoruba) written source, namely Ibn Battûta’s 1325–1354 go account. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a ground called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is 1 of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is 1 of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a ground that “No white human tin motion into … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing in addition to mercantile interests, amongst these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, Fe smelting in addition to forging, in addition to textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife have got been found as far
due west as Mali, Mauritania, in addition to modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good have got learned of this middle inwards the course of didactics of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the yell Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the representative inwards maps from this era, the yell Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a slow fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions nearly an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amongst others). On vessel from Obalara’s Land, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Terracotta Ancient Ife fine art works, as nosotros have got seen, are works non only of groovy visual power, striking beauty, in addition to rare technical accomplishment, but also objects that utter to core issues of history in addition to politics inwards this early on center. As such these sculptures offering unique in addition to critical insight into the social cloth of the city. Looking at the complex visual codes of these remarkable objects through details of body shape in addition to proportion, gesture, facial marking, stuff properties, regalia form, brute symbolism,
site locations, oral history, mapping in addition to traveler accounts, as good as modern twenty-four hours Ife beliefs in addition to rituals nearly this middle in addition to its arts allows us to take in these ancient Ife works as a vital component division of the city’s early on history. The artists of these works clearly were interested inwards the sculptural meanings beingness known, in addition to through an in-depth analysis of the variant symbolic formula at play, we
at nowadays have got a much improve agreement of both this of import early on metropolis in addition to its arts.
Kings, Crowns, in addition to Rights of Succession: Obalufon Arts at Ife in addition to Other Yoruba Centers
Suzanne Preston Blier
The life-size copper mask from Ife (Fig. 1), the ancient religious middle of the Yoruba inwards southwestern Nigeria is 1 of the most familiar, yet enigmatic, of all African works inwards metal.1 It was foremost published inwards 1937 past times the slow Rex (Oni) of Ife, Adesoji Aderemi, inwards the periodical Nigeria.
The Rex identified the mask at the fourth dimension as representing Obalufon II, a legendary early on ruler of Ife who is credited with the excogitation of brass-casting at that center. This lifesize mask was said past times the Rex to have got been kept on an altar inwards the Omirin room of the royal palace at Ife ever since its manufacture. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 close flawless casting inwards ninety-nine percentage pure copper, it is 1 of the most beautiful in addition to technically accomplished of all works from ancient Ife. Ekpo Eyo in addition to Frank Willett appointment the mask to the 12th through fifteenth centuries A.D.
Like related Ife brass in addition to copper heads (Figs. 3, 4), the Obalufon mask is a piece of job of extraordinary naturalism. Except for the characteristic Ife-style almond-shaped eyes in addition to the distinct stylization of the ears, the human face of the mask shows striking physiognomic accuracy. The naturalism of this piece of job is heightened past times its fully life-size proportions, in addition to past times the fact that it was apparently intended to comprise an attached beard, for holes have got been placed around the oral fissure in addition to mentum areas so that a beard could live inserted.
Additional holes around the hairline, Willett notes were in all probability used to secure a separate headdress, perhaps a image of the divine crowns worn today past times Yoruba kings at Ife in addition to other royal centers. Although unopen inwards style in addition to decorative particular to the life-size brass in addition to copper heads
from Ife, the Obalufon mask is distinct from these, for it was intended to live worn, in addition to has narrow slits beneath the eyes, so that its wearer could see. In addition, holes have got been placed around the mask's lower border for the attachment, presumably, of a costume or robe.
Unlike Ife brass in addition to copper heads that at 1 fourth dimension were buried (and eventually forgotten), this mask, remaining at the palace, could have got retained its original identity. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 recent regain at Ife offers evidence that supports the identification of this mask with Obalufon. The regain consists of a stylistically similar life-size mask - this 1 inwards terra-cotta- which was unearthed on Obalufon Street, appropriately enough, xx feet from the site of the city's Obalufon shrine. This mask (Fig. 5), similar the copper Obalufon mask, was also intended to live worn, for slits are incorporated beneath the eyes. The terra-cotta mask is different from the copper one, however, inwards that incised striations covert the face, in addition to both a headdress in addition to stylized beard have got been included inwards the modeling. Eluyemi, who published the mask, notes that this regain does non necessarily offering conclusive proof of the identity of the copper mask with Obalufon, but it does suggest the possibility that the two
may ultimately live linked. Masks inwards whatever medium are extremely rare amongst extant works from ancient Ife. The identification of the life-size copper mask from Ife with Obalufon II is farther supported past times the importance of metallic masks inwards the corpus of later Yoruba Obalufon religious arts.
It is quite possible that the copper Obalufon mask may have got served as a image for this later Obalufon cireperdue tradition.
The pregnant in addition to role of the Obalufon mask at ancient Ife have got non been thoroughly explored. Only iii scholars have got attempted to hash out the possible business office of this work. Leon Underwood was the first. He noted that "The slits beneath the eyes dot its usage . . . inwards some sort of ceremony."
Justine Cordwell next commented that it may have got had a funerary use, asserting that ". . . the life-size, naturalistic portrait mask . . . could live worn on the caput of a living man, who. . . bowing in addition to waving, thus [carried] to the ultimate the illusion of the homecoming of the dead ruler."
Most recently, Frank Willett presented 2 theories for its possible usage (pp. 29, 150). His foremost theory supports Cordwell's sentiment that the piece of job may have got been worn during funerals. He noted that:
"Unlike the other [Ife] bronzes, this is a truthful mask intended
to live worn over the face, with slits below the eyes
so that the wearer could take in out . . . In the course of didactics of
Yoruba funerals nowadays an egungun masquerader
takes it upon himself to utter as the vocalization of the deceased,
to reassure the living that he has been satisfied
with his burial . . . It is possible that this mask was used
inwards such a funeral ceremony . ."
According to Willett's instant theory, the mask may have got been linked to an Ife tradition inwards which a retainer impersonating the Rex set on the robes in addition to crown of province inwards monastic enjoin to prolong the ruler's reign. The mask, Willett suggests, mightiness have got been used inwards the course of didactics of such an
impersonation."
Except for Underwood's really full general thought nearly a ceremonial use, at that topographic point is no existent evidence to back upwardly these theories. The key to the mask's symbolism, it is suggested here, is found instead inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, both as a historic ruler at Ife, and, next his death, as a deity
of the Yoruba people. In this analysis the foremost theme volition live coronation ceremonies at Ife. It volition live argued that the mask is integrally associated with these ceremonies in addition to with the related rites of rulership transition. Following this, the figure of Obalufon II in addition to his topographic point inwards the early on formation of the Ife province volition live discussed. The mask volition live seen to symbolize Obalufon's role inwards assuring the hereafter of the citystate through his association with problems of the succession of rulers in addition to pop back upwardly for the throne. Later Obalufon religious arts in addition to liturgies (explored as a distinct corpus hither for the foremost time), tin live seen to reinforce the identity of the mask both with themes of coronations in addition to with the exigencies of autochthonous rule. The well-known Ife brass in addition to copper heads as good as a number of other cire-perdue works from the menstruum also may live associated with these ideas, for they, similar the mask, appear to live identified with Obalufon in addition to with succession to the throne.
The Arts in addition to the Succession of Rulers: Ife Coronation Ceremonies in addition to the Obalufon Mask
Present-day traditions at Ife provide us with clues as to the possible functioning in addition to symbolism of the Obalufon mask inwards the metropolis inwards ancient times. Contemporary evidence suggests that the mask traditionally may have got had a role inwards Ife coronation ceremonies. M. A. Fabunmi, writer of a 1969 catalogue that inventories local Ife religious shrines in addition to ceremonies, explains inwards this lite that during Ife coronations the royal crown was placed on "the caput of Obalufon" before the novel ruler was allowed to have on it (p. 11). What is meant hither past times the phrasing "the caput of Obalufon" is non clear, but it appears to live a reference to a sculpture from the Ife shrine of Obalufon. Perhaps the ancient Obalufon mask also 1 time had a role inwards Ife coronation rites. Because it is life-size, it could easily have got been worn inwards related ceremonies. Holes placed around the hairline in all probability served to secure a crown. Fabunmi notes that the priest inwards accuse of Obalufon is principal Obalara (p. 10). Obalara's
descendants, this writer explains, play a major component division inwards the coronation ceremonies of the novel king. The original Obalara was the boy of Obalufon, and, as Eluyemi has noted (p. 41), the Obalufon priesthood to this twenty-four hours has remained within this family.
The possible association of the Obalufon mask with Ife coronations is reinforced past times the fact that, according to the slow Rex of Ife (quoted inwards Verger, 439), the crown is brought from the Obalufon shrine (a sanctuary identified with the deified Obalufon). As the slow Rex of Ife explained it, "The
Oni of Ife is proclaimed Rex at the temple of Odudua but he receives his crown the next twenty-four hours at the temple of Orisala [Obatala] where it has been brought from the temple of Obalufon." By maintaining command over the crown inwards this way, the Obalufon priests could also command those who were to live crowned, thereby assuring that a legitimate ruler was indeed coming to the throne. The importance for Ife coronations of Obatala, the deity of the autochthonous people, should non live underestimated. Not only does the coronation select topographic point at the temple of Obatala, but the royal scepter is also associated with this deity (Idowu, 28-29). However Willet suggest that the crowns were in all probability kept inwards the palace. The coronation rites at Ife are discussed past times several scholars. Fabunmi (p. 25) notes that the novel Rex is crowned on a spot called Igbo Kubolaja at Ideta inwards the Ilode quarter. According to K.C. Murray (in Willett, personal communication, March 7, 1985), the Rex is crowned at Ojubo Obalufon. This is close the shrine of Obatala. The king, according to Fabunmi (p. 25), must also ". . . pass a menstruum of probation before taking upwardly residence at the palace at Atobatele house, at nowadays occupied past times Barclays Bank, which stands to the northwest of the palace." Abraham also describes (p. 279) the coronation of the Ife king. He notes that "the coronation is a long ceremony as he has to attend rites at many of the 201 shrines traditionally believed to have got been established past times Odudua inwards Ife . . On some other twenty-four hours occurs the iwesu ceremony wherein a rock is washed to ward off the evil influence of Esu . . . On his appointment . . . a
ceremony takes topographic point at the Igbo-ade where he receives gifts inwards multiples of 201 on the twenty-four hours before the piece of job of the novel Oni begins."
On this same day, the novel Rex pays homage to the dignitaries in addition to people of Ife, showing them
the throne of Obalufon, according to Palau-Marti (p. 22). Additional back upwardly for this linking of the Obalufon mask with ceremonies of royal investiture is found inwards the fact, discussed past times Ogunba, that the tidings Obalufe (the championship for sure enough Ife priest-chiefs), agency "king or principal at Ife" or the "the Rex or of import individual who owns Ife."
The tidings "Oba" inwards Obalufon likewise refers to "king," implying that Obalufon was closely identified with Ife dominion and, past times extension, with the transfer of royal power. If the mask was worn, as its pattern suggests it was intended to be, it was in all probability inwards the context of related coronation
ceremonies. According to Lloyd, during Yoruba coronations reenactment scenes drawn from the early on menstruum of the city-state were often presented. In such performances, the indigenous inhabitants of the metropolis had a telephone substitution place. Indeed inwards many Yoruba cities, the trial often took topographic point at 1 of their compounds. In sentiment of the of import topographic point of Obalufon inwards the Ife coronation rite, it is quite possible that a scene drawn from the life of Obalufon (similar perhaps to the Ede reenactment - take in p. 389) may have got been incorporated. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 priest wearing the Obalufon mask mightiness have got had a telephone substitution role inwards such a dramatization.
Obalufon II: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 King Who Ruled Twice
In sentiment of the apparently unopen association of the Obalufon mask with coronations, the enquiry naturally arises as to why Obalufon II would have got been so closely identified with the succession of rulers at Ife. The response appears to prevarication inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, who, as Ife's 3rd ruler, played a decisive role inwards political events of the early on city-state. Obalufon II is presented inwards Ife oral accounts as a powerful ruler who, after beingness dethroned, returned to powerfulness in addition to brought the city's various factions into accord, thereby assuring the hereafter of the newly emerging state.
Three aspects of his reign volition live explored here: his dethronement past times Oranmiyan in addition to subsequent homecoming to power; second, his identity as a valiant warrior, protector of the local populace, in addition to symbol of political harmony, in addition to third, his association with the Ogboni society in addition to the arts of casting. Obalufon's telephone substitution role inwards the early on Ife citystate is reinforced past times the pregnant of his name, which, as suggested above, incorporates the tidings "Oba" (king), indicating his of import topographic point inwards Ife rule. Obalufon II, similar many Yoruba kings, also had several subsidiary names. One of these was Alaiyemore, pregnant "owner of the world known as Oreluere," Ore or Oreluere referring to an aboriginal hunter who was a menace to the unusual ruler "Odudua." The significance of this in conclusion yell volition live seen shortly, inwards that Obalufon II played a telephone substitution component division inwards the dispute betwixt the autochthonous peoples of Ife in addition to supporters of "Odudua" over dominion of the city-state. Since the
oral accounts do non hash out whatever trauma or difficulty associated with Obalufon II's death, it tin live inferred that he died peacefully of old age. Following his death, Obalufon II is said to have got been buried close the Wunmonije compound) at the palace. Frank Willett, however, believes that this grave is identified with Lafogido rather than Obalufon. It is hither that the brass in addition to copper heads that are stylistically similar to the Obalufon mask were also buried.
The events surrounding Ife's founding in addition to Obalufon II's role inwards the early on Ife city-state are described inwards some particular inwards Ife oral accounts. Present-day scholars of Yoruba organized religious belief such as Idowu (p. 23) in addition to Awolalu (p. 27) take in the metropolis as developing its political in addition to religious primacy as a outcome of the arrival of a militarily powerful grouping of foreigners who were component division of a distant branch of the Yoruba people. Unfortunately the yell of the leader of this grouping is non known, because inwards the accounts his identity is subsumed past times that of his patron deity, Odudua.
At the fourth dimension of the arrival of this outsider in addition to his party, Ife was occupied past times an indigenous people who were nether the leadership of a hunter named Ore (Oreluere). Not surprisingly, the original
inhabitants of Ife do non appear to have got supported this foreigner, "Odudua," inwards his attempts to gain command of the city. The leader "Odudua" also appears to have got suppressed the worship of the local Ife deity, Obatala. Awolalu summarizes (p. 27) the province of affairs at Ife at this fourth dimension as follows:
"(a) that the original inhabitants of Ife knew in addition to acknowledged Obatala
as the deity that created the ground in addition to to whom worship was due and
given; b) that at a stage inwards the early on history of Ife, some intruders who
were migrating from somewhere, came into Ife, in addition to conquered the original
inhabitants who were devotees of [Obatala]; c) that the newcomers
suppressed the worship of Obatala in addition to embraced that of Oduduwa who
was peradventure a woman individual divinity; d) that at the decease of the conquering
leader, his followers in addition to admirers deified him in addition to called him Odudua
after the primordial divinity whose worship he had encouraged. Thus
Odudua is portrayed as a primordial divinity in addition to as a deified ancestor."
This unusual ruler was, however, past times all accounts a strong in addition to politically effective leader. One of his most of import decisions was to constitute a serial of union alliances with the local populace. Accordingly, both he in addition to his political party married indigenous women "of the land," inwards monastic enjoin to create a novel generation of Ife residents who, inwards Idowu's words (p. 24), "... . would live at domicile inwards both worlds . . . people who were without bitterness towards either of the opposing parties." In the course of didactics of these marriages, the novel ruler fathered a number of children, many of whom eventually laid out to found their ain dynasties inwards other Yoruba states.
On "Odudua's" death, 1 of his sons, Obalufon I (Ogbogbodirin), succeeded him to the throne. Obalufon I's reign appears to have got been beset with problems. Unlike his father, "Odudua," he was a weak ruler. Indeed, the province that his manlike individual parent had latterly formed seems already to have got begun to disintegrate inwards the course of didactics of his reign. According to the Oni of Ife (in Verger, 141-42), Obalufon I's father, Odudua, would have got preferred to acquire out the throne to his oldest son, the warrior Ogun. When the latter died, Odudua remarked, "I have got no longer a powerful boy to sentry over the totality of my kingdom; Obalufon is non plenty the warrior, in addition to he volition separate the lands amongst his diverse
sons." Odudua hither seems to live anticipating the breakup of the kingdom nether the reign of Obalufon I. It was this division, in addition to the enquiry of who would dominion at Ife, which, as volition live seen, played a telephone substitution component division inwards the dominion of Obalufon I's ain son, Obalufon II. Little else is known nearly the
reign of Obalufon I, but at that topographic point is some evidence that the deity Obatala (the god of the autochthonous people - in addition to presumably of Obalufon I's mother) may have got been made a province deity around that time. This was most in all probability inwards response to the continued pressure level on the novel ruler past times the local public for royal back upwardly of local religious belief. Evidence for this comes from the statements of Johnson (p. 11) in addition to Beier (p. 18) that during the reign of Obalufon I's eventual successor, Oranmiyan, an Obatala priest had a topographic point of groovy importance inwards the palace. Presumably this priesthood had already been established past times the fourth dimension he came to power. As already noted, Odudua in addition to his successors married local women, in addition to they also may have got been instrumental inwards bringing Obatala into the palace
In addition, during his dominion at that topographic point appear to have got been frequent attacks against the palace past times the indigenous occupants of Ife. Into this insecure political province of affairs Obalufon II was thrust when, next Obalufon I's death, he appears to have got ascended the throne. So weakened was the city-state of Ife past times this time, that shortly after he came to power, Obalufon II was forced from the throne past times a human named Oranmiyan. According to 1 business concern human relationship (Verger, 329), it was against Obalufon I that Oranmiyan fought to select over Ife rule. This business concern human relationship states that when Oranmiyan ". . . learned that Odudua had died in addition to that Obalufon had inherited from his mother, in addition to had acquire foremost Rex of Ife, Oranmiyan sent a message to Obalufon, menacing him with death; Obalufon fled to Ido, xv miles from Ife. Oranmiyan . . . stayed a sure enough fourth dimension at Ife, so went to Oko Igboho in addition to finally Oyo... " The confusion of the 2 Obalufons in addition to their respective reigns also occurs inwards Yoruba religious ritual associated with Obalufon (see n. 35).
This latter figure, a powerful warrior who is also said to have got ruled at Oyo in addition to Benin, is identified variously as Obalufon's I's blood brother in addition to as his nephew. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3); Smith (p. 19); Fabunmi (pp. 16-17). The accounts also vary as to whether or non Oranmiyan had whatever legitimate claim to the throne. The "official" version (Fabunmi, 16) suggests that it was Oranmiyan in addition to non Obalufon II who had been the intended successor of Obalufon I. According to this version, at the fourth dimension of the latter's death, Oranmiyan was away from courtroom on a military machine create in addition to could not
live found. For this ground Obalufon II was crowned instead. When Oranmiyan returned, he proceeded to claim what was rightfully his. Other evidence suggests, however, that Oranmiyan had no legitimate right, in addition to was indeed a usurper. This evidence is that Oranmiyan is identified as the youngest boy of "Odudua" (Smith, p. 34). Since Oranmiyan is said to have got had many older brothers, he would non have got been called on to succeed his father. Furthermore, the accounts suggest that on Odudua's death, Oranmiyan inherited none of his father's moveable properties
(Johnson, 8). This sentiment of Oranmiyan as a usurper is also suggested past times Frobenius (p. 205), who notes that Oranmiyan's manlike individual parent was a human named Laro, in addition to that Oranmiyan had ". . . 1 time conquered [Ife], but was driven forth again." Ulli Beier argues inwards plough (Yoruba Myths, Cambridge, 1980, 65) that Oranmiyan may non fifty-fifty have got been component division of the royal line. He asserts that Oranmiyan is ". . . evidently representing a slow immigrant with no existent ground rights."
Little is told of Obalufon II's brusk reign prior to his overthrow, but he appears to have got already had the strong backing of the local populace, for it was he, rather than Oranmiyan, who they are said to have got supported as ruler. Obalufon II, although forced from the throne past times Oranmiyan, waged a hard battle to regain command of the kingdom. In the end, his endeavors appear to have got been successful,
for the accounts dot that eventually he returned to power. According to John Abiri (in Adedeji, 327) the defeat/return of Obalufon II may have got taken topographic point after Oranmiyan's decease during the reign of his son, Layiamisan. This, as Adedeji points out, also ". . . usefully explains the ground for Alaiyemore's [Obalufon II 's] homecoming to the throne as 1 of the damage of the rapprochement." This also explains Obalufon II's eventual union to Moremi, who inwards some accounts is said to have got been previously married to Oranmiyan. In his care against Oranmiyan to regain rule, he benefited from the back upwardly of the indigenous Ife population. According to Adedeji, this conflict betwixt Obalufon II in addition to Oranmiyan over the throne parallels a conflict inwards religious doctrine betwixt the followers of Obatala in addition to Odudua, the patron gods of Obalufon in addition to Oranmiyan respectively. This dispute, which is oftentimes discussed inwards the Yoruba literature, centers on the enquiry of who deserves credit for creating the world. Most accounts suggest that it was Odudua who really did so, but that Obatala (Orishanla) rightfully should have. The correct was said to have got been taken away from him because he was viewed as unfit (he had gotten drunk); then, piece he lay sleeping (i.e., inwards a province of beingness unaware), the powerfulness was assumed past times Odudua (Idowu, 23; Willett, 121- 23). As Idowu points out, however, a number of accounts contradict this view, some stating non only that Obatala did non acquire drunkard but was able to send out the creation. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all concur on 1 factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the
most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established at that topographic point (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to have got come upwardly downward with
the foremost political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures in addition to Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the yell of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
The legends portray Obalufon II at this fourth dimension as an ingenious military machine leader. In his create against Oranmiyan, he is said to have got dressed the local warriors inwards straw masks which made them appear to live spirits from some other world. This disguise frightened in addition to confused Oranmiyan's warriors so that they were unable to care effectively. Eventually, however, Obalufon II's masking deception was discovered. On 1 of his raids, a local Ife adult woman named Moremi allowed herself to live taken captive past times Obalufon's forces. In her captivity, Moremi was able to larn that it was non spirits from some other world but rather the original Ife inhabitants nether Obalufon II's management who
were menacing the capital. When she later escaped, she went domicile to tell Oranmiyan of her discovery. In Obalufon II's subsequent raid, his men were met past times Oranmiyan's torch-bearing warriors who shortly "unmasked" in addition to defeated the autochthonous troops.
This same Moremi helped to convey Obalufon dorsum to the throne. She was viewed as a heroine because of her role inwards Obalufon's capture, in addition to with her novel status she insisted that a to a greater extent than permanent peace live established at Ife. With this inwards mind, she asked that Obalufon II, the exiled king, live returned to power. In turn, she became his wife. Moremi, as a local woman, clearly had allegiance inwards both camps. Accordingly, the solution that she proposed benefited both equally, in addition to indeed, her conclusion to seek a to a greater extent than permanent peace was a critical 1 for the long-term stability
of Ife. This motion brought to the throne non only a forceful leader, but also 1 who had the strong back upwardly of the original Ife inhabitants. With the homecoming of Obalufon II to Ife, the autochthonous Ife citizens also appear to have got returned to this center, in addition to the instant component division of Obalufon II's reign appears to have got been marked past times peace in addition to prosperity.
Many sculptures in addition to shrines inwards in addition to around Ife are identified with persons in addition to events inwards this dispute. The most of import are the mask of Obalufon II in addition to a large rock "staff" associated with Oranmiyan. There are also a number of sacred areas in addition to sculptures that refer to the family, supporters, in addition to patron deities of these 2 historic figures. Many of these are described inwards Fabunmi's analysis of Ife shrines. One such shrine is associated with Moremi; some other is identified with her boy Ela. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 quartz stool that is at nowadays inwards the British Museum is identified with some other son,
Alashe (Oluorogbo). Alashe (Oluorogbo) is also said inwards some accounts to live Moremi's hubby (R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies, London, 1910, 23; Fabunmi, 9). Other examples of Ife fine art of this menstruum have got been found inwards the Iwinrin or Igbo Grove, a sacred expanse closely identified with the original Ife inhabitants. In addition, both Obatala, Obalufon's patron deity, in addition to this deity's wife, Yemo, have got shrines at Ife. Odudua in addition to several of this god's wives, Olokun in addition to Omitoto-Ose, also have got shrines. Oranmiyan's father, Ogun, in addition to several of Oranmiyan's warriors have got shrines with fine art of this menstruum as well. According to Willett (pl. 77), this stool was found inwards the Ife Oluorogbo grove. The leader of the autochthonous peoples, Ore (Oreluere), also has a shrine. At the dorsum of this expanse is a rock carving representing Ore's gate man, Edena (this sculpture is at nowadays inwards the palace museum).
The groovy twenty-four hours inwards Ife history when Obalufon II was returned to the throne next his defeat is reenacted at Ife inwards a special yearly pageant at nearby Ede. In it, a grapheme named Ajagemo, who simultaneously symbolizes the autochthonous peoples, the deity Obatala, in addition to Obalufon II, dances to come across his armed opponent Olunwi who represents the newcomers, "Odudua," in addition to Oranmiyan. In this combat, "Obalufon II" is overpowered in addition to is taken into the palace. He is shortly released, in addition to is carried triumphantly dorsum to the arena. This reenactment takes topographic point during the
festival held inwards laurels of Obatala, the deity associated with Obalufon, in addition to the original residents of Ife. The associated song/prayers reinforce the importance of Obatala in addition to the indigenous Igbo at this festival. The next was recorded past times Adedeji (p. 329).
"Obatala
The Oba that nosotros praise
The really king
Who was born inwards the metropolis of Igbo
And went to acquire Rex inwards the metropolis of Iranje
The groovy Orisa
The divinity of Igbo
They showed him ingratitude
They tricked him with palm wine
They so deserted the divinity from heaven
When they had vanished
They so asked where else could the hugger-mugger live found?"
At the opening of this trial is a ceremony dedicated to the Ogboni society. Adedeji, 328. The human relationship betwixt Ogboni in addition to Yoruba rulership is clear. According to Justine Cordwell ("Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba in addition to Republic of Benin Cultures," Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1952, 43), "The Ogboni society acts non only as advisor to the ruler in addition to courtroom of judge but inwards some areas really controls the ruler in addition to his decisions." Furthermore, both Obalufon in addition to Ogboni are associated with the left hand. "Osi la njo ijo Obalufon" or "It is towards the left mitt that you lot move
when you lot trip the lite fantastic toe inwards laurels of Obalufon," say his worshippers (Awolalu, 107). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 somewhat parallel ceremony is also performed at Ijebu-Ife, at which fourth dimension Obalufe priest-chiefs are identified with persons having prior claim to the land, who were ousted wrongly from political power. These prior claimants are inwards command of many of the sacred aspects of political rule. The ritual, Ogunba suggests (as inwards n. 14, 99), "... gives the impression that the priest-chief has inwards fact been cheated of powerfulness in addition to the yearly coming together in addition to parting becomes something of an atonement for the irrevocable seizure, so that the indigenous gods of the ground may non revolt against the novel political overlord." Appropriately, during the festival it is the priest Obalufe who sacrifices to the Earth, a grade of his unopen association with it. Ogunba notes inwards this study (p. 99), inwards turn, that "priestchiefs similar . . . the Obalufe, send names which audio to a greater extent than akin to the ownership of the ground than the priest kings." Henry Drewal suggests (personal communication, Apr 9, 1984) that at this shrine, Obalufe is also
the caput of the Odudua association. This society, which is of import inwards Yoruba fine art patronage today, is said to have got been formed around the fourth dimension of the to a higher topographic point conflict past times the followers of Obatala to care political injustice. According to Idowu (p. 24):
"Everything points to the fact that it was at this fourth dimension that
the Ogboni cult began. This was a hugger-mugger cult formed, in
all probability, to protect the indigenous institutions of
the ground from annihilation nether the influence of the new
regime. It must have got been originally an exclusive organization
limited to the original owners of the land."
The unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon II in addition to the Ogboni society is of considerable significance because Obalufon is said to have got introduced brass casting at Ife. According to Idowu (p. 208) at Ife at that topographic point was also a theater associated with the brass casters; this theater was called Ile Asude, "the theater of those who smelt brass." It is interesting that Obatala, the deity Ogboni had been formed to support, is oftentimes identified as the sculptor divinity (Awolalu, 21). Today this same society is 1 of the principal patrons of Yoruba brass casting arts. Unfortunately, the historical accounts
provide few farther details on this matter. Most probably, however, Obalufon II's unopen association with the Ogboni society was the ground of his identification with the introduction of brass casting. It seems really plausible that with the homecoming of Obalufon II to the throne, the Ogboni society gained legitimacy in addition to considerable powerfulness at the palace.
Their arts presumably also flourished at this time. It was, it would appear, because of Obalufon's association both with brass casting in addition to with peace in addition to legitimate dominion at Ife that the copper mask bearing his yell came to live associated with coronation ceremonies at Ife. Further evidence that reinforces the identity of the Obalufon mask with coronations in addition to themes of rulership is found inwards the religious rituals in addition to beliefs that developed next Obalufon II's eventual decease in addition to deification. In the nowadays era he has been, as nosotros volition see, viewed both as the god of skilful authorities in addition to as the patron deity of the arts of beadwork, brass casting, in addition to weaving. In addition, brass crowns and masks shape a important component division of the Obalufon fine art corpus.
Obalufon, a God with Many Identities: Deity of War, Peace, Prosperity, in addition to the Arts of Beads, Brass, in addition to Weaving
Obalufon II, similar many groovy Yoruba rulers, was deified at his death. According to Idowu (p. 69) "Obalufon is 1 of the divinities worshipped at Ile-Ife in addition to all over Yorubaland. But he began past times beingness an ancestor." Unlike other Yoruba deities such as Shango, Eshu, Ogun, Odudua, in addition to Ifa, this god has non been the object of whatever study, nor have got the wealth in addition to multifariousness of religious ritual in addition to fine art associated with him been examined. Although today Obalufon's followers are found inwards many parts of Yorubaland, Ile-Ife silent remains an of import middle for Obalufon worship. Ulli Beier notes (Yoruba Beaded Crowns, London, 1982, 9), that piece Obalufon is worshipped inwards a number of Yoruba towns, his worship is especially identified with Ife - only as Shango's worship is especially associated with Oyo. Although it is Obalufon II who is to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the ruler who is deified as "Obalufon," it should live noted that Obalufon the god seems inwards some cases simultaneously linked to both rulers bearing that name. Thus piece Abraham asserts (p. 491) that it was Alaiyemore (i.e., Obalufon II) who is worshipped as Obalufon, Fabunmi indicates (p. 10) that the worship of Obalufon is identified with Ogbogdirin (Obalufon I). Although the assimilation of the 2 kings inwards Obalufon worship appears to live a natural outgrowth of their unopen association with each other (and the fact that they part the same name), most of the rituals, religious tenets, in addition to works of fine art of the Obalufon association seem to live identified to a greater extent than closely with Obalufon II in addition to the various attributes of his rule.
Other places where worship of Obalufon (Balufon, Obalifon, Abalufon, Abalifon) is especially strong include towns inwards Ekiti where Obalufon II is said to have got taken refuge during the menstruum of his banishment. Still other major centers of Obalufon worship are identified with places where the children of Obalufon II eventually settled. Once established inwards these towns, his descendents are said to have got laid upwardly shrines to their father. Thus Verger notes (p. 453) that "... at Ido Osun, close Osogbo, 1 finds a temple for Obalufon, it was said to me: 'Olufande, boy of Obalufon, installed himself at Owaluse close Isesa, so at Igbokiti where he died. His successor... went to Igbo Oyao
so came to constitute himself hither at Ido Osun.' " Unlike most deities inwards the Yoruba pantheon, Obalufon is surrounded with considerable confusion inwards the literature. In Yoruba Ifa divination, William Bascom notes (Ifa Divination: Communication Between Gods in addition to Men inwards West Africa, Bloomington, 1969, 49) that the 8th odu (owonrin meji) refers to Obalufon. But the ranking
of this odu with observe to the total of xvi odu, shows, as with the life of Obalufon, a conflict over legitimacy in addition to place. According to Bascom, although owonrin meji is seen to live equal to ofun meji, inwards rank they are seen to care each other for 8th place. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 legend provided past times Bascom
explains this conflict:
"Ofun meji was the foremost born of all the figures in addition to the foremost to come upwardly to
earth. He was the caput of all the other figures in addition to ruled them similar a
king, but because things went badly nether his rule, they sent to Ifa in
sky to tell him how hard things were on earth. Then Ifa sent Ogbe
Meji downward to ground to select Ofun Meji's topographic point as the caput of the other
figures. Ofun Meji fought [to retain his place] defeating all combinations
until he reached Owonrin Meji. These 2 fought in addition to fought and
fought, until the others sent to Ifa inwards heaven. Ifa ruled that Ofun Meji
in addition to Owinrin Meji should live equal inwards rank, taking turns inwards priority.
This is why Ofun Meji outranks Owonrin Meji when Ofun Meji is
thrown first; but when Owonrin Meji is thrown first, it outranks Ofun
Meji."
There are interesting parallels betwixt this Ifa business concern human relationship in addition to legends of Obalufon's life, in addition to that of his ain deity, Obatala (see n. 23). This is peculiarly truthful inwards the discussions of his powers, habits, in addition to associated symbols. Interestingly, inwards the sectionalization of orisa at Ife betwixt those who are followers of Obatala in addition to those who are followers of Odudua, Obalufon (along with Agemon, Osonyin, Esidale, Obameri, Oranyon, Moremi, Obameri, Eleshije, Ija, in addition to Olokun) is often identified as a supporter of Odudua (Forde, as inwards n. 27, 37; Abraham, 483).
According to Fadipe, Obalufon is the god of warriors; to Farrow he is the god of peace or, to a greater extent than specifically, peace of the kingdom. S. S. Farrow, Faith, Fancies, in addition to Fetish, London, 1926, 59. Obalufon, inwards his deification, is also associated with uprightness in addition to high ethical standards. This appears to have got partial ground inwards Obalufon's back upwardly of Obatala (the god identified with ethical purity) against the insurgent followers of Odudua (Adedeji, 336). Adedeji suggests accordingly that ". . . similar Obatala, he is the embodiment of morals in addition to ethics of the Yoruba." These qualities are especially of import inwards the alternative of Obalufon priests. Thus, Awolalu notes (p. 170), Obalufon worship is sometimes suspended if a priest of high moral grapheme cannot live found. At Owu-Ijebu he explains, ". . . worship was suspended because it was hard to acquire a human of high probity in addition to integrity to preside at the shrine of Obalufon. The Oba explained to the people the high standards required of a presiding priest in addition to added 'If a human has evil hear in addition to silent has the audacity of coming to officiate at the shrine of Obalufon such a human volition non in conclusion the year.
J. Johnson (in Verger, 457) in addition to Dennett offering a similar view, signaling that Obalufon is the "god of the prosperous empire." Also of significance is the fact that Ore (Oreluere), the original hunter whom Obalufon supported, is also associated with ethical standards in addition to morality. According to Idowu (p. 23), Oreluere himself ".o. . was the guardian of domestic morality in addition to preserver of audio menage unit of measurement traditions." Talbot (II, 60, 87) calls him the god of fortune, success, in addition to greatness. Obalufon also has a topographic point inwards agricultural ceremonies, peculiarly those linked to yams in addition to to their harvest. Thus at Ido Osun ". . . yams cannot live eaten before 1 has celebrated the offering of foremost fruits to Obalufon inwards September" (Verger, 453). Obalufon's identity with agriculture seems to live founded at to the lowest degree inwards component division on the mythical dispute betwixt Obatala in addition to Odudua (see n. 26). According to 1 myth (Idowu, 94), during the menstruum of their dispute a groovy drought prevailed inwards which all crops failed in addition to many people died. It was only after the conflict had been resolved, in addition to peace had been restored, that the fields 1 time again flourished. It is also non surprising that Obalufon, as the representative of the original owners of the land, would play a telephone substitution component division inwards ceremonies associated with the productivity of the fields. Like many benevolent Yoruba deities, Obalufon is also said to convey children to his followers (Awolalu, 150). The Yoruba literature suggests
that Obalufon may have got been the deity of spoken communication as good (Talbot I, 87; Verger, 452). This is based on the identification of Obalufon as the foremost human on Earth. According to Bowen (as inwards n. 26, 314) "the yell of the foremost human was . . . Obbalufoh, in addition to the yell of his married adult woman was Iye. They came from sky in addition to had many children. . . Obbalufoh agency the King or Lord of Speech, because the foremost human was the foremost speaker; Iye .. signifies life." Verger points out, however, that this identity appears to live a false 1 since Bowen apparently confused Obalufon with Osalufon (or Obatala).
These associations with war, peace, in addition to prosperity clearly arrange with what nosotros know about
Obulafon II's life. He was known as a valiant, relentless, in addition to ingenious state of war leader who never gave upwardly inwards his care to gain dorsum his throne, in addition to who never turned his dorsum on the autochthonous peoples without whose back upwardly peace would have got been impossible. It is Obalufon II's association with peaceful in addition to prosperous rulership that is emphasized accordingly inwards the Obalufon offerings inwards Ilawe, Ekiti, where Obalufon is the tutelary deity. The human relationship betwixt Obalufon in addition to prosperous rulership is reinforced inwards the religious ceremonies associated with this deity. According to Awolalu (p. 105), during the offerings to Obalufon inwards Ilawe, it was the representative of the Rex who brought the offerings of the people to the Obalufon priest. This royal representative knelt downward before the priest... in addition to prayed for everybody in addition to everything inwards the community."
In add-on to beingness closely tied with kings in addition to the peace in addition to prosperity of their reigns, the deity Obalufon is also associated with a number of Yoruba fine art forms. Thompson identifies Obalufon as the patron god of beadworking, today the principal stuff of the royal crowns in addition to scepters. Robert Farris Thompson (Black Gods in addition to Kings: Yoruba Art at U.C.L.A., Los Angeles, 1971, 8:1) explains accordingly that, "Men similar to live different. The deity Obalufon so invented beads in addition to strung them inwards different colors on bracelets in addition to necklaces so that gods, in addition to men who follow them, mightiness stand upwardly inwards proud distinction . . ." In other Yoruba areas, however, beadwork is to a greater extent than often associated with Olokun. Verger (p. 452) in addition to Abraham (p. 501) depict Obalufon (Balufon) as the patron deity of weaving in addition to clothing. Obalufon is also to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the patron deity of the various brass-casting arts. William Fagg suggests that this association is fairly mutual throughout Yorubaland.
The sculptural forms that today are found inwards the various Obalufon shrines also add together to our agreement of the possible pregnant in addition to role of the before Ife Obalufon mask. Many of these works, similar the original Obalufon mask, are cire-perdue castings. Some of the most of import information on these arts comes from the town of Obo Ile which was settled past times immigrants from Ife. The land notes of William Fagg document the unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon in addition to brass casting at this center. At Obo Ile, the tradition itself was said to have got originated at Ife. Fagg's field
notes dot that brass arts were so of import inwards the nineteenth century that 1 3rd of the population may have got been brass casters. In this town, furthermore, the Rex of the brass casters, Oba Legbede, is also the caput of the Obalufon association. Additional back upwardly for the identification
of Obalufon with the brass-casting arts is found inwards the fact that at Obo Ile, Obanifon (Obalufon) is used as the generic tidings for all works inwards this medium.
Several types of Obalufon arts from Obo Ile have got been documented past times Fagg. One tradition indicates that a brass object (perhaps a staff) was brought to Obo Ile from Ife. This object has the yell of Obalufon. Interestingly, at Ife a brass staff is carried past times Chief Obalara in addition to other Obalufon
priests, Fagg also saw several brass masks associated with Obalufon when he was inwards Obo Ile area. He describes the masks as modern castings, oval inwards shape, in addition to roughly 5 to vi inches inwards height. Possible parallels with these masks should also live noted. Denis Williams has published 2 brass masks from Oyo, in all probability of the 19th century, which were used inwards conjunction with Shango, the patron deity in addition to foremost ruler of Oyo ("Art inwards Metal," Sources of Yoruba History, ed. S.O. Biobaku, Oxford, 1973, 163-64). These were worn at the annual Bere festival, a ceremony that, similar many of those of Obalufon, took topographic point at the yam harvest. The yell of these masks, alakoro, derives from the word, akoro, pregnant chief's headgear. Thus these masks, similar that of Obalufon, may live ultimately identified with crowns. One of these Oyo alakoro brass masks has iii markings converging at the lips (Williams, 61) a motif similar to that found on a number of Ife works. Several pocket-size brass alakora masks also appear on a Shango drum documented past times Thompson (as inwards n. 42,
1/18). One of these masks also was called Obanifon (Obalufon).
At Isare, Fagg's information suggests that Obalufon arts have got a clear royal identity. Here it is the local Alare (king/ chief) who is caput of the Obalufon (Onifon) association. The emphasis both on brass masks in addition to on ideas of rulership inwards these traditions suggests of import secondary support
for the identity of the classic Ife copper mask with Obalufon in addition to with coronations. This parallel, inwards turn, offers evidence for a possible thematic continuum inwards Obalufon arts extending from the nowadays era dorsum to the fourth dimension when the Ife Obalufon mask was made. In add-on to brass masks in addition to scepters, Obalufon is also associated with brass crowns. Several of these have got been documented; 1 is illustrated past times Thompson (p. 10). This Obalufon crown (Fig. 7) is from Obo-Aiyegunle, Ekiti. It incorporates telephone substitution in addition to side faces around its base, in addition to is surmounted past times a bird. Frank Willett photographed some other brass crown associated with Obalufon (Obanifon) at Obo Aiyegunle (Thompson, p. 13, personal communication from Willett). The identification of these brass crowns with Obalufon suggests some other parallel with Ife Obalufon traditions, for inwards these, it volition live recalled, crowns in addition to coronations were all-important concerns.
Figural traditions inwards brass are also associated with Obalufon. Geoffrey Parrinder, inwards his description of the Obalufon shrine at Ibadan, notes (Religion inwards an African City, London, 1953, 30) that the door of that shrine could non live opened past times the uninitiated for fright that they would live struck blind, suggesting to Parrinder that the piece of job within could have got been of brass, a stuff whose polish mightiness have got been identified with such a response.
The only representative of an Obalufon brass sculpture that has been published to appointment is inwards the Nigerian National Museum at Lagos. This piece of job is 1 of a pair of Obalufon brass sculptures from Ijebu-Ode. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 distinctive attribute of this sculpture is the portrayal of fisted hands placed parallel to the ground inwards front end of the body. The piece of job appears to portray serpents issuing from the nostrils, a characteristic really unusual inwards Ogboni brass sculptures but occasionally found inwards ancient Ife fine art in addition to inwards Republic of Benin brass-casting traditions. The motif of the serpent issuing from the nostril is also found on Republic of Benin "Spirit" heads in addition to Agwe masks, on the headdress of the "Tsoede" warrior figure, in addition to on several works from ancient Ife. Stylistically, the published Obalufon brass figure shares closest ties with human face bells from the Yoruba expanse around Ijebu-Ode. These bells, Thompson notes (79, n. 13), are identified with royal lineage chiefs. This similarity is reinforced past times the fact that the caput of the published Obalufon brass figure is cast separately from the body, so that the head, when seen alone, looks remarkably similar these bells. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 spike that extends from this caput is inserted into the hollow brass torso, the 2 parts so beingness strapped together.
The corpus of Obalufon-related arts is, as nosotros have got seen, quite diverse. Several features of these sculptures, however, suggest that they may have got parallels with the Obalufon mask from ancient Ife. These attributes include the predominance of brass inwards Obalufon fine art inwards general; second, the importance of crowns in addition to masks amongst these cireperdue works, in addition to third, an emphasis on rulership in addition to coronation themes inwards the rituals in addition to religious forms of Obalufon worship. These to a greater extent than recent Obalufon works clearly reinforce the identification of the ancient Obalufon mask.
Obalufon in addition to the Head of Lajuwa: A Terra-Cotta Identified with a Tale of Court Intrigue
Visual in addition to thematic evidence suggests that the Obalufon mask may live associated with the ancient Ife terra-cotta caput of a courtroom retainer named "Lajuwa" (Fig. 9). The terra-cotta caput that is said to correspond Lajuwa was published past times the slow Ife king, Adesoji Aderemi, at the same fourth dimension as the Obalufon mask.
Although the dating of the Rex identified with Lajuwa is opened upwardly to some dispute, this terra-cotta head
was clearly made around the fourth dimension of both the Obalufon mask in addition to the life-size brass in addition to copper heads. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3) identifies this Rex as Aworokolokin. In style, Willett suggests (p. 58) that it "is almost identical with the Wunmonije bronzes in addition to could good have got been made past times one
of the same artists." The 2 works also appear to live closely tied because they were kept inwards the same chamber at the palace. Both sculptures, Willett suggests, may have got been associated with an incident inwards Ife history inwards which a retainer assumed the role of a Rex inwards monastic enjoin to extend his rule. At
Ife in addition to other Yoruba city-states, sure enough courtroom servants had the correct to personify the king. We know from Johnson (p. 59) that at Oyo on a number of occasions, surrogates of the Rex would correspond him past times assuming his robes in addition to crown. Here, according to Talbot (iII, 569), it was a eunuch with the championship of Olosi or Osi'efa' who took on the king's identity during judicial proceedings, battles, in addition to sure enough affairs of state. This Olosi had considerable powerfulness inwards the palace, for he was 1 of the principal advisors of the king, in addition to had a major role at each coronation. As Johnson suggests
(p. 59),
"The Osi'efa or Olosi . . . represents the Rex inwards all occasions
in addition to inwards all matters civil as good as military. He
sometimes acts as commander inwards principal inwards military machine expeditions,
he is allowed to usage the crown, the province umbrella,
in addition to the kakaki trumpet, in addition to to have got royal honors
paid to him. On such occasions, he is privileged also to
dispense the king's prerogatives."
Johnson farther notes (p. 163), that "The Osi-efa is ever the foremost as good as the in conclusion inwards the king's chamber. If the Rex is ill, he takes his topographic point on province occasions, putting on his robes in addition to crown; inwards state of war he appears as the king's deputy, invested inwards all the paraphernalia of royalty." Perhaps related to this exercise of a courtroom figure beingness asked to portray the Rex for sure enough province events is a tradition at Ife described past times Idowu (p. 208) in addition to Willett (p. 150) inwards which it is said that a peculiarly love Rex died, in addition to 1 of his servants decided to enshroud his body in addition to pretend that he was silent live past times wearing the royal regalia himself. The hoax worked for a time, but eventually it was discovered. The novel king, furious that he had been kept from the throne, ordered the retainer in addition to the palace artists to live killed. The courtroom retainer who is said to have got masterminded the deception is identified as Lajuwa, the chamberlain of King Aworokolokin. Lajuwa, Willett notes (p. 57), is at nowadays identified as the patron deity of palace servants.
Interestingly, Hambly, inwards his description of the Lajuwa caput (p. 465) identifies it as "Lajuwa, the messenger of Onis," suggesting that Lajuwa's role at Ife may have got been to a greater extent than that of a representative/advisor than a retainer per se. He may have got acted as a trusted assist in addition to surrogate of the king. The Obalufon mask, as Willett has noted (p. 150), could easily have got been worn past times someone intending to impersonate the king. It is tempting to suggest inwards this lite that the Obalufon mask may also have got been worn past times designated courtroom officials inwards their roles as representatives of the king. Yoruba crowns today comprise a long fringe of beads that enshroud the ruler's face. Sculptural portrayals of ancient Ife crowns (see Fig. 10) demo no such fringe, suggesting that a naturalistic mask mightiness have got been an of import component division of the representative's costume. Possibly the Obalufon mask, through its identity with royal investiture, also had a secondary role inwards masking those at courtroom whose duty it was to serve as royal personifiers.
Ife's Life-Size Brass in addition to Copper Heads: Evidence for Their Identification with Obalufon
The copper Obalufon mask is also stylistically related to the ancient Ife brass in addition to copper heads (Figs. 3, 4) that were unearthed inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound close the palace. The Obalufon mask is unopen plenty to 1 of them to live a portrait of the same person. Frank Willett, who published many of these naturalistic copper in addition to brass heads inwards 1967 inwards his piece of job on Ife, presented a theory as good of their possible usage in addition to meaning. This theory, which had originally been suggested past times William Fagg in addition to so supported past times Justine Cordwell, suggests that the heads in all probability played a telephone substitution role inwards the Yoruba establishment of Ako, a tradition inwards which memorial figures were constructed to correspond the deceased. The life-size brass in addition to copper heads, this theory suggests, were incorporated into memorial figures that served as surrogates for deceased Ife kings during funerary
commemorations. At Owo the documented usage of a naturalistic wooden Ako memorial figure was seen to offering a contemporary counterpart for this tradition.
This theory, though silent held past times most African fine art historians, has been brought into enquiry past times several scholars. Kenneth Murray inwards a missive of the alphabet to Odu was the foremost to lift doubts nearly this view, basing himself primarily on the stylistic congruity of the works involved. He notes that these cast life-size heads appear to have got been produced within a relatively brusk period, in all probability past times 1 or 2 artists working within a close-knit school. Indeed, according to Murray, ". . . it mightiness live argued that only 1 artist, working perhaps for only a couplet of years, made the bulk of the heads."
The stylistic congruity of these works would thus dominion out the possibility that the xv heads were commissioned as funeral memorials for successive Ife kings. To the contrary, the likely average reign of xx years which Willett suggests for the Ife kings (p. 130), or 1 of xiii years at nowadays considered to live to a greater extent than realistic, would stretch their execution over 2 or iii hundred years (i.e.,
twenty, or thirteen, years times xv heads). This fourth dimension span is far likewise long, since they demo remarkably few stylistic or formal elements of variance. Equally problematic is the fact that the heads are all inwards a somewhat similar status (apart from blows that some of them received) suggesting that, rather than having differential lengths in addition to places of burial, they were in all probability all buried for nearly the same length of time, nether the same or similar conditions.
Furthermore, if nosotros hold off at sculptural forms elsewhere inwards Africa, it is clear that artistic traditions demo really important stylistic changes over comparable periods of time. At the royal city-state of Benin, for example, Dark notes that at that topographic point is an enormous stylistic difference inwards the bronze heads
made over the course of didactics of several centuries. Garrard has shown that brass "gold weights" from the kingdom of the Ashanti inwards Republic of Ghana during the same fourth dimension span demo as striking changes. Great differences tin also live seen, as Rosenwald points out, betwixt the early on in addition to slow commemorative figures of the Kuba kings, fifty-fifty though they were made over a much shorter period. Willett was aware of the problems inwards the several hundredyear menstruum of industry that his memorial theory necessitated. He suggested accordingly (p. 130) that Ife kings may have got been ritually killed after a brusk reign of only vii years. There is, however, no evidence for the ritual killing of kings inwards whatever of the accounts of Ife history, nor inwards the other Yoruba city-state histories. The only evidence that Willett cites as back upwardly for his tilt is an business concern human relationship given past times Ulli Beier coming from the southern Yoruba metropolis of Ijebu, which refers to traditions nearly events assumed to have got taken topographic point inwards Ife.
Even if nosotros were to select a seven-year reign for the kings of Ife, however, this would silent dot a menstruum of industry of roughly 112 years, a span of fourth dimension silent likewise long for these stylistically similar works. Willett also appears to have got been aware of this difficulty, for he suggests (p. 130) that the heads may have got portrayed non only kings but also palace retainers - i.e., those who would have got been killed to accompany the Rex at the fourth dimension of his death. The possibility that whatever of these copper in addition to brass heads represented courtroom servants, however, is extremely slight, inwards sentiment non only of the scarcity of copper in addition to brass at Ife at this time, but also because, as Willett notes, each caput appears to have got been intended to have on a crown. More latterly Rowland Abiodun has raised farther questions nearly Willett's memorial theory for these heads. Abiodun points out that ". . .if the 'effigy represents the dignitas of the business office itself,' it is unusual that nosotros have got non yet found a unmarried instance where the ako effigy has been made specifically for [a king] . . ." He goes on to banking concern bill that
"..if [kings] are honored as seconds of the gods . ..
in addition to if 'it is unsafe to stare at his naked face' . . . and
if at his decease at that topographic point is fifty-fifty greater secrecy in addition to mystery
surrounding his person, would it non live incongruous to
carve an ako or fifty-fifty to brand whatever image of him inwards the
characteristically naturalistic style in addition to parade the town
with it the way the known ako are treated?"
Murray in addition to Abiodun have got not, however, suggested whatever alternatives for the possible pregnant in addition to usage of these heads. It is only such an alternate theory that the to a higher topographic point tidings of the Obalufon mask may at nowadays permit.
I suggest inwards this lite that these heads, similar the life-size copper mask, may have got been identified with Obalufon II in addition to with his later worship as a god. There is considerable evidence to back upwardly this view. First, all the brass in addition to copper life-size heads from Ife were found inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound (Fig. 6),6 a component division of the upper-case missive of the alphabet that is said to live close the topographic point where Obalufon II himself was buried. According to Fabunmi's map (n.p.), this is also close the topographic point where the novel kings of Ife are crowned. It is also possible that these heads may have got originally been housed on an Obalufon shrine, on the analogy that at other Yoruba centers, brass crowns, masks, in addition to figures are oftentimes found on shrines identified with this deity.
The only other major shrines specifically associated with brass sculptures are those of the Ogboni in addition to Agemo societies. The placement of these heads on the Ife Obalufon shrine would also arrange to the Yoruba tradition that identifies Obalufon as the patron deity of brass casting, in addition to attributes to Obalufon II the introduction of the casting arts. Furthermore, if the heads were intended, as Willett
suggests, to live seen with actual crowns, in addition to if, as stated above, these crowns were kept on the Obalufon shrine, it follows that the heads in addition to the crowns would have got been kept together.
The association of these heads with Obalufon also emerges from the likely circumstances of their slow burial inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound inwards the palace. When the works were brought into the palace for interment, which Willett suggests (pp. 27-28) in all probability took topographic point sometime before the early on nineteenth century, it seems likely that this was done with the intention of protecting them from farther attack. With this inwards mind, the topographic point selected for their burial undoubtedly would have got been chosen with considerable care. Assuming this to live the case, it would follow that the heads would live buried inwards a palace expanse closely associated with the patron deity inwards whose shrine they had
originally been found. Since the heads were buried close the assumed grave of Obalufon II, it seems likely that originally they had also been associated with this ruler.
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Cosmic References inwards Ancient Ife
Suzanne Preston Blier
THIS ESSAY CONSIDERS 1 of the most of import Yoruba cosmological referents, the programme of the upper-case missive of the alphabet Ile-Ife in addition to its palace (fig 11.1), in addition to examines a number of artworks associated with this urban center, especially at its peak around 1300 CE. The Yoruba cosmos has often been compared to a gourd or calabash cutting horizontally so as to shape a separate base of operations in addition to cover, with the upper one-half identified with the sky-linked creator god, Obatala, the lower one-half with the ground god in addition to novel dynasty founder, Odudua (see Lawal, this volume). The shape of the gourd sometimes is used inwards scholarly diagrams that seek to demo the Yoruba cosmos as a well-ordered layering of human in addition to supernatural actors (see fig. 12.6). In my view, however, this neatly delimited model reflects inwards component division a Western taxonomic conception, since to the Yoruba, religious forces in addition to persona are continually moving, intersecting, cross-pollinating, challenging, in addition to energizing 1 some other (and humans) across a myriad of celestial in addition to earthly spheres. Human in addition to sacral worlds, inwards short, are conjoined here.
There also are noteworthy historical contradictions around the identity of this calabash-form as cosmological model, peculiarly inwards its references to Obatala in addition to Odudua. Both of these deity pantheons appear to live relatively slow inventions inwards Yoruba religious history, emerging most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s instant dynasty inwards nearly 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to have got been made, a menstruum closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, in addition to with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis programme inwards which the palace in addition to marketplace are located inwards the middle surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This programme features iv main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were 1 time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The programme of Ile-Ife, which may have got housed
some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology in addition to directional primacy.
SUN, MOON, THUNDER, AND LIGHTNING
There is compelling evidence supporting the importance of both the Sun in addition to Moon inwards early on Ife in addition to broader Yoruba thought. Celestial light, P. A. Talbot points out, is identified past times the Yoruba with the Sun (male), the Moon (female), in addition to the stars (their children), all traveling each twenty-four hours inwards enormous canoes beneath the ground in addition to across the sky. In ancient Ife contexts sure enough sculptural forms are identified with these heavenly bodies. The Sun is referenced here, inwards part, past times a tall, triangular menhir (fig. 11.2; take in also fig. 11.5), which seems to have got served as a calendrical device. In Ife at that topographic point are beliefs (taboos) nearly the sun’s importance to the usage in addition to display of sure enough ancient Ife
sculptural arts, inwards particular, the ancient terra cotta caput identified with the early on King Osangangan Obamakin (Obalufon I), which was non supposed to ever take in the sun.
Ife oral histories banking concern bill that this sculpture was shielded past times an overturned pot to safeguard it from daylight. This exercise also may have got political in addition to temporal connections to this Rex based on his prominent associations with the foremost dynasty at Ife, the era prior to Odudua’s arrival in addition to cultural enlightenment. Significantly, it was this same Rex (now god) who is credited inwards Obalufon menage unit of measurement myths with bringing lite to earth, an human activity that complements the usage of shining, reflective mica for the diadem on the royal Ife crown (are) that Ife’s Obalufon priest places on the caput of each newly crowned king.
The Moon finds notable reference here, too. Not only is the festival calendar a lunar one, but according to Euba, Ife rituals of divine kingship that shape component division of the yearly. Oduduwa festival necessarily “take topographic point on a moonless dark because the existent Moon inwards the sky must non human face upwardly the symbolic Moon of ‘Oduduwa,’ the latter, a apartment slab of rock referred to as orun Oduduwa, ‘Oduduwa’s heaven,’ that is carried past times the high priest circular the various spots inwards the town where sacrifices are made.” Another moon-linked stone, thought to live of quartz (or mica), was reportedly “stolen” inwards the early on component division of the twentieth century past times a European visitor intent on discovering the properties of “electricity” presumed to live associated with it. This rock carries associations, Euba
suggests, with the ancient thunder in addition to lightning god Oramfe (Ora). Its name, osupa Ijio, “the Moonstone of Ijio,” also links it to Ife Chief Obajio (Oba Ijio), the caput priest of Olokun, the ancient god of large H2O bodies (the ocean), trade, in addition to beads. The unopen link betwixt lightning, thunder, rain, bodies of water, in addition to the annual bike of the seasons seems inwards this way to have got informed this unusual now-missing object.
The early on Ife god of thunder in addition to lightning Oramfe (Oranfe/Aramfe, Ora, the precursor of Sango) is identified at 1 time with pelting (storms), royal power, in addition to jurisprudence. E. B. Idowu identifies Oramfe additionally with command of the solar system. Euba non only describes Oramfe as Ife’s 1 time powerful “solar-thunder god,” but also characterizes this “high god” as Ife’s “most senior of the humanized spirits,” honored simultaneously as Onile Ina, “Owner of the House of Fire,” in addition to Ooni Ale, “Owner of the Land.” She also highlights Oramfe’s identity as “the Olodumare of the Ife” (since both are “worshipped inwards the same elementary way”), noting that Oramfe’s Oriki praise names topographic point him, inwards turn, as the “supreme ase,” namely Orisa.
The latter creative force, she adds, is non only symbolized past times “whiteness in addition to personified as the sky god” but also evokes “the humanized ase emanating from the dark earth,” the latter also oftentimes linked to Odudua. There is some other cosmological aspect as well, for as Euba explains: “In the Ife creation myth it is Olodumare (sometimes said to live Ora) who sent downward these divinities to assist ‘him’ inwards the creation of the world in addition to of mankind.”
The god Oramfe has a political role at Ife, in addition to is said to convey to Ife kings in addition to others the powerfulness to attract in addition to halt rain, to command the seasons, in addition to to regulate the bike of the universe to a greater extent than generally. Royal powerfulness also is associated with Oramfe, consistent with this god’s affinity with protecting the kingdom in addition to its rulers. Indeed, as Emmanuel Eze suggests, the human activity of prostration before the Rex reinforces this tie: “The exercise of lying apartment when inwards a thunderstorm is regarded past times the early on Yorubas as an human activity of worship of Sango [and past times extension Oramfe] who becomes appeased in addition to consequently spares the life of the worshiper.”
Several Ife sculptures dating to ca. 1300 CE are identified with the celestial features associated with Oramfe, amongst them a Janus figure (figs. 11.3a, 11.3b) depicting on 1 side a standing human in addition to on the other a raptor. The human bears unusual diagonal facial markings in addition to appears to live spitting or vomiting a rock ax (celt, “thunderbolt”), the latter a key icon of Oramfe (and of this god’s successor as thunder deity, Sango). The human depicted hither grasps a society inwards his left mitt and, inwards his right, what appears to live a slice of cloth or feather. The society in addition to cloth/feather seem to signal the primacy of residuum in addition to contrast. Whereas the cloth or plumage suggests the wealth, plenty, and
calm that come upwardly to Oramfe devotees who follow his laws, the society signals the potential blows that are meted out to social deviants, such as thieves, who go against Oramfe’s wishes. At the raise of the man’s left shoulder is a branch of leaves, most likely akoko, a flora shape that figures prominently inwards Ife enthronement rites, perhaps underscoring the role of Oramfe inwards conveying dynastic power. Ife principal Obaluru, priest of Ife’s Oramfe temple, describes this thunder in addition to lightning deity inwards ways that inform the sculpture further:
"Fire comes from Oramfe’s mouth, so you lot cannot sit down close him or else you lot will
burn. He also has rock axes [edun àrà] that come upwardly from his mouth, in addition to kills people
when lightning strikes."
Following 1 peculiarly active lightning tempest inwards Ife inwards 2004, I was told that powerful local babalawo (healers, diviners) would come upwardly out to collect the fallen celts (thunderbolts) for later usage inwards making strong medicines, pointing to connections betwixt these celts in addition to an array of protective or empowering medicinal forms.
(Fig 11.4a in addition to 11.4b) Staff of Oranmiyan (including particular of nails) dating ca. 1300 ce , Ife
On the contrary side of this sculpture (see fig. 11.3b) is a large-eyed aeroplane with looping, snake-like
wings. When asked nearly the significance of birds with this wing attribute, Chief Obaluru noted “this aeroplane was sent to people past times Oramfe when he wanted to do favors for them.” The bird, he explained, carries Oramfe’s lightning in addition to thunder celts to earth, in addition to volition convey both penalty in addition to favors from this god to humans. The exact species of this aeroplane tin live debated, but it may depict the owl resembling African pennant-winged dark jolt (Cosmetornis vexillarius). When inwards flight, its white flash of nether feathers is reminiscent of lightning. The birds, known to the Yoruba as ase, the phoneme se referring to a command or order, also evoke larger Yoruba notions of potency in addition to powerfulness (ase) linked to Oramfe, the thunder, lightning, in addition to omnipotent solar-linked god who safeguards society in addition to helps to save effective rule. The pennant-winged nightjar also carries sure enough sorcery associations here, actions that Oramfe was believed to counter, connecting this sculpture to both positive (kingship) in addition to negative (sorcery) ends.
CELESTIAL- LINKED STONE MONUMENTS
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 grouping of menhirs, or tall standing stones, is amongst the most interesting of ancient Ife artworks that send cosmological significance. These monuments were a major component division of the Ife landscape of circa 1300 ce—and silent are today. Sculpted from granite inwards the same menstruum as the famous Ife copper alloy castings in addition to terracottas, they were erected inwards various parts of the city, often inwards conjunction with temples, shrines, in addition to groves. Many send features that offering insight into ancient Ife beliefs nearly the cosmos.
One of the city’s most famous monuments is the to a greater extent than or less 16 feet 10 inches tall (above ground) staff of Oranmiyan, located around a quarter mile south-southwest of the palace, in addition to identified with King Obalufon II’s main adversary (figs. 11.4a, 11.4b). The Oranmiyan staff is dedicated to the famous warrior in addition to military machine leader who is said to have got conquered Ife in addition to forced King Obalufon II from the throne, the latter eventually returning to powerfulness in addition to bringing peace to the so warring citizens. Before or after this event, Oranmiyan is credited with founding novel dynasties
at Republic of Benin in addition to Oyo. Oral tradition suggests that this tall granite staff represents the sword Oranmiyan used to savage Ife’s citizens, a weapon he purportedly thrust into the ground before leaving Ife for good. Most likely this monument was created in addition to positioned inwards Ife inwards the era next his difference during Obalufon II’s instant reign, inwards conjunction with the truce he forged after Ife’s painful civil war. This was a menstruum when many of the famous early on Ife heroes appear to have got been commemorated with shrines in addition to associated sculptures.
This staff integrates on its surface a sculpted ram horn or ax motif (evoking ase, or vital power/force) in addition to a pattern of Fe nails. Although various interpretations of the unusual Fe pattern have got been given, most likely it depicts a multi-branched staff, a three-arm version of the Y-shaped
beaded staff carried past times the Ooni inwards the course of didactics of the annual Olojo ceremony, a context inwards which the richly costumed in addition to crowned Rex is said to attract rain. As such the Oranmiyan monument also seems to symbolize the powerfulness of kings to command storms in addition to rain, a characteristic linked both to Oramfe (the ancient thunder god) in addition to to Sango (the Oyo-linked god identified with Oranmiyan).
Another of import ancient Ife rock menhir comprises a 7 pes 8 inch tall piece of job known as Ita Ogun Esa, a sculpture identified past times Leo Frobenius as a “sun dial” (fig. 11.5; take in also fig. 11.2). This menhir is located southeast of the palace on Itapa Street close the temple of Obatala. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 tall, narrow, three-sided work, the menhir appears to have got had calendrical functions. As Frobenius explains, “When the shadow of this stela savage inwards sure enough directions in addition to reached a dot drawn on a circle around it, it was fourth dimension for sure enough sacred festivals.”18 Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 rock sundial of this type would have got been critical for determining non only festival times, but also other events. The identification of this
rock with the Obatala temple complex reinforces the larger celestial associations of Obatala with both the heavens in addition to related light.
An additional rock menhir was positioned inwards the now-destroyed Ijugbe temple on Famia Road inwards the city’s western Modakeke sector, a site dedicated to the Obatala-linked agricultural deity, Orisa Teko. This work, a long, sparse 6 pes 6 inch rectangle, was identified past times Willett as the temple’s monument to Ogun, consistent with the importance of Fe inwards agricultural (and other) tools. Orisa Teko is known inwards Ife today as an early on yam farmer (now the god of yams), the forerunner of the Yoruba agriculture god, Orisa Oko. Historically, the priest of the Ijugbe temple also is said to have got been inwards accuse of rain. This menhir, similar the Ita Ogun Esa monument discussed above, possibly
functioned as a sundial (calendar stone, gnomon), inwards this representative in all probability helping to determine the best fourth dimension for planting yams in addition to other agricultural produce. This menhir, similar the 1 identified with the Obatala temple, is thus linked inwards of import ways to the bike of time.
Yet some other menhir, a piece of job 1 time positioned inwards the Ore Grove (and at nowadays located inwards the National Museum, Ile Ife), stands nearly 5 feet 2 inches to a higher topographic point ground in addition to incorporates the unusual pattern of iv holes cutting roughly equidistant from the other (and betwixt xi in addition to 16 inches apart) inwards such a way that they run downward each side of the four-sided column. Iron inserts were secured inwards iv of the holes, only the bases of which remain. The piece of job is thought to have got had spiral-shaped inserts of Fe similar to those embedded inwards the Oranmiyan staff. Frank Willett notes that these holes were positioned consistent with the key directions, suggesting that the menhir is associated with cosmological order. An additional rock shape with a plausible cosmological reference was housed at the palace Ogun temple, Ogun Ladin, this piece of job integrating a pattern of iv holes marking the corners of a square, at the middle of which was a 5th stone, suggesting the iv key points in addition to the Sun at the middle. In many ways this shape also suggests a schematic model of the metropolis itself, with its historic iv main entries leading through the walls into the metropolis middle where they come across at the palace in addition to nearby market.
IFE, Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 CARDINAL CITY
Ife is an unusual metropolis inwards many respects, non the to the lowest degree of which is the number of different plans that figure inwards its conceptualization. At its most basic, Ife is a central-plan urban center, with its (originally four?) main avenues at 1 fourth dimension piercing the metropolis walls close the key points in addition to joining at the palace in addition to marketplace that delimit the center, a programme similar to many other early on Yoruba walled cities. In addressing both the Ife metropolis programme in addition to the key directions, the local Yoruba concept of N (traditional north, e.g., northwest) is employed, 1 that defines the directions vis-à-vis orientations several degrees off truthful north, in all probability as determined around the fourth dimension of the wintertime solstice when the Sun sets on the horizon inwards its most westerly position.
P. A. Talbot provides additional insight into Yoruba views of the cosmos in addition to how issues of shape in addition to directionality figure inwards them. He notes that the Yoruba topographic point the ground as foursquare in addition to that their names for the key directions reverberate this understanding: the eastward is known as ila orun (appearing of the sun), the due west as iwaw orun (the sinking of the sun), the N as igun keta (third corner, or ariwa otun ila orun, the coming to the correct of the earth), in addition to the due south as igun kerin aiya (fourth corner of the world). Leo Frobenius provides a version of the Yoruba creation myth that speaks straight to this dynamic, noting that a key programme is identified with the earth’s creation, a
procedure said past times Idowu to have got taken iv days. Frobenius also identifies each management with a specific god (deity complex): the eastward as Edju/Eshu, the due west as Sango, the N as Ogun, in addition to the due south as Obatala (fig. 11.6). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 complementary sculptural shape tin live seen inwards the double Janus (four-headed) figure documented past times Idowu26 at the Odudua temple. This unusual Ife sculptural
work, similar several others, references the iv faces (directions) of the Ifa oracular divinity Orunmila (fig. 11.7). Other motifs on this sculpture correspond eternal knots, double-headed serpents, an Odu head, in addition to figures of the messenger god, Eshu. The unique shapes of Yoruba Ifa divination boards (rectilinear, circular, a one-half circle, or a combination thereof) underscore ideas of cosmological organisation as well. While rectilinear forms evoke fourth dimension in addition to infinite as delimited past times the key points, the circle suggests circular celestial bodies in addition to ideas of perpetuity. According to Idowu, when
a worshipper creates a circle of ashes or white chalk on the ground, inwards the middle of which he places an offering, the circular shape is seen to reference eternity.
The key directions clearly constitute 1 of the key agency through which the Ife space, planning, in addition to fourth dimension are delimited in addition to experienced, a factor reinforced through the array of ancient potsherd or rock in addition to potsherd pavements that grade this middle in addition to its past. These are largely oriented to a greater extent than or less northeast to southwest or to northwest to southeast, consistent with an overall key management primacy. In the historic Ife metropolis plan, the palace is at the middle (see fig. 11.1). Each grouping of gods also has its topographic point consistent with their religious in addition to cosmological associations. In the department of the metropolis broadly to the eastward of the palace are the shrines of Ifa (Orunmila), the god of divination, located atop Ife’s highest loma (Oke Tase). Also eastward of the palace is the main Edju (Eshu, Esu) shrine, dedicated to the Ifa divination-linked messenger god. The temple of Olurogbo, the ancient Ife messenger betwixt humans in addition to gods is located inwards this sector as well, as is the Ife shrine to the Moon goddess. These Ife temples seem to part an association with heavenly communication, consistent with the positioning of the king’s residence (bedroom) on the eastern side of the palace.
West of the palace are temples linked especially to pelting in addition to storms, including non only that of Oramfe, the ancient Ife deity of thunder in addition to lightning (Ife’s precursor to Sango) in addition to Ogbon Oya
(Sango’s wife), but also the Ife god of agriculture, Orisa Teko. At this latter temple, also sometimes called Ijugbe, were observed rock seats, a large copper alloy frog pierced past times an arrow, in addition to a ram fashioned from quartz, the latter used for offerings during the annual March festival cycle. The military machine conqueror in addition to cultural hero, Oranmiyan, who is identified variously as the manlike individual parent or boy of Sango inwards Oyo (Yoruba) contexts, has his monument due west of the palace as well.
In the northern quadrant of the metropolis is the main Ogun temple, dedicated to the powerful god of war, iron, in addition to the advancement of civilization. Also found inwards Ife’s northern quadrant is the temple of Orisa Akire, the autochthonous Ife warrior god. Another temple, this 1 dedicated to King Obalufon II, founder of Ife’s instant dynasty in addition to the main king/deity credited with enlarging Ife’s route scheme in addition to establishing its metropolis plan, is sited inwards the city’s northern sector as well, non far from the western metropolis wall in addition to gate leading toward Ibadan. Both the Ife palace in addition to the Obalufon temple human face N (northwest), the management of import to Ogun. In the southern quadrant of Ife is some other grouping of Ife sanctuaries. These are identified with Obatala (the sky god), Olokun (the sea god, also Olokun Walode), in addition to an array of royal burial sites or shrines (Wunmonije, Lafogido, in addition to Igbo Odi).
Each cluster of Ife gods thus is identified with a different quadrant of the city, consistent with its key in addition to broader cosmological associations: eastward (with life in addition to renewal: Ifa, Eshu), due west (with dark skies in addition to storms: the thunder in addition to agriculture gods: Oramfe, Orisa Teko), N (with power, war, in addition to technology: Ogun), in addition to due south (with creation, fertility, in addition to the ocean: Obatala, Olokun). The importance of the Sun in addition to Moon within the metropolis landscape in addition to the key orientation of the iv main avenues in addition to palace demo that infinite inwards Ile-Ife carried sustained cosmological significance.
Taken together these various sculptural, architectural, in addition to ritual forms dot to the high grade of early on in addition to ongoing Ife involvement inwards cosmology, issues referenced non only inwards the primacy of cosmological attributes (the sun, the moon, lightning) but also inwards an array of of import calendrical features (stone menhirs functioning as fourth dimension markers), as good as roads, pavements, palaces, in addition to temples linked to the key directions.
source:http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/blier/files/blier_cosmic_references_in_ancient_ife._african_cosmology_ed._kreamer_2012.pdf
Olojo Festival
The Olojo Festival is a festival inwards Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. It is the celebration of the remembrance of “Ogun” the god of Iron, who is believed to live the foremost boy of Oduduwa, progenitor of the Yoruba people.
On this day, the Ooni (king of Ife) appears after several days of seclusion, communing with the ancestors in addition to praying for his people. This ritual is to brand him pure in addition to ensure the efficacy of his prayers. Before the Ooni emerges, women from his maternal in addition to paternal families sweep the Palace, symbolically ridding the Palace of evil.
The Ooni later appears inwards public with the Are crown (King’s Crown), which is believed to live the original crown used past times Oduduwa to atomic number 82 a procession of traditional Chiefs in addition to Priests to perform at the Shrine of Ogun. The next stage of the ceremony is to atomic number 82 the crowd to Okemogun’s shrine. Here he performs duties including the renewal of oath, divination for the Ooni at the pes of Oketage loma past times Araba (Chief Priest), as good as visiting places of historical importance.
At the shrine, the traditional Chiefs with the swords of business office marked with chalk in addition to cam wood, appear inwards ceremonial attire in addition to trip the lite fantastic toe to rhythms from Bembe, a traditional drum. The style of drumming in addition to singing for each Chief is different. Only the Ooni tin trip the lite fantastic toe to the drum called Osirigi.
Olojo has remained pop inwards Ile-Ife due to its myth in addition to history. It connotes the twenty-four hours inwards the twelvemonth specially blessed past times Olodumare (the creator of the Universe). Olojo tin also live literally translated as the “Owner for the day”. Prayers are offered for peace in addition to tranquility inwards Yoruba in addition to Nigeria. All historic menstruum groups participate in addition to it’s significance is inwards the unification of the Yorubas.
Tradition holds that Ile-Ife is the cradle of the Yorubas, the metropolis of survivors, spiritual topographic point of the Yorubas, in addition to ground of the ancients
Photo source:http://orishada.com/wordpress/?p=267
Ife people celebrating their Obatala festival at Ile Ife
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the root of the Yoruba people in addition to it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on menstruum of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to constitute when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the foremost King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) in addition to Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that at that topographic point were betwixt 90 iii to 90 vii kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards in addition to around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to have got encountered indigenous people inwards the part (Falola in addition to Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong take away hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
Ile ife women inwards their traditional dress
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ or and the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the topographic point where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwardly upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher topographic point suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded in addition to situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual root (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental in addition to continuity of groovy bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a middle from which Yoruba civilisation emanates in addition to a topographic point for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997).
Diasporan Ifa priests undergoing their initiation at Ifa temple inwards Ile Ife, Nigeria
The early on written records that mentionss Ife was during the early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era when the well-known adventurer, historian in addition to travelor Ibn Battûta(1325–1354) mentioned them inwards his travelogue. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a ground called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is 1 of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is 1 of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a ground that “No white human tin motion into … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing in addition to mercantile interests, amongst these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, Fe smelting in addition to forging, in addition to textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife have got been found as far due west as Mali, Mauritania, in addition to modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good have got learned of this middle inwards the course of didactics of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the yell Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the representative inwards maps from this era, the yell Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a slow fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions nearly an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amongst others)
Ife is good known as the metropolis of 401 or 201 deities. It is said that every twenty-four hours of the twelvemonth the traditional Ifa worshippers celebrate a festival of 1 of these deities. Often the festivals extend over to a greater extent than than 1 twenty-four hours in addition to they involve both priestly activities inwards the palace in addition to theatrical dramatisations inwards the relaxation of the kingdom. Because of Ife’s importance inwards the realm of creation, it has many traditional festivals to commemorate the many deities known inwards the history of the metropolis in addition to inwards Yoruba land. The most spectacular festivals demand the King's participation. These include the Itapa festival for Obatala in addition to Obameri, the Edi festival for Moremi Ajasoro, in addition to the Igare masqueraders, in addition to the Olojo festival for Ogoun. During the festivals in addition to at other occasions the traditional priests offering prayers for the approbation of their ain cult-group, the metropolis of Ile Ife, the Nigerian land in addition to the whole world.
Ile Ifa Ifa practitioners inwards a street procession inwards celebration of the anniversary of the Orisha Obatala festival.
The Oòni (or king) of Ife claims direct descent from Oduduwa, in addition to is counted foremost amongst the Yoruba kings. He is traditionally considered the 401st deity (òrìshà), the only 1 that speaks. In fact, the royal dynasty of Ife traces its root dorsum to the founding of the metropolis to a greater extent than than 2 one thousand years ago. The nowadays ruler is Alayeluwa Oba Okunade Sijuwade, Olubuse II, styled His Imperial Majesty past times his subjects. The Ooni ascended his throne inwards 1980. Following the formation of the Yoruba Orisha Congress inwards 1986, the Ooni acquired an international status the likes of which the holders of his championship hadn't had since the city's colonisation past times the British. Nationally he had ever been prominent amongst the Federal Republic of Nigeria's companionship of royal Obas, beingness regarded as the principal priest in addition to custodian of the holy metropolis of all the Yorubas. In onetime times, the palace of the Oni of Ife was a construction built of authentic enameled bricks, decorated with artistic porcelain tiles in addition to all sorts of ornaments.
Statue of Oduduwa, the progenitor of Yoruba people
Ife people in addition to their ancient metropolis of Ile Ife which is regarded as the ancient metropolis of Old Yoruba, are so precious in addition to sacred to the Yoruba people so much that every Yoruba sub-group is forbidden to assault them no affair how they provoke a particular sub-group. Attacking an Ife citizen or Ile Ife town is an abomination, high treason in addition to sacrilegious human activity that tin atomic number 82 to consummate extermination of a particular Yoruba group, as all other Yoruba groups volition come upwardly together to care against whatever Yoruba that care or assault Ife citizen or towns. The representative inwards dot is how combined Yoruba forces led past times Ijebu, Ife in addition to their allies completely destroyed the original habitat of Orile-Owu or Owu-Ipole in addition to their Ikija allies forcing them to flee to seek sanctuary at Abeokuta amongst the Egbas, when Owu people nether the leadership of Olowu Amororo attacked Ife towns. The outcome result of Olowu`s activity became a disaster for the Owu people inwards their original abode in addition to threw the whole of Yoruba ground into civil war. In fact, the Owu were thoroughly defeated past times the combined forces of Ibadan in addition to Ijebu, in addition to the Oni of Ife, the spiritual caput of the Yorubas, ordered with his constitutional authority, that the Owu capital, Orile-Owu must live destroyed with no human existence. According to Samuel Johnson inwards his renowned bulk "The History of the Yoruba" Owu was rendered helpless as famine emerged in addition to they "began for the foremost fourth dimension to eat those large beans called popondo (or awuje) hitherto considered unfit for food; hence the taunting songs of the allies : —
"Popondo I'ara Owu nje. (The Owus at nowadays live on propondo)
Aje f'ajaga bo 'run." (That done, their necks for the yoke)
Unto this day, whoever would hum this ditty within the hearing of an Owu man, must hold off out for an accident to his ain person. Ikija was the only Egba town which befriended the metropolis of Owu inwards her straits hence after the autumn of the latter town, the combined armies went to punish her for supplying Owu with provisions during the siege. Being a much smaller town, they shortly made brusk piece of job of it. After the devastation of Ikija,^ the allies returned to their onetime military camp at Idi Ogungun (under the Ogiingun tree). "Owu was thenceforth placed nether an interdict, never to live rebuilt ; in addition to it was resolved that inwards future, withal groovy mightiness live the population of Oje — the nearest town to it — the town walls should non extend as far as the Ogungun tree, where the military camp was pitched. Consequently to this day, although the ground may live cultivated yet no 1 is allowed to build a theater on it." (Johnson, 1928)
According to Fashogbon (1995) recounting the oral historical handout of the ancient Yoruba town of Ile-Ife submits that “it is the foremost creation inwards this world”. Ile-Ife is the holy city, the domicile of divinities in addition to mysterious spirits, the source of all oceans in addition to the gateway to heaven. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 schoolhouse of thought fifty-fifty speculates that Ile-Ife was the topographic point of civilization from where Arab Republic of Egypt received its civilization which later spread to the Hebrews in addition to the Babylonians so to the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans in addition to finally to the Britons (Fabunmi, 1969).
Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' in addition to 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline. Generally, therefore, Ile-Ife has earned many enviable appellations, viz:
Ile-Ife, ile Owuro Ile-Ife, the ground of the most ancient days
Ile-Ife, Oodaye Ile-Ife, where the tidings of creation took place
Ile-Ife, Ibi ti ojumo ti mowa Ile-Ife, where the dawn of the twenty-four hours was foremost experienced
Ile-Ife, Ori yes gbogbo Ile-Ife, caput of the whole universe
Ile-Ife, Ooye Lagbo Ile-Ife the metropolis of the Survivors.
(Fashogbon, op.cit)
Ori-olokun sculpture which sits at the entrance of the ancestral metropolis of Ile Ife. The ancient metropolis is domicile to beautifully preserved artworks inwards bronze in addition to terra cotta which holds the potential for authentic ethnological studies of Yoruba culture, these are on demo inwards its museum of Ife antiquities located inwards the Kings palace at Enuwa Square Ile Ife.
Yoruba oral history fifty-fifty testifies to it that Oduduwa the progenitor of the Yoruba, in addition to other ‘Leaders of Mankind’ (deities in addition to divinities) were the Survivors (Ooye Lagbo) after the deluge in addition to that they were the founders of Ile-Ife whence the people migrated to the different territories they presently occupy (Fashogbon, 1995).
Yoruba people take in Ife as a topographic point where the founding deities Oduduwa in addition to Obatala began the creation of the world, as directed past times the paramount deity Olodumare. Obàtálá created the foremost humans out of clay, piece Odùduwà became the foremost divine Rex of the Yoruba. But it must live emphasised that Oduduwa in addition to Obatala met aboriginal people on the land. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all concur on 1 factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established at that topographic point (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to have got come upwardly downward with the foremost political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures in addition to Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the yell of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
Yoruba religious history, emerged most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s instant dynasty inwards nearly 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to have got been made, a menstruum closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, in addition to with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis programme inwards which the palace in addition to marketplace are located inwards the middle surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This programme features iv main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were 1 time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The programme of Ile-Ife, which may have got housed some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology in addition to directional primacy.
In Ife artistic works, of import people were often depicted with large heads because the artists believed that the Ase was held inwards the head, the Ase beingness the inner powerfulness in addition to unloosen energy of a person. Their rulers were also often depicted with their mouths covered so that the powerfulness of their spoken communication would non live likewise great. They did non idealize private people, but they tended rather to idealize the business office of the king. The metropolis was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th in addition to 12th centuries, with houses featuring potsherd pavements. Ilé-Ifè is known worldwide for its ancient in addition to naturalistic bronze, rock in addition to terra cotta sculptures, which reached their peak of artistic aspect betwixt 1200 in addition to 1400 A.D. After this period, production declined as political in addition to economical powerfulness shifted to the nearby kingdom of Republic of Benin which, similar the Yoruba kingdom of Oyo, developed into a major empire.
Bronze in addition to terra cotta fine art created past times this civilization are important examples of realism inwards pre-colonial African art.
Ile Ife - Western Nigeria - Oranmiyan Obelisk, the root of the world according to Yoruba mythology
In his book, "The Oral Traditions inwards Ile-Ife," Yemi D. Prince referred to the terra cotta artists of 900 A.D. as the founders of Art Guilds, cultural schools of philosophy, which today tin live likened to many of Europe's old institutions of learning that were originally established as religious bodies. These guilds may good live some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centres of learning to remain as feasible entities inwards the contemporary world. A major exhibition entitled Kingdom of Ife: Sculptures of West Africa, displaying works of fine art found inwards Ife in addition to the surrounding area, was held inwards the British Museum from 4 March to 4 July 2010.
Today a mid-sized city, Ife is domicile to both the Obafemi Awolowo University in addition to the Natural History Museum of Nigeria. Its people are of the Yoruba ethnic group, 1 of the largest ethnolinguistic groups inwards Africa in addition to its diaspora (The population of the Yoruba exterior of their homeland is said to live to a greater extent than than the population of Yoruba inwards Nigeria, nearly 35 million).[citation needed] Ife has a local boob tube station called NTA Ife, in addition to is domicile to various businesses. It is also the merchandise middle for a farming part where yams, cassava, grain, cacao, in addition to tobacco are grown. Cotton is also produced, in addition to is used to weave cloth. Hotels inwards Ilé-Ife include Republic of Cameroon Hotel, Hotel Diganga Ife-Ibadan road, Mayfair Hotel, Obafemi Awolowo University Guest House etc. Ilé-Ife has a stadium with a capacity of 9,000 in addition to a instant sectionalization professional person league football game team.
The Orunmila Barami Agbonmiregun, the World Ifa Festival was held Sabbatum June 4-5, 2011 at Oketase the World Ifa Temple, Ile-Ife.
Mythic root of Ife, the holy city: Creation of the world
The Yoruba claim to have got originated inwards Ife. According to their mythology, Olodumare, the Supreme God, ordered Obatala to create the ground but on his way he found palm wine, drank it in addition to became intoxicated. Therefore the younger blood brother of the latter, Oduduwa, took the iii items of creation from him, climbed downward from the heavens on a chain in addition to threw a handful of ground on the primordial ocean, so set a cockerel on it so that it would scatter the earth, thus creating the ground on which Ile Ife would live built. Oduduwa planted a palm nut inwards a hole inwards the newly formed ground in addition to from at that topographic point sprang a groovy tree with xvi branches, a symbolic representation of the clans of the early on Ife city-state.
The usurpation of creation past times Oduduwa gave rising to the ever lasting conflict betwixt him in addition to his elderberry blood brother Obatala, which is silent re-enacted inwards the modern era past times the cult groups of the 2 clans during the Itapa New Year's Day festival. On business concern human relationship of his creation of the world Oduduwa became the ancestor of the foremost divine Rex of the Yoruba, piece Obatala is believed to have got created the foremost humans out of clay. The pregnant of the tidings "ife" inwards Yoruba is "expansion"; "Ile-Ife" is so inwards reference to the myth of root "The Land of Expansion". Due to this fact, the metropolis is normally regarded as the cradle of non only the Yoruba culture, but all of humanity as well, especially past times the followers of the Yoruba faith.
Oduduwa had sons, daughters in addition to a grandson who went on to found their ain kingdoms in addition to empires, namely Ila Orangun, Owu, Ketu, Sabe, Popo, Oyo in addition to Benin. Oranmiyan, Oduduwa's in conclusion born, was 1 of his father's principal ministers in addition to overseer of the nascent Edo empire after Oduduwa granted the plea of the Edo people for his governance. When Oranmiyan decided to go dorsum to Ile Ife after a menstruum of service inwards Benin, he left behind a kid named Eweka that he had inwards the interim with an indigenous princess. The immature man child went on to acquire the foremost legitimate ruler of the instant Edo dynasty that has ruled what is at nowadays Republic of Benin from that twenty-four hours to this. Oranmiyan later went on to found the Oyo empire that stretched at its peak from the western banks of the river Niger to the Eastern banks of the river Volta. It would serve as 1 of the most powerful of Africa's medieval states prior to its collapse inwards the 19th century.
Oba Adesoji Aderemi Ooni of Ife. Circa 1940
Language
The people of Ife utter a unique in addition to authentic Central Yoruba (CY) dialect of Yoruba linguistic communication which belongs to the larger Niger-Congo linguistic communication family. Apart from Ife, the other Yoruba sub-groups that utter Central Yoruba (CY) dialects are Igbomina, Yagba, Ilésà, Ekiti, Akurẹ, Ẹfọn, in addition to Ijẹbu areas.
History of Ife Kingdom
In the southern forested part of Nigeria, the largest centralized states were the kingdoms centered on Ile-Ife in addition to Republic of Benin which emerged past times 1500 CE in addition to the origins of the Ife natives are lost inwards antiquity (Falola in addition to Heaton 2008, Osasona et al 2009). According to Biobaku (1955) the town was in all probability founded betwixt the seventh in addition to tenth centuries AD; Jeffrey (1958) opines that it had acquire a flourishing civilization past times the 11th Century. Carbon-dating yielded from piece of job of archaeologists appears to back upwardly these views, as it establishes that Ile Ife “was a small town of substantial size betwixt the 9th in addition to 12th centuries” (Willett, 1971:367, Smith 1988). Drewal et al (1998)also suggested that the site of Ile–Ife was occupied as early on as 350 B.C. in addition to consisted of a cluster of hamlets; though fiddling is known nearly the early on occupants except for a metropolis wall at Enuwa in addition to later the construction of some other outer metropolis wall. Traditionally, Ile-Ife was divided into 5 quarters namely Iremo, Okerewe, Moore, Ilode in addition to Ilare in addition to within each quarter were compounds with menage unit of measurement lineages (Eluyemi 1978). The traditional Ife kingdom, schematically, could live described as a wheel, with the Oba’s palace as the hub, from which roads radiated similar spokes in addition to inwards relation to which the en-framing town wall represented the rim (Krapf-Askari, 1969; Obateru, 2006). Ile–Ife is regarded so as the metropolis of old Yoruba. Though suggested past times various scholars including Johnson (1921); Lucas (1948); in addition to Ajayi in addition to Crowther (1972) that Ile-Ife is fabled as the spot where God created man, white in addition to dark in addition to from whence they dispersed all over the ground it is yet to live scientifically proven. Fabunmi (1969) farther argued that Ile Ife is farther regarded in addition to believed to live the cradle of the world. The history of Ile Ife though unwritten is based on oral traditions in addition to referred to as the original domicile of all things, the topographic point where the twenty-four hours dawns; the holy city, the domicile of divinities in addition to mysterious spirits (Okelola, 2001). It is withal believed that the tradition of the world in addition to of the root of the peoples in addition to their province centers on Ile Ife, the source whence all the major rulers of the so southern Nigeria derive the sanctions of their kingship where gods, shrines in addition to festivals forms the middle of organized religious belief (Smith 1988).
Ile Ife translated as the spreading of the ground with 'Ife' pregnant ‘wide’ in addition to the prefix 'Ile' pregnant ‘home’ could refer to the creation of the whole world (Smith 1988). Harris (1997) describes Ile-Ife as ‘the topographic point where things spread out, where people left’. There are suggestions that the nowadays Ife town does non stand upwardly upon its original site due to difficulty inwards establishing a coherent business concern human relationship of the past times of Ife (Crowder 1962, Smith 1988). Despite the to a higher topographic point suggestions Ile Ife is claimed to live the woman parent metropolis whence all Yoruba people hailed: this is apparent as each princedom were founded in addition to situated few miles from the woman parent metropolis (Okelola 2001). This myth provides the charter for the Yoruba people, providing them with a feel of unity through a mutual root (Bascom 1969). Ile Ife inwards the Yoruba belief is the oldest of all the Yoruba towns given that it was from Ile Ife that all other towns were founded (Krapf-Askari, 1969). the town provides the fundamental in addition to continuity of groovy bargain of identity conceptualization for the modern Yoruba with it's role as a middle from which Yoruba civilisation emanates in addition to a topographic point for validation of Yoruba potency (Harris 1997). There was a monarch called Ogane who reigned inwards ancient Ife whom modern scholars have got identified as the Ooni of Ife (Pereira 1937, Krapf-Askari 1969, Harris, 1997). The Ooni or Onife is regarded as the spiritual caput of the Yoruba whose influence was non confined to his ain kingdom but was also exercised over other Yoruba kingdoms through the sanctions of kinship in addition to past times ancient constitutional devices (Smith 1988). The Ooni is believed to live a sacred beingness because he sits on the throne of Oduduwa at Ile-Ife.
Statue of Moremi at Moremi Hall (UNILAG) . Moremi was the married adult woman of Oranmiyan. A adult woman of tremendous beauty in addition to a faithful in addition to zealous supporter of her hubby in addition to the Kingdom of Ile Ife.
The Ikedu tradition, though unpublicised is the oldest Ife tradition portraying the root of the Yoruba people in addition to it is clear from this tradition that Oduduwa did non belong to this early on menstruum of the emergence of the Yorubas’ as a distinct linguistic communication grouping (Olatunji 1996). Okelola (2001) acknowledges that it is hard to constitute when the metropolis of Ile-Ife was founded but recognises that Oduduwa was the foremost King of Ile Ife Kingdom. Akinjogbin (1980),Olatunji (1996) in addition to Adelogun (1999) contrary to Okelola (2001) suggests that at that topographic point were betwixt 90 iii to 90 vii kings who reigned at Ile-Ife before Oduduwa led his people to Ile-Ife. This was confirmed past times the archeological evidence unearthed inwards in addition to around Ile-Ife which dated dorsum to 410 B.C that proves the possibility of human small town before the advent of Oduduwa (Adelogun 1999). Oduduwa though credited for the establishment of a centralised province at Ife is suggested to have got encountered indigenous peop,le inwards the part (Falola in addition to Heaton, 2008). This centralised province formed past times Oduduwa . has contributed to the Kingdom of Ile-Ife beingness the strong take away hold of indigenous worship as good as the spiritual headquarters of the Yoruba Kingdom (Lucas 1948: Okelola 2001).
The metropolis of Ile-Ife today sits inwards what is today Osun State inwards southern Nigeria located on the longitude 4.6N in addition to 7.5°N, surrounded past times hills in addition to is nearly l miles (80.467kms) to Ibadan in addition to Osogbo (Philips, 1852; White, 1876). The metropolis popularly known to as Ile-Ife in addition to the people are referred to as 'Ife' who also refer to the town as 'Ife' or 'Ilurun' which agency ‘the gateway to heaven’ (Eluyemi 1986:16). Confirmed to live situated on the site of ancient Ile Ife due to the location of the vii brass castings excavated from the ancient Ife sites which were inwards corresponding stratigraphic positions confirming that a small town of substantial size existed at that topographic point betwixt the 9th in addition to 12th centuries (Willet, 1967). He also confirmed that the terra cotta sculpture in addition to lost wax (cire-perdue) castings were made at that topographic point from early on inwards the nowadays millennium. Ile-Ife’s prominence inwards the ritual scheme similar 'Ifa' in addition to 'Ijala' has helped inwards preserving the city’s significance inwards Yoruba civilisation despite its political decline.
Freedom’ ceremony. Taken at Ile-Ife inwards nowadays twenty-four hours Osun State. 1968. Freedom ceremonies marked women’s graduation into professions such as nursing in addition to tailoring
Among the foremost of the Ife works to attain the West were those brought to Europe past times the British colonial governor Gilbert Thomas Carter. According to Samuel Johnson (p. 647) "three of those national in addition to ancestral works of fine art known as the 'Ife marbles' "were given to Carter inwards 1896 by
Adelekan, the so latterly crowned Rex of Ife. Johnson explains that the Rex gave them to Governor Carter inwards an travail to gain a positive conclusion concerning the resettlement of Modakeke residents exterior the city.
Past Ooni of Ife
1ST ODUDUWA
2ND OSANGANGAN OBAMAKIN
3RD OGUN
4TH OBALUFON OGBOGBODIRIN
5TH OBALUFON ALAYEMORE
6TH ORANMIYAN
7TH AYETISE
8TH LAJAMISAN
9TH LAJODOOGUN
10TH LAFOGIDO
11TH ODIDIMODE ROGBEESIN
12TH AWOROKOLOKIN
13TH EKUN
14TH AJIMUDA
15TH GBOONIJIO
16TH OKANLAJOSIN
17TH ADEGBALU
18TH OSINKOLA
19TH OGBORUU
20TH GIESI
21ST LUWOO (FEMALE)
22ND LUMOBI
23RD AGBEDEGBEDE
24TH OJELOKUNBIRIN
25TH LAGUNJA
26TH LARUNNKA
27TH ADEMILU
28TH OMOGBOGBO
29TH AJILA-OORUN
30TH ADEJINLE
31ST OLOJO
32ND OKITI
33RD LUGBADE
34TH ARIBIWOSO
35TH OSINLADE
36TH ADAGBA
37TH OJIGIDIRI
38TH AKINMOYERO
1770-1800
39TH GBANLARE
1800-1823
40TH GBEGBAAJE
1823-1835
41ST WUNMONIJE
1835-1839
42ND ADEGUNLE ADEWELA
1839-1849
43RD DEGBINSOKUN
1849-1878
44TH ORARIGBA
1878-1880
45TH DERIN OLOGBENLA- He was a powerful warrior!
1880-1894
46TH ADELEKAN (OLUBUSE I)- He was the foremost Ooni to go exterior Ile-Ife to
Lagos inwards 1903 when he was invited past times the so Governor General to settle the
dispute involving Elepe of Epe. All Yoruba Kings including the Alaafin left
their respective thrones as a grade of observe for the Ooni. They returned to
their respective stools after Ooni returned to Ile-Ife from Lagos. Oba Adelekan
Olubuse was nicknamed 'ERIOGUN'; Akitikori; Ebitikimopiri.
1894-1910
47TH ADEKOLA
1910-1910
48TH ADEMILUYI (AJAGUN) - He also was reputed to live a powerful Monarch.
1910-1930
49TH ADESOJI ADEREMI- Very intelligent with skilful foresight, he was invited to be
government minister without portfolio when he ruled from 1951 to 1955. He was the first
indigenous governor of Western Nigeria. One of his most laudable achievements
was the establishment of the GREAT University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo
University) at Ile-Ife.
1930-1980
His Royal Highness, Aleyeluwa, Oba Okunade Sijuade, Olubuse II, The Oni of Ife, Ile Ife, Osun State, arriving at the National Museum, Onikan Lagos for the opening ceremony inwards his car, on Friday, May 18, 2012..
Religion
Like most towns, the people are organized religious belief conscious. The iii main religions inwards the metropolis are Christianity, Islam in addition to traditional. Traditional organized religious belief appears flourishing than the other 2 as most people who belong to either of the onetime 2 also have got soft spot for the age-long religion. So beingness a Christian or a Moslem does non forestall you lot from the traditional religion, which the elders take away hold inwards high esteem. It is non uncommon to live a leader inwards a denomination in addition to silent take away hold chieftaincy championship that has to do with shrine.
Here, Olojo is the biggest festival on the Ife cultural calendar. This festival is held annually to commemorate Oduduwa’s descent from heaven. It is during the Olojo festival that Ooni wears Aare crown. Aare is a mysterious crown worn only 1 time inwards a twelvemonth in addition to it is believed to possess the powerfulness that straightaway transfigure Ooni to the rank of Orisa (god). With 201 traditional religious festivals, it is only 1 twenty-four hours that is costless that the people do non offering sacrifice at the various shrines that dot the town. This particular twenty-four hours remains a hugger-mugger the principal in addition to priests of the kingdom maintain so dear to the heart.
Ifa is some other sect that attracts skilful number of the people. Unlike what obtains inwards most other towns where Ifa worship is individualized in addition to confined to illiterate priests or Babalawo inwards ramshackled buildings, it has been modernised such that 1 may fault its worship centre for a church. Incidentally, their worship session is on Lord's Day similar their Christian counterparts. When Lord's Day Sun visited the imposing Ifa Auditorium on top of a hill, close Ife Town Hall, children were seen playing unmolested. The children admitted that they also worship inwards the Ifa hall along with the elders. The main auditorium is the Headquarters of Ifa Worship Worldwide, which was beingness prepared to host a coming together of all worshippers circular the globe in conclusion month. Araba is the principal priest.
Some of the main gods they worship include Obatala, Ogun, Olokun, Orunmila, Olojo, Sango, Ifa, Osun, Ela, Oya, Yemoja, Oranmiyan. These are what they telephone telephone ‘sky gods’ that command virtually everything on earth. Many take away hold that Ife is a fetish town ruled past times powers of darkness, but the chiefs in addition to leaders of the town think otherwise. Such views to them tin only live from 1 who is mentally unstable.
One of the oldest Stone buildings inwards Ile-Ife is the beautifully preserved Seventh Day Adventist church building built over a 100 years ago.
Dressing
The people love dressing good inwards either their native attire or westernized way. Though English linguistic communication garb has eroded the traditional pattern of dressing similar inwards other Nigerian cities, native wears are silent prevalent amongst the middle historic menstruum in addition to the elderly. When an Ife human puts on Buba, he dons cap to consummate the dressing. The women are fifty-fifty to a greater extent than compliant inwards matters of tradition. Though Chief Ijaodola claimed that Aso Ofi is the main custume of his people, Ankara cloth is the commonest textile of the people today. The Ooni himself is an representative inwards excellent sartorial taste. Each fourth dimension he comes out, he is pleasant to behold inwards his expensive apparel.
One thing really noticeable inwards the dressing of Ife people is that a high feel of dependent land in addition to morality is silent displayed. It is almost impossible to take in a lady-young or old inwards revealing clothes or inwards 1 that shows the upper or lower cleavage. Not fifty-fifty with Ife beingness a academy town volition 1 take in beckoning types of dressing on its streets.
Sola Omisore has an explanation for the decent dressing. “Discipline is instilled through menage unit of measurement lineage. We know ourselves. So if a lady dresses indecently, people volition say: Is this non the kid of so so? Don’t think because Ife is a metropolis that nosotros don’t know ourselves.”
Art inwards Ancient Ife, Birthplace of the Yoruba
Suzanne Preston Blier
Artists the world over shape noesis in addition to stuff into works of unique historical importance. The artists of ancient Ife, ancestral domicile to the Yoruba in addition to mythic birthplace of gods in addition to humans, clearly were interested inwards creating works that could live read. Breaking the symbolic code that lies behind the unique meanings of Ife’s ancient sculptures, however, has vexed scholars working on this stuff for over a century. While much remains to live learned, cheers to a improve agreement of the larger corpus of ancient Ife arts in addition to the history of this of import southwestern Nigerian center, key aspects of this code tin at nowadays live discerned. In this article I explore how these arts both inform in addition to are enriched past times early on Ife history in addition to the leaders who shaped it.1 In add-on to
core questions of fine art iconography in addition to symbolism, I also address the strong social, political, religious, in addition to historical import of these works in addition to what they let out nearly Ife (Ile-Ife) as an early
cosmopolitan center.
(Fig 1) Ile-Ife, Nigeria, c. early on 14th century ce
Copper. Height: 33 cm
Retained inwards the palace since the fourth dimension of its manufacture
(through the early on twentieth century) where it
was identified as King Obalufon Alaiyemore (Obalufon
II). Nigeria National Museums, Lagos Mus. reg.
no. 38.1.2.
Photo: Karin Willis, courtesy of the National Commission
of Monuments in addition to Museums, Nigeria in addition to The
Museum for African Art, New York
My analysis moves away from the recent framing of ancient Ife fine art from the advantage of Yoruba cultural practices collected inwards Nigeria to a greater extent than broadly, and/or the indiscriminate usage of regional in addition to modern Yoruba proverbs, poems, or linguistic communication idioms to inform this city’s unique 700-year-old sculptural oeuvre. Instead I focus on historical in addition to other considerations inwards metropolitan Ife itself. This shift is an of import 1 because Ife’s history, language, in addition to fine art forms are notably different than those inwards the wider Yoruba part in addition to later eras. My approach also differs from recent studies that either ahistorically superimpose contemporary cultural conventions on the reading of ancient works or unilinearly posit fine art evolution models concerning shape or stuff differences that lack grounding inwards Ife archaeological evidence. My aim instead is to reengage these remarkable ancient works amongst various evidence on this center’s past times in addition to the fourth dimension frame specific to when these sculptures were made. In this way I convey fine art in addition to history into direct engagement with each other, enriching both within this process.
One of the most of import events inwards ancient Ife history with observe to both the early on arts in addition to later era religious in addition to political traditions hither was a devastating civil state of war pitting 1 group, the supporters of Obatala (referencing today at 1 time a god, a deity pantheon, in addition to the region’s autochthonous populations) against affiliates of Odudua (an opposing deity, religious pantheon, in addition to newly arriving dynastic group). The Ikedu oral history text addressing Ife’s history (an annotated kings listing transposed from the early on Ife dialect; Akinjogbin n.d.) indicates that it was during the reign of Ife’s 46th king—what appears to live 2 rulers prior to the famous King Obalufon II (Ekenwa? Fig. 1)—that this vehement civil state of war broke out. This conflict weakened the metropolis plenty so that at that topographic point was fiddling resistance when a military machine forcefulness nether the conqueror Oranmiyan (Fig. 2) arrived inwards this historic city. The dispute likely was framed inwards component division around issues of command of Ife’s rich manufacturing resources (glass beads, amongst these). Conceivably it was 1 of Ife’s feuding polities that invited this outsider forcefulness to come upwardly to Ife to assist rectify the province of affairs for their side.
As Akinjogbin explains (1992:98), Oranmiyan in addition to his calvary, after gaining command of Ife “… stemmed the … uprising past times siding with the weaker … of the disunited pre-Oduduwa groups .…
[driving Obalufon II] into exile at Ilara in addition to became the Ooni.” Eventually, the deposed King Obalufon II with the assist of a large segment of Ife’s population was able to defeat this military
leader in addition to the latter’s supporters. In Ife today, Odudua is identified inwards ways that complement Oranmiyan. As Akintitan explains (p.c.): “It was Odudua who was the in conclusion to come upwardly to Ife, a man
who arrived as a warrior, in addition to took payoff of the province of affairs to impose himself on Ife people.” King Obalufon II, who came to dominion twice at Ife, is positioned inwards local Rex lists both at the end
of the foremost (Obatala) dynasty in addition to at the starting fourth dimension of the instant (Odudua) dynasty. He is also credited with bringing peace (a negotiated truce) to the 1 time feuding parties.
Fig 2, Oranmiyan Staff
Political History in addition to Art at Ancient Ife
What or whom do these early on arts depict? Many of the ancient Ife sculptures are identified today with individuals who lived inwards the era inwards which Ife King Obalufon II was on the throne and/
or participated inwards the civil state of war associated with his reign. This in addition to other evidence suggests that Obalufon II was a key sponsor or patron of these ancient arts, an thought consistent with this
king’s modern identity as patron deity of bronze casting, textiles, regalia, peace, in addition to wellbeing. It also is possible that a bulk of the ancient Ife arts were created inwards conjunction with the famous
truce that Obalufon II is said to have got brokered 1 time he returned to powerfulness betwixt the embattled Ife citizens as he brought peace to this long embattled metropolis (Adediran 1992:91; Akintitan p.c.).
As component division of his programme to reunite the feuding parties, Obalufon II also is credited with the creation of a novel metropolis programme with a large, high-walled palace at its center. Around the perimeters, the compounds of key chiefs from the 1 time feuding lineages were positioned. King Obalufon II seems at the same fourth dimension to have got pressed for the erection of novel temples inwards the metropolis in addition to the refurbishment of older ones, these serving inwards component division to laurels the leading chiefs on both sides of the dispute. Ife’s ancient fine art works likely functioned as related temple furnishings.
One peculiarly art-rich shrine complex that may have got come upwardly into novel prominence as component division of Obalufon II’s truce is that honoring the ancient hunter Ore, a deity whose yell also features
inwards 1 of Obalufon’s praise names. Ore is identified both as an of import autochthonous Ife resident in addition to as an opponent to “Odudua.” Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of remarkable granite figures inwards the Ore
Grove were the focus of ceremonies into the mid-twentieth century. One of these works called Olofefura (Fig. 4) is believed to correspond the deified Ore (Dennett 1910:21; Talbot 1926 2:339;
Allison 1968:13). Features of the sculpture suggest a dwarf or sufferer of a congenital disorder inwards keeping with the identity of many foremost (Obatala) dynasty shrine figures with body anomalies or disease. Regalia details also offering clues. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 three-strand choker encircles Olofefura’s neck; iii bracelet coils embellish the wrist; iii tassels hang from the left hip knot. These features link this work—and Ore—to the earth, autochthony, in addition to to the Ogboni association, a grouping promoted past times Obalufon II inwards component division to save the rights of autochthonous residents.
The left hip knot shown on the wrapper of this work, as good as that of the taller, to a greater extent than elegant Ore Grove priest or retainer figure (Fig. 5), also recalls 1 of Ife’s little-known root myths within the Obatala priestly menage unit of measurement (Akintitan p.c.). According to this myth, Obatala hid the ase (vital force) necessary for Earth’s solidity within this knot, requiring his younger blood brother Odudua, after his theft of materials from Obatala, to hold off for the latter’s assist inwards completing the task. Consistent with this, Ogboni members are said to necktie their cloth wrappers on the left hip inwards retentivity of Obatala’s usage of this knot to safeguard the requisite ase (Owakinyin p.c.). Iron inserts inwards the coiffure of the taller Ore figure complement those secured inwards the surface of the Oranmiyan staff (Fig. 2), indicating that this sculpture—like many ancient Ife works of stone—were made inwards the same era, e.g. the early
fourteenth century.
An additional noteworthy characteristic of these figures, in addition to others, is the importance of body proportion ratios. Among the Yoruba today, the body is seen to comprise iii principal parts: head, trunk, in addition to legs (Ajibade n.d.:3). Many Ife sculptural examples (see Fig. 4; compare also Figs. 15–16) emphasize a larger-thanlife size scale of the caput (orí) inwards human relationship to the relaxation of the body (a roughly 1:4 ratio). Yoruba scholars have got seen this headprivileging ratio as reinforcing the importance of this body component division as a symbol of ego in addition to destiny (orí), personality (wú), essential
nature (ìwà), in addition to potency (àse) (Abimbola 1975:390ff, Abiodun 1994, Abiodun et. al 1991:12ff).6 Or as Ogunremi suggests (1998:113), such features highlight: “The wealth or poverty of the land … [as] equated with the ‘head’ (orí) of the ruler of a particular locality.”
Both hither in addition to inwards ancient Ife fine art to a greater extent than generally, however, at that topographic point is striking variability inwards related body proportions. Such ratios attain from roughly 1:4 for the Ore grove deity figure (Fig. 4), the consummate copper alloy Rex figure (Fig. 15), the couplet from Ita Yemoo (Fig. 8), in addition to many of the terra cotta sculptures, to roughly 1:6 for the taller rock Ore grove figures (Fig. 5) in addition to the copper seated figure from Tada (Fig. 11). Why these proportional differences be inwards Ife fine art is non clear, but issues of shape and/or status appear to live key. Whereas sculptures of Ife royals in addition to gods often demo 1:4 ratios, most nonroyals demo proportions much closer to life. In ancient Ife art, the higher the status, the greater likelihood that body proportions volition differ from nature inwards ways that greatly heighten the size of the head. This non only highlights the caput as a prominent status in addition to potency marker, but also points to the primacy of social difference inwards visual rendering.
While many Ife (and Yoruba) scholars have got focused on how the caput is privileged inwards human relationship to the body, what also is important, in addition to to appointment overlooked, is that the belly is as important. The full, plump torsos (chest in addition to stomachs) of Ife figures depicting rulers in addition to deities complement modern Yoruba beliefs nearly wellness in addition to good beingness on the 1 hand, in addition to wealth in addition to powerfulness on the other. Related ideas are suggested past times the modern Yoruba term odù (“full”) which, when applied to an individual, agency both “he has approbation inwards abundance” in addition to “fortune shines on him”(Idowu 1962:33). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 total belly is vital to royals in addition to deities non only as a reference to qualities of wellbeing but also as markers of province in addition to religious fullness. In his extended tidings of the concept of odù, the indigenous Ife religious scholar Idowu notes (1962:33) that the same term also indicates a “very
large in addition to deep pot (container)” in addition to past times extension anything that is of “sizable worth” and/or “superior quality.” This tidings features centrally inwards the bespeak the high god, Ol-odù-marè. According to Idowu (1962:34) the latter usage of the term signifies “He is One who is superlative,” odù hither invoking his really extraordinariness. Because large ceramic vessels called odù were employed inwards ancient Ife contexts as containers for highly valued goods such as beads in addition to fine art (including the Ita Yemoo Rex figure, Fig. 16), this idiom offers an interesting modern complement in addition to descriptor for early on Ife sculptural portrayals of gods in addition to kings as containers belongings many benefits. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 complementary characteristic of many ancient Ife works is that of composure or inner calm (àìkominún, “tranquility of the mind” inwards modern Yoruba; Abraham 1958:388). This notable lineament finds potential aspect through the consummate serenity shown inwards their faces of early on Ife fine art (Figs. 1, 15, 16), a lineament that increases the feel of monumentality in addition to powerfulness inwards these remarkable works.
The ancient Ife arts from Ife’s Ore shrine, which appear to have got been carved as a unmarried sculptural group, include a rock vessel with crocodiles on its sides (Fig. 6). On its lid a frog (or toad) is shown inwards the jaws of a snake. The latter motif references the contestation betwixt Obatala in addition to Odudua for the center’s command (Akintitan p.c.; Adelekan p.c.). According Akintitan (p.c.), this pattern addresses the less-than-straight way inwards which Odudua asserted command over Ife, since poisonous snakes are thought non to eat frogs (and toads). The crocodile, similar several other brute figurations from this grove, laurels Ore’s hunting in addition to angling prowess. Carved crocodiles, giant eggs, a mudfish (African lung fish), in addition to an elephant tusk reference the watery realm that dominated primordial Ife. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 granite slab from this same site shows evenly placed holes (Fig. 7). This piece of job served perhaps as a existent or metaphoric measure device for Ife’s changing H2O levels, inwards keeping both with frequent flooding hither (referenced inwards local accounts nearly Obalufon II’s wife
Queen Moremi) as good as Ife root myths inwards which the world is said to have got been formed only after Odudua sprinkled dirt upon the water’s surface (Idowu 1962, Blier 2004). One especially striking art-rich Ife site that also seems to have got been identified with Obalufon II in addition to his famous political truce is Ita Yemoo, the term yemoo serving as the championship for foremost dynasty Ife queens. This temple complex lies close the site where the annual Edi festival terminates. The Edi ritual is dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Moremi, who also at 1 fourth dimension was married to Obalufon II’s adversary, the conqueror Oranmiyan. One of the most striking works from Ita Yemoo is a copper alloy casting of a Rex in addition to queen (Fig. 8) with interlocked arms in addition to legs. The manlike individual royal wears a simian skull on his hip, a symbol of Obatala (monkeys evoking the region’s early on occupants) in addition to this deity’s identity with Ife’s autochthonous residents in addition to foremost dynasty line. The woman individual points toward the ground, gesturing toward Odudua as both instant dynasty founder in addition to later Yoruba ground god. This royal couplet appears to reference inwards this way non only the painful Ife dynastic struggle betwixt competing Ife families in addition to chiefs, but also the political in addition to religious union promoted past times Obalufon II betwixt the these groups as component division of his truce. Interestingly, a steatite caput recovered past times Frobenius at Offa (Moremi’s hometown N of Ife) wears a similar queen’s crown. Offa is next to Esie where a grouping of similar steatite figures were found.
These Esie works conceivably also were identified with Moremi, the local heroine who became Ife’s queen.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 instant copper alloy figure of a queen from the Ita Yemoo site is a tiny sculpture showing a recumbent crowned woman individual circumscribing a vessel laid atop a throne. She holds a scepter inwards 1 hand; the other grasps the throne’s curving grip (Fig.9). Her topographic point depicts a miniature of the quartz in addition to granite stools identified inwards the modern era primarily with Ife’s autochthonous (Obatala-linked) priests. The scepter that she holds is similar to some other piece of job from Ita Yemoo depicting a human with unusual (for Ife) diagonal cheek grade (Willett 2004:M26a), a pattern similar to markings worn past times northern Yoruba residents from Offa amongst other areas. The recumbent queen’s unusual composition appears to reference the transfer of powerfulness at Ife from the foremost dynasty rulership grouping to the novel (second) dynasty line of kings, hither symbolized through a queen, what appears to be
Queen Moremi, the married adult woman of Obalufon II.
Another striking Ita Yemoo sculpture, a Janus staff mountain shares similar symbolism. The piece of job depicts 2 gagged human heads positioned back-to-back, 1 with vertical line facial marks, the other plain-faced, suggesting the union of 2 dynasties. This scepter likely was used as a society and
evokes both the penalty that befell supporters of either dynastic grouping committing serious crimes in addition to the unity of the 2 factions inwards province rituals involving human offerings, amongst these coronations. This scepter mount’s weight in addition to heightened arsenic content reinforces this identity. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 larger Janus scepter mountain from this same site depicts on 1 side a youthful caput in addition to on the other a really elderly man, consistent with 2 different dynasty portrayals, in addition to the complementary royal unification/division themes.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 large Ife copper figure of a seated manlike individual was recovered at Tada (Fig. 11), an of import Niger River crossing dot situated some 200 km northeast of Ife. This sculpture is linked inwards important
ways non only to King Obalufon II, but also to Ife trade, regional economical vitality, in addition to the key role of this ruler inwards promoting Ogboni (called Imole inwards Ife), the association dedicated to both autochthonous rights in addition to trade. The piece of job is stylistically really similar to the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1). Both are made of pure copper in addition to were in all probability cast past times members of the same workshop. Although the forearms in addition to hands of the seated figure are at nowadays missing, plenty remains to suggest that they may have got been positioned inwards front end of the body inwards a way resembling the well-known Ogboni association gestural motif of left mitt fisted to a higher topographic point correct (Fig. 12). This same gesture is referenced inwards the smaller standing figure (also cast of pure copper) from this same Tada shrine (Fig. 13). Obalufon descendant Olojudo reaffirmed (p.c.) the gestural identity of the standing Tada figure. As I have got argued elsewhere (1985) Yoruba works of copper are associated primarily with Ogboni in addition to Obalufon, consistent with the latter ruler’s association with bronze casting in addition to economical wellbeing.
Another notable Ogboni reference inwards these 2 copper works from Tada is the diamond-patterned wrapper (Morton Williams 1960:369, Aronson 1992) tied at the left hip with a knot. How the ancient Ife seated sculpture (and other works) found their way to this Tada shrine has been a dependent of consider able scholarly debate. I concur with Thurstan Shaw inwards his sentiment (1973:237) that these sculptures most likely were brought to this critical river-crossing dot because of the site’s identity with Niger River trade. As Shaw notes (1973:237) these works seem to live linked to Yoruba commercial engagement along the Niger River “… marking perhaps of import toll or command points of that trade.” Specifically, the seated Tada figure offers of import evidence of Ife’s early on command of this critical Niger River crossing point. Copper alloy castings of an elephant in addition to 2 ostriches (animals identified with valuable regional merchandise goods) which were found on this same Tada site likely reference the importance of ivory in addition to exotic feathers inwards the era’s long distance trade. The goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) who spans both the foremost in addition to instant dynasty religious pantheons, is closely identified with promoting related commerce.
Contesting Dynasties: Politics of the Body
Two copper alloy castings depicting royals (Figs. 15–16) offering of import insight into early on Ife society, politics, in addition to history. One is the half-figure of a manlike individual from Ife’s Wunmonije site,
where a corpus of life-size copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed. The other sculpture is the notably similar full-length standing figure from the Ife site of Ita Yemoo, the locale where
the royal couplet (Fig. 8), tiny enthroned queen sculpture (Fig. 9), in addition to metallic scepter (Fig. 10) were created. Based on style in addition to similarities inwards form, the 2 works clearly were fashioned around the
same time, conceivably during Obalufon II’s reign. Their crowns are different from the tall, conical, veiled are crowns worn past times Ife monarchs today. The latter crown a shape also seen on the tiny Ife
figure of a Rex found inwards Republic of Benin (Fig. 17).
Based on both their cap-form caput coverings in addition to the horn each holds inwards the left hand, the figures have got been identified as portraying rulers inwards battle (Odewale p.c.). Not only are the rulers’ caps reminiscent of the smaller crowns (arinla) worn past times Yoruba rulers inwards battle, suggests Odewale (p.c.), but historically, antelope horns similar to those carried inwards their left hands were used inwards battle. These horns were filled with powerful ase (authority/force/command), substances that could plough the course of didactics of state of war inwards one’s favor. When so filled, the horns assured that the king’s words would come upwardly to pass, a key attribute of Yoruba statecraft. The 2 appear to live competitors (e.g. competing lineages) vying for theIfe throne, references to the ruling heads of Ife’s foremost (Obatala) and
instant (Odudua) dynasties shown hither inwards ritual battle.
While these 2 royal sculptures are really similar inwards style in addition to iconography, at that topographic point are notable differences, including the handling of the rulers’ faces—one showing vertical line marks, the
other lacking facial lines. There are also notable distinctions inwards headdress details, specifically the diadem shapes in addition to cap tiers. The diadem of the Wunmojie Rex with striated facial marks (Fig. 15) displays a rosette pattern surmounted past times a pointed plume, this motif resting atop a concentric circle. The headdress diadem on the plain-faced (unstriated) Ita Yemoo Rex figure instead consists of a elementary concentric circle surmounted past times a pointed plume. The rosette diadem of the Rex with facial striations seems to send somewhat higher rank, for his diadem is laid to a higher topographic point the disk-form, as if to grade superior position. Moreover, the cap of the Rex with vertical facial markings integrates four
tiers of beads piece the plain-faced king’s cap shows only three.
These differences both inwards crown diadem shapes in addition to bead rows suggest that, amongst other things, the Rex bearing the vertical line facial marks in addition to rosette-form diadem (the Wunmonije site ruler) carries a rank that is both different from in addition to inwards some ways higher than that of the plain-faced royal.
There also are striking distinctions inwards facial marking in addition to regalia details of these 2 Rex figures, differences that offering additional insight into the pregnant in addition to identity of these in addition to other works from this center. Similar rosette in addition to concentric circle diadem distinctions tin live seen inwards many ancient Ife works. The Aroye vessel (Fig. 18), which displays rosette motifs in addition to a monstrous human caput referencing ancient Ife ground spirits (erunmole, imole; Odewale p.c.), may have got functioned as a divination vessel linked to Obatala, a shape today inwards Ife that employs a water-filled pot. The copper alloy caput of foremost dynasty Ife goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also incorporates a rosette with sixteen
petals. Ife chiefs in addition to priests today sometimes have on beaded pendants (peke) that comprise similar eight-petal bloom forms or rosettes. These individuals include a attain of primarily Obatala (first dynasty) affiliates: Obalale (the priest of Obatala), Obalase (the Oluorogbo priest), Obalara (the Obalufon priest), in addition to Chief Woye Asire (the priest of Ife springs in addition to markets. Rosette-form
diadems such as these also tin live seen on ancient Ife terra cotta animals identified with Obatala, amongst these the elephant (Fig. 20) in addition to duiker antelope heads from the Lafogido site. These
rosettes suggest the importance of plants (flowers), in addition to the primacy of ancient ground ownership in addition to gods to the Obatala group.
Seated figure
Ile-Ife, Nigeria, c. early on 14th century ce
Copper. Height: 53.7 cm
Found on a shrine inwards Tada, on the Niger River, 192
km. northeast of Ife. Nigeria National Museums,
Lagos: 79. R. 18. Photo: Karin Willis, courtesy of the National Commission
of Monuments in addition to Museums, Nigeria in addition to The
Museum for African Art, New York
Concentric circle-form diadems, inwards contrast, seem to reference political agency as linked inwards component division to the novel Odudua dynasty (Akintitan p.c., Adelekan p.c.). In component division for this reason, a concentric circle is incorporated into the Fe gate at the front end of the modern Ife palace. Agbaje-Williams notes (1991:11) that the burial spots of of import chiefs sometimes are marked with rock circles as well. Concentric circle shape diadems are displayed on the terra cotta sculptures of ram in addition to hippopotamus
heads from Ife’s Lafogido site. Both animals seem to live connected to the Odudua line in addition to the associated sky deity pantheon of Sango amongst others (Idowu 1962:94, 142; Matory 1994:96).
If, as Ekpo Eyo suggests (1977:114; take in also Eyo 1974) the grouping of Lafogido site brute sculptures were conceived as royal emblems, their distinctive crown diadems suggest that these
works, similar the 2 Rex figures, were intended to correspond 2 different dynasties and/or the gods associated with them. The Rex figure with vertical facial markings in addition to a rosette-form diadem
instantiates the foremost dynasty or Obatala rulership line. The plain-faced ruler with concentric circle diadem evokes the instant or Odudua royal line.
Number symbolism inwards diadem in addition to other forms is of import inwards these in addition to other ancient Ife fine art works serving to grade grade in addition to status. According to Ife Obatala Chief Adelekan (p.c), eightpetal rosettes are associated with higher Obatala grades. That the Wunmonije Rex figure wears an eight-petal rosette (Fig. 15) piece the Aroye vessel (Fig. 18) in addition to Olokun caput (Fig. 14) comprise sixteen-petal forms is based on powerfulness difference. Eight is the highest number accorded humans, suggests Chief Adelekan, whereas xvi is used for gods.
Facial Marking Distinctions: Ife as a Cosmopolitan Center
One of the most striking differences inwards the 2 royal figures in addition to other Ife arts tin live seen inwards the variant facial markings. Scholars have got set frontward several explanations for these facial pattern disparities inwards Ife in addition to early on regional arts. Among the earliest were William Fagg in addition to Frank Willett (1960:31), who identified vertical line facial marks with royal crown veils in addition to the “shadows” cast onto the human face past times associated strings of beads. This is highly unlikely, however, since many ancient works depicting women in addition to non-royals without crowns display the same vertical facial patterns. Moreover, of the 2 copper-alloy Rex figures (Figs. 15–16), only 1 shows vertical marks, in addition to they both have on a sort of cap (oro) that does non include a beaded veil. Modern woodcarvings of Ife royals wearing traditional veiled crowns also do non demo vertical line facial marks. Due to related inconsistencies, Willett would later retract his original shade-line theory in addition to Fagg would non 1 time again hash out this inwards his later scholarship. As suggested above, the presence in addition to lack of vertical facial marks on the 2 Ife Rex figures farther reinforces the identity of these rulers as leaders of the 2 competing dynasties.
An array of early on in addition to later artistic evidence supports this. Among these is a Lower Niger style vessel (Fig. 21) collected close Republic of Benin that displays a human human face with vertical markings beneath the caput of an elephant, an brute that inwards Ife is closely identified with Obatala in addition to the foremost dynasty. This elephant caput has its complement inwards the Lafogido site terra cotta elephant caput with a rosette-form diadem (Fig. 20), a site where a terra cotta caput with vertical facial marks also was buried (Eyo 1974). Nineteenth in addition to early on twentieth century royal masks of the Igala (a Yorubalinked group) associated with the ancient Akpoto dynasty (who are ancestors of the electrical current Igala rulers), display similar sparse vertical line facial markings referencing the early on royals of this grouping (Sargent 1988:32; Boston 1968:172) (Fig. 22). The ancient Ife terra cotta caput that represents Obalufon I (Osangangan Obamakin, the manlike individual parent of Obalufon II) displays vertical marks (Fig. 23) consistent with the king’s first-dynasty associations. Vertical line facial marks such as these appear to reference Ife royals (as good as other elites) in addition to ideas of autochthony to a greater extent than generally. The fact that some 50 percentage of the ancient Ife terra cotta heads in addition to figures demo vertical line facial markings suggests
how of import this grouping silent was inwards the early on instant dynasty era when these works were commissioned. The instant largest grouping of Ife terra cotta works—around 35 percent—show no
facial markings at all, inwards keeping with modern Ife traditions forbidding facial marking for members of Ife resident families.
Ile-Ife, Nigeria, 13th-14th cent., terracotta
Ife oral tradition maintains that facial marking practices were at 1 dot outlawed. Accordingly, slow nineteenth to early on twentieth century fine art in addition to cultural practices display a strong aversion to facial marks of whatever type. Most likely it was Ife King Obalufon II who helped promote this alter after his homecoming to powerfulness as component division of his programme for a to a greater extent than lasting truce. This change, in addition to the demand sometimes to covert one’s historical menage unit of measurement in addition to dynastic identity for reasons of political expediency, is also suggested past times 2 masks, 1 of terra cotta in addition to 1 of copper, both identified with Obaufon II. One of these (Fig. 1) is plain-faced in addition to the other (Fig. 24) has prominent vertical markings. Consistent with Obalufon II’s role inwards bringing to Ife, in addition to serving as a key early on fine art patron, his association with masking forms that shield (cover) the identities of the once-competing Ife groups is
noteworthy. Like a bulk of ancient Ife sculptures with in addition to without facial marks, these works appear to appointment to the same period, underscoring the fact that different groups were living together at Ife at this time.
Like the Wunmonije Rex figure (Fig. 15), the bronze caput associated with the goddess Olokun (Fig. 14) also has vertical facial marks in addition to a rosette-decorated crown. Olokun, the ancient Ife finance government minister in addition to later commerce, bead, in addition to sea god, is said to appointment to Ife’s foremost dynasty. The copper alloy caput at nowadays inwards the British Museum, with both vertical facial marks in addition to a concentric circle diadem, appears to reference a principal inwards 1 of Ife’s autochthonous lineages (e.g. a number of foremost dynasty elite) who lived inwards Ife inwards the early on instant dynasty era before the ban on facial marking took effect.
Several Ife heads demo thick vertical facial lines. These marks seem to depict individuals participating inwards rituals inwards which blister beetles or leaves (from the bùjé plant) were employed to grade the human face with short-term patterns on the peel (Willett 1967:Fig. 23). These temporary “marks” may have got served as references to foremost dynasty elites or their descendants during sure enough Ife rituals
(Owomoyela n.d. n.p.; Willett 1967:Figs. 13–14, pl. 23; take in also tidings inwards Fagg in addition to Willett 1960:31, Drewal 1989:238–39 n. 65). Interestingly, sculptures depicting these thick lines characteristically demo flared nostrils in addition to furled brows, suggesting the hurting that accompanied facial blistering practices such as these. Several Florescence Era Ife terra cotta heads (roughly 5 percentage of the whole) display iii elliptical “cat whisker” facial marks at the corners of the oral fissure (Fig. 25) similar to those associated with to a greater extent than recent northeastern Yagba Yoruba, a grouping who later came nether Nupe rule.17 In 1 such sculpture, the marks extend into the cheeks inwards a way consistent with later Yoruba abaja facial markings, indicating an historic connexion betwixt the two. According to Andrew Apter (p.c.), a grouping of Yagba Yoruba occupy an Ife ward where the Iyagba dialect is silent sometimes spoken. Most historic Yagba communities are found inwards the Ekiti Yoruba part where early on Fe working sites have got been found (Obayemi 1992:73, 74).19 It is possible that Ife’s Yagba population was involved inwards complementary iron-working in addition to smelting activities at this center. This tradition also offers interesting insight into Republic of Benin figures belongings blacksmith tools with iii similar facial marks, works said to depict messengers from Ife.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 rather unusual Janus figure from ancient Ife shows a human with diagonal facial markings similar to those of historic in addition to modern Igbo Nri titleholders, suggesting the role a similar grouping may have got played inwards early on Ife as well. Today it is Chief Obawinrin, caput of Ife’s Iwinrin lineage, who represents Ife’s historic Igbo population during the annual Ife Edi festival. Associated rites are inwards component division dedicated to Obalufon II’s wife, Queen Moremi, who is credited with stopping local Igbo (Ugbo) groups attacking Ife inwards the era inwards which she lived. Today Igbo residents also live inwards nearby regions due south of Ife, amongst these communities such as Ijale (Abimbola p.c., Lawal p.c., Awolalu 1979:26).21 These Ife expanse Igbo populations appear to live distant relatives of autochthonous Igbo families, many of whom were forced out of the metropolis past times members of the novel Odudua dynasty. Sculptures from Ife’s Iwinrin Grove, an Ife site closely linked to Ife’s “Igbo” population,
characteristically demo vertical line facial markings consistent with works linked to foremost dynasty Ife history in addition to autochthony. Another 5 percentage of Ife sculptures portray Edo (Benin) style facial marks (forehead keloids) or patterns today characteristic of northeastern Yoruba/Nupe communities (a diagonal cheek line and/or vertical forehead line). The remaining 5 percentage of the extant Ife terra cotta works demo unusual “mixed” facial patterns (generally “cat whisker” motifs along with other forms). These marks may reference intermarriages (social or political) at Ife inwards the early on years of the novel dynasty. The notable variety of these facial patterns inwards ancient Ife fine art makes clear the center’s importance as a cosmopolitan metropolis sought out past times people arriving from various regional centers. Features of Ife cosmopolitanism revealed inwards component division through these variant facial markings are consistent with Ife’s identity as a middle of manufacturing in addition to trade. Similar issues are raised inwards Ife root myths that topographic point this metropolis as the domicile (birthplace) of humans of multiple races in addition to ethnicities.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Corpus of Remarkable Copper Heads Personifying Local Ife Chiefs
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 striking grouping of life-size copper in addition to copper alloy heads (Figs. 27–28) was unearthed inwards the 1930s at the Wunmonije site behind the Ife palace along with the above-discussed Rex figure
(Fig. 15).23 In add-on to the original corpus of xv life-size heads from this site, a clearly related 4.25 inch high fragment of a copper alloy caput consisting of a portion of a human face showing a
olfactory organ in addition to component division of a oral fissure also was collected at an estate inwards Ado-Ekiti in addition to has been described as “identical with those from Wunmonije” (Werner in addition to Willett 1975: facing p. 142).
These xvi life-size heads appear to have got been created as component division of the truce that Obalufon II established betwixt the embattled Ife residents. One of the heads (Fig. 27) indeed is so similar to the Obalufon mask as to depict the same individual. Frank Willett, who published photographs of many of the life-size metallic heads inwards his monograph on Ife, suggests (1967:26–28) that these works
had of import royal mortuary functions inwards which each was displayed with a crown in addition to robes of office, inwards the course of didactics of ceremonies next each ruler’s death. Willett proposes farther that
the heads were commissioned as memorial sculptures (ako) consistent with a later era Ife in addition to Yoruba tradition of carved wooden ako effigy figures used inwards commemorating deceased hunters. This theory, which identifies the corpus of life-size cast heads as effigies of successive rulers of the Ife metropolis state, however, is premised on an thought (now largely discredited; take in also Lawal 2005:503ff.) that the works were made past times artists over a several-hundred-year menstruum (the reigns of xvi monarchs). This theory is problematic non only because the styles in addition to stuff features of the heads are consistent, but also because the heads were found together (divided into 2 groups) in addition to part a remarkably similar status apart from blows that some of them received during their discovery. The shared status indicates that they were interred for a similar length of fourth dimension in addition to nether similar circumstances.
Figure of a Queen, Ife
The formal similarities inwards these heads have got led most scholars, myself included (Blier 1985), to debate that the works were created inwards a brusk menstruum of fourth dimension in addition to past times fewer than a handful of artists. With observe to style, as Thurstan Shaw notes (1978:134), “…they are of a slice in addition to hold off similar the piece of job of 1 generation, fifty-fifty perhaps a unmarried groovy artist.” These heads, I posited inwards this same article, were cast inwards component division to serve as sacred crown supports in addition to used during coronation rituals for a grouping of powerful Ife chiefs who caput the various core foremost in addition to instant dynasty lineages inwards the city. These rites appear also to have got been associated with Obalufon since related priests have got a role inwards Ife coronations silent today. The site where the heads were found today is identified as Obalufon
II’s burial site (Eyo 1976:n.p.). Ife Chief Obalara (Obalufon II’s descendant in addition to priest) crowns each novel monarch at a Obalufon shrine (Igbo Obalara) close the Obatala temple a brusk distance
from hither (Verger 1957:439, Fabunmi 1969:10, Eluyemi 1977:41). Today, when a descendant of King Obalufon wishes to committee shrine arts inwards conjunction with his worship, 2 copper alloy
heads, 1 land faced, the other with vertical line facial markings, are created (Oluyemi p.c.) (Fig. 30). Some of these ancient Ife life-size heads have got land faces. Others demo vertical lines. These facial marking variables back upwardly the likely usage of these heads inwards coronations in addition to other rites associated with the powerful early on Ife first- in addition to second-dynasty-linked chiefs who were brought together as component division of Obalufon II’s truce. The grouping of these heads, which inwards many ways also resemble the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1), together reference (and honor) the leaders of key families (now seen as orisa or gods) who had participated inwards this conflict. Obalufon II also created a novel metropolis programme as component division of this truce, 1 inwards which the homesteads of these lineage leaders were relocated to sites circumscribing the middle of Ife in addition to its palace (Blier 2012). In the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries, when the metropolis came nether attack, the heads appear to have got been buried for security keeping close their original shrine locale after many centuries of usage in addition to their location eventually forgotten.
There are several ways that the heads could have got been displayed inwards early on Ife ritual contexts, amongst these earthen stepform altars in addition to tall supports similar to 1 photographed with heads inwards Republic of Benin inwards the slow nineteenth century (Fig. 29). The latter staff would business concern human relationship for the presence of holes close the bases of these works. Wooden mounts such as those known today hither as ako were fashioned to commemorate Ife elephant hunters. These also could have got been used for display purposes. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 perhaps related Ijebu-Ode known as okute in addition to discussed past times Ogunba (1964:251) features roughly 4-foot wooden staffs with a symbolic human head. These pole-like forms were secured inwards the ground in addition to “dressed” during annual rites commemorating early on (first dynasty) rulers of the region.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 striking terra cotta vessel (Fig. 30) buried at the middle of an elaborate potsherd pavement at Obalara’s Land, an Ife site long affiliated with the Obalufon family, also offers clues important
to early on display contexts of these heads. This vessel incorporates the depiction of a shrine featuring a naturalistic caput with vertical line striations flanked past times 2 cone-shaped motifs described past times Garlake (1974:145) as crowns. The scene seems to portray an Obalufon altar with different types of crowns in addition to a an array of Obalufon in addition to Ogboni ritual symbols that regain usage inwards coronations,
amongst these edan Ogboni, consistent with the usage of the Ife life-size heads inwards chiefly in addition to royal enthronements overseen past times the center’s Obalufon priesthood.
In a community exterior of Ife, I learned of an of import tradition that offers additional insight into this corpus of ancient Ife life size heads. In the local Obalufon shrine are found xvi copper
alloy heads. While I was unable to take in these works, inwards the course of didactics of several interviews with the elderly temple chief, I learned a considerable amount nearly them. He described them as erunmole
(imole, ground spirits).28 This identity underscores the likely association of the heads as sacred icons honoring ongoing offices and/ or titles (Abiodun 1974:138) rather than elementary portraits (i.e. references to a specific person) (Underwood 1967:nos. 9, 11, 12). Consistent with this, each of the xvi copper alloy heads located inwards this rural Obalufon temple is said past times the priest to have got been identified with a “powerful” private from Ife’s distant past times who was afterwards deified, amongst these Oramfe (the thunder god), Obatala (god of the autochthonous residents), Oluorogbo (the early on messenger deity), Obalufon (King Obalufon II), Oranmiyan (Obalufon’s adversary, the military machine conqueror), Obameri (an ancient warrior associated with both dynasties), in addition to Ore (the autochthonous Ife hunter). These names harken dorsum to of import early on personages in addition to gods in
the era of Obalufon II in addition to the Ife civil state of war when the Ife life-size metallic heads were made. The descendants in addition to priests of these ancient heroes silent play a role inwards the ritual life of this center. As
explained to me past times the priest of this temple: “These imole are xvi inwards number, all xvi heads are kings [Oba, hither pregnant also deified chiefs], the xvi kings of erunmole.” The Ogboni
association, of which this rural priest also was a member, similarly comprise hither xvi core members (titled officers). Lisa Aronson (1992:57) notes for the Yoruba middle of Ijebu-Odu
that nearly 90 percentage of the chiefs inwards this middle are members of Ogboni. There are other connections betwixt the tradition of Obalufon metallic heads honoring historic leaders in addition to Ogboni
arts. Not only are a bulk of modern Yoruba copper alloy sculptures identified with both Ogboni in addition to Obalufon, but the “sticks” (staffs) said to live secured to the modern Obalufon heads during display (Oluyemi p.c.), a ritual in addition to aesthetic continuum extending dorsum to the ancient Ife Florescence Era.
*As with the 2 Ife Rex figures (Figs. 15–16), differences inwards the ancient Ife life-size heads’ facial markings in addition to other features offering additional insight to their identity in addition to meaning. Half of these xvi life-size metallic heads display vertical line marks that I have got identified with autochthonous (first dynasty) elites; the others have got land faces complementing the novel dynasty’s denunciation of facial marking. As explained to me past times the priest at the rural Obalufon temple where the grouping of copper alloy heads were housed: “there were xvi crowns inwards the olden days, viii tribal in addition to viii nontribal.” In using the term “tribal” here, he is referring to Ife’s autochthonous residents. Like the novel metropolis programme created past times Obalufon II as component division of his truce, these heads give primacy to the display in addition to sharing of powerfulness past times lineage heads of both dynasties.
Other features of these works also are important. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bulk of the plain-faced heads, but non the striated ones, include holes around the beard line in all probability for the attachment of an artificial beard of beads or hair. In the twentieth century, beards inwards Yoruba fine art often topographic point of import leaders, priests, in addition to others past times signaling senior historic menstruum status in addition to rank.30 Because all the plain-faced heads include beard holes, but only a few with facial markings do, the plain-faced works seem to live linked to powerfulness and/or status different than that of the heads with vertical facial lines. The non-bearded heads conceivably reference ritual status in addition to sacral powerfulness consistent with Obatala lineages today; the bearded heads instead seem to convey ideas of lineage leadership in addition to political status consistent with the center’s novel rulership line.
Interestingly, iv of the viii heads with facial lines are—like the Obalufon mask (Fig. 1) in addition to the 2 of the Tada figures (Figs.11, 13)—cast of nearly pure copper (96.8–99.7 percent), a feat that
artists of ancient Hellenic Republic in addition to Rome, the Italian Renaissance, in addition to Chinese bronze casters never achieved. The pure copper heads inwards this way differ materially from the stylistically similar heads that comprise sizable amounts of alloys along with the copper (the associated copper content ranging from 68.8–79.8percent). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bulk of the latter are without vertical facial lines. The five
nearly-pure copper heads additionally contain no detected zinc, a mineral that inwards the copper alloy heads ranges from 9.3–13.9 percent. Since one-half of the nearly- pure copper striated heads (two of the four) have got beard holes, this pocket-size subset of works may have got been intentionally differentiated inwards monastic enjoin to topographic point chiefs of both sacred in addition to political status. One of these pure copper heads additionally displays carmine in addition to dark lines around the eyes (Fig. 28). This characteristic is said past times Adedinni (p.c.) to topographic point a “most powerful person,” someone who is also a powerful imole (sacral power). To Obatala diviner Akintitan (p.c.), these oculus surrounding lines reference someone who “can really see,” i.e., a individual with unique access to the supernatural powerfulness that imbues 1 with spiritually charged insight.
Metal differences inwards these heads also send of import color differences that were important to the ancient Ife patrons in addition to artists. The pure copper works would have got been redder, piece those made from copper alloys were to a greater extent than yellow. The redder, nearly pure copper heads may have got been linked to ideas of heightened potency or danger. And since casting pure copper is technically far to a greater extent than hard than casting copper with alloy mixtures, the onetime heads also display greater skill, challenge, in addition to peril on the component division of the artist, attributes no uncertainty of import to the meanings of these heads as well. This stuff feature, inwards short, also gives them special iconic power. The usage of nearly pure copper inwards these works suggests non only how knowledgeable Ife artists were inwards the materials in addition to technologies of casting, but also how willing they were to select related risks to attain specific visual in addition to symbolic ends inwards these works.
Dating Ancient Ife Art
How do the various forms in addition to meanings of Ife’s early on arts inform dating in addition to other related questions? Dating ancient Ife fine art has posed many challenges to scholars, largely because many
of these artifacts come upwardly from secondary sites, rather than from contexts that tin live dated scientifically to the menstruum when the works were made in addition to foremost used (e.g. primary sites). While developing a chronology of Ife fine art has proven difficult, several schema have got been published inwards recent decades. Following the slow Eko Eyo, some Ife scholars have got utilized the term “Pavement Era” (and concomitantly “Pre-Pavement” in addition to “Post-Pavement” periods) to distinguish those fine art works that are linked to the menstruum of Ife’s famous potsherd pavements. However, because these
pavements are silent seen (and used) inwards abundance inwards the middle today, in addition to inwards some cases let out several different construction periods, the term “Pavement Era” is problematic. Ife historian
Akinjogbin instead takes upwardly (1992:96) local temporal damage to hash out Ife chronology. Without attributing dates, he notes that 1 such local term, Osangangan Obamakin, inwards some situations
designates Ife King Obalufon I (the manlike individual parent of Obalufon II) in addition to inwards others the early on (first) dynasty with which he was affiliated ....” Drewal ([1989:46] 2009:79) has attempted a temporal ordering
of ancient Ife sculpture based on differences inwards media (stone vs. terra cotta or metal) and/or assumed “expressive” qualities, but this has been dismissed past times archaeologists due to contradictory
evidence from related sites.
Yoruba archeologist Akin Ogundiran (2001:27–28, 2003) provides a to a greater extent than scientifically grounded chronology for Ife in addition to the broader area. His overview of artifact remains in addition to other sources contributes to my ain Ife chronology, 1 that combines archaeological with stylistic, oral historical, in addition to other data. For some periods, however, I employ different damage in addition to distinguishing features than does Professor Ogundiran. Most significantly, I have got simplified this chronology into iii main periods (with subgroupings) using the term Florescence (cultural “flowering”) for the menstruum of Ife’s major artistic in addition to cultural innovation, along with periods prior to (pre-Florescence) in addition to next (post-Florescence) this era. An early on Ife appointment of c. 350 bce. purportedly based on
radiocarbon (Folster inwards Ozanne 1969:32), cited past times both Ogundiran (2002, p.c.) in addition to Drewal
(2009:80), has been rejected past times Frank Willett (2004) in addition to others for lack of supporting
scientific evidence. I concur with this assessment.
The main art-producing era of early on Ife, what I define as the Florescence Period (Ogundiran’s Classical Period) is distinguished past times both roulette- in addition to cord-decorated ceramics. Within a relatively brusk fourth dimension span inwards this period, what I topographic point as Ife’s High Florescence, most of the early on arts appear to have got been made. One tin appointment this menstruum to c. 1250–1350 ce based on a attain of factors, including the thermoluminescence tests of key metallic works in addition to the likely reign era of Obalufon II as delimited inwards Ife oral histories in addition to Rex lists. It is this era that appears to grade the starting fourth dimension of the “Odudua” or instant dynasty of Ife. Associated with this High Florescence era are arts non only inwards “bronze” (Fig. 1) in addition to rock (Fig. 2), but also terra cotta (Fig. 24).
The to a higher topographic point fourth dimension frame is consistent with the dating for Ife in addition to its arts past times Peter Garlake (1977:72), based on his excavations at the Obalara’s Land in addition to Woye Asiri sites, both of which are closely linked to King Obalufon II whose descendant in addition to electrical current priest is Chief Obalara. From piece of job Garlake undertook at the Obalara Land site, he would issue 5 radiocarbon dates reflecting iii likely phases. The foremost is an initial business menstruum of circa the 12th century ce. The instant stage constitutes a c. fourteenth century business menstruum identified with the laying of the pavements, the creation of an array of sculptures, along with the site’s eventual fourteenth–fifteenth century abandonment. The 3rd in addition to terminal stage at the Obalara Land site consists of Post-Florescence era finds subsequent to the main site business in addition to abandonment.
Garlake’s recalibrated radicarbon dates (1974:146) for the Ita Yemoo site layer of terra cotta sculptures excavated past times Willett dot a menstruum potentially coeval with the radiocarbon dates of the Obalara’s Land sculptures (1312–1420 ce). As Garlake observes for this of import in addition to various grouping of terracottas (1974:146): “… on the dating evidence presently available, it seems that Obalara’s Land was occupied at the same fourth dimension as Ita Yemoo although it is likely, but non certain, that Ita Yemoo was foremost occupied at an before appointment than Obalara’s Land.” The likely menstruum of overlap betwixt these 2 sites is 1310–1350 ce, or what I posit as the High Florescence Era. Thermoluminescence dates for the clay cores extracted from 2 of the Wunmonije site life-size heads dot a similar menstruum of 1221–1369 ce (Willett 1997:28). This menstruum also is consistent with the likely reign era of Ife King Obalufon II. This dating additionally conforms with this king’s identity as the ruler who introduced bronze casting at Ife. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bulk of Ife’s ancient arts thus were created inwards a relatively brusk fourth dimension period, within a unmarried generation of artists, inwards the early on fourteenth century.
An in-depth analysis of ancient Ife sculptural style past times fine art historian Barbara Blackmun (n.d. inwards Willett 1994) reveals that works from a variety of Ife sites demo discernable clusters of similarity
consistent with artists working within the same broader fourth dimension frame. Significantly, Garlake also furnishes evidence (1974, 1977) that Ife’s High Florescence Era came to a relatively quick end, a alter accompanied past times a notable shift inwards pottery ornamentation forms, specifically from roulette to cord impressions (see also Shaw 1978:155).
Possible exterior confirmation for this Ife early on fourteenth century High Florescence Era is found inwards a well-known (but unexplored for the Yoruba) written source, namely Ibn Battûta’s 1325–1354 go account. Here nosotros read (1958:409–10) that southwest of the Mâlli (Mali) kingdom lies a ground called Yoûfi [Ife?] that is 1 of the “most considerable countries of the Soudan [governed past times a] …souverain [who] is 1 of the greatest kings.” Battûta’s description of Yoûfi as a ground that “No white human tin motion into … because the negros volition kill him before he arrives” appears to reference the ritual primacy long associated with Ife, inwards keeping with its of import manufacturing in addition to mercantile interests, amongst these advanced technologies of drinking glass bead manufacturing, Fe smelting in addition to forging, in addition to textile-production. Blue-green segi beads from Ife have got been found as far
due west as Mali, Mauritania, in addition to modern Ghana, suggesting that Battuta may good have got learned of this middle inwards the course of didactics of his travels inwards Mali.
There also appears to live a reference to Ife on a 1375 Castilian merchandise map known as the Catalan Atlas. This tin live seen inwards the yell Rey de Organa, i.e. King of Organa (Obayemi 1980:92),
associated with a locale inwards the telephone substitution Saharan region. While the geography is problematic, as was often the representative inwards maps from this era, the yell Organa resonates with the championship of early on Ife rulers,
i.e. Ogane (Oghene, Ogene; Akinjogbin n.d.). The same championship is found inwards a slow fifteenth-century business concern human relationship past times the Portuguese seafarer Joao Afonso de Aveiro (in Ryder 1969:31), documenting
Republic of Benin traditions nearly an inland kingdom that played a role inwards local enthronement rituals. While the identity of this inland ruler also is debated, Ife seems to live the most likely referent (see Thornton 1988, amongst others). On vessel from Obalara’s Land, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Terracotta Ancient Ife fine art works, as nosotros have got seen, are works non only of groovy visual power, striking beauty, in addition to rare technical accomplishment, but also objects that utter to core issues of history in addition to politics inwards this early on center. As such these sculptures offering unique in addition to critical insight into the social cloth of the city. Looking at the complex visual codes of these remarkable objects through details of body shape in addition to proportion, gesture, facial marking, stuff properties, regalia form, brute symbolism,
site locations, oral history, mapping in addition to traveler accounts, as good as modern twenty-four hours Ife beliefs in addition to rituals nearly this middle in addition to its arts allows us to take in these ancient Ife works as a vital component division of the city’s early on history. The artists of these works clearly were interested inwards the sculptural meanings beingness known, in addition to through an in-depth analysis of the variant symbolic formula at play, we
at nowadays have got a much improve agreement of both this of import early on metropolis in addition to its arts.
Kings, Crowns, in addition to Rights of Succession: Obalufon Arts at Ife in addition to Other Yoruba Centers
Suzanne Preston Blier
The life-size copper mask from Ife (Fig. 1), the ancient religious middle of the Yoruba inwards southwestern Nigeria is 1 of the most familiar, yet enigmatic, of all African works inwards metal.1 It was foremost published inwards 1937 past times the slow Rex (Oni) of Ife, Adesoji Aderemi, inwards the periodical Nigeria.
Copper mask said to correspond Ife Rex Obalufon II, 12th-
15th century A.D., h. 29.5cm. From king's palace, Ife. Nigeria,
Museum of Ife Antiquities, No. 12
The Rex identified the mask at the fourth dimension as representing Obalufon II, a legendary early on ruler of Ife who is credited with the excogitation of brass-casting at that center. This lifesize mask was said past times the Rex to have got been kept on an altar inwards the Omirin room of the royal palace at Ife ever since its manufacture. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 close flawless casting inwards ninety-nine percentage pure copper, it is 1 of the most beautiful in addition to technically accomplished of all works from ancient Ife. Ekpo Eyo in addition to Frank Willett appointment the mask to the 12th through fifteenth centuries A.D.
(Fig 3) Ife copper head, 12th-15th century A.D., h. 29cm. Traces of
white paint inwards corners of eyes, dark on pupils, in addition to red
around eyes in addition to on neck. From Wunmonije chemical compound of
king's palace, Ife. Nigeria, Museum of Ife Antiquities, No. 6
Like related Ife brass in addition to copper heads (Figs. 3, 4), the Obalufon mask is a piece of job of extraordinary naturalism. Except for the characteristic Ife-style almond-shaped eyes in addition to the distinct stylization of the ears, the human face of the mask shows striking physiognomic accuracy. The naturalism of this piece of job is heightened past times its fully life-size proportions, in addition to past times the fact that it was apparently intended to comprise an attached beard, for holes have got been placed around the oral fissure in addition to mentum areas so that a beard could live inserted.
(Fig 4) Zinc brass caput from Ife, 12th-15th century A.D., h.29.5cm.
Wunmonije chemical compound of king's palace, Ife. Nigeria, Museum
of Ife Antiquities, No. 12
from Ife, the Obalufon mask is distinct from these, for it was intended to live worn, in addition to has narrow slits beneath the eyes, so that its wearer could see. In addition, holes have got been placed around the mask's lower border for the attachment, presumably, of a costume or robe.
(Fig 5) Ife terra-cottam enquire from Obalara'sC ompound( Obalufon
St.), Ife, 12th-15th century, A.D., h. 32cm. Nigeria Museum of
Ife Antiquities, No. OC2
Unlike Ife brass in addition to copper heads that at 1 fourth dimension were buried (and eventually forgotten), this mask, remaining at the palace, could have got retained its original identity. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 recent regain at Ife offers evidence that supports the identification of this mask with Obalufon. The regain consists of a stylistically similar life-size mask - this 1 inwards terra-cotta- which was unearthed on Obalufon Street, appropriately enough, xx feet from the site of the city's Obalufon shrine. This mask (Fig. 5), similar the copper Obalufon mask, was also intended to live worn, for slits are incorporated beneath the eyes. The terra-cotta mask is different from the copper one, however, inwards that incised striations covert the face, in addition to both a headdress in addition to stylized beard have got been included inwards the modeling. Eluyemi, who published the mask, notes that this regain does non necessarily offering conclusive proof of the identity of the copper mask with Obalufon, but it does suggest the possibility that the two
may ultimately live linked. Masks inwards whatever medium are extremely rare amongst extant works from ancient Ife. The identification of the life-size copper mask from Ife with Obalufon II is farther supported past times the importance of metallic masks inwards the corpus of later Yoruba Obalufon religious arts.
It is quite possible that the copper Obalufon mask may have got served as a image for this later Obalufon cireperdue tradition.
The pregnant in addition to role of the Obalufon mask at ancient Ife have got non been thoroughly explored. Only iii scholars have got attempted to hash out the possible business office of this work. Leon Underwood was the first. He noted that "The slits beneath the eyes dot its usage . . . inwards some sort of ceremony."
Justine Cordwell next commented that it may have got had a funerary use, asserting that ". . . the life-size, naturalistic portrait mask . . . could live worn on the caput of a living man, who. . . bowing in addition to waving, thus [carried] to the ultimate the illusion of the homecoming of the dead ruler."
Most recently, Frank Willett presented 2 theories for its possible usage (pp. 29, 150). His foremost theory supports Cordwell's sentiment that the piece of job may have got been worn during funerals. He noted that:
"Unlike the other [Ife] bronzes, this is a truthful mask intended
to live worn over the face, with slits below the eyes
so that the wearer could take in out . . . In the course of didactics of
Yoruba funerals nowadays an egungun masquerader
takes it upon himself to utter as the vocalization of the deceased,
to reassure the living that he has been satisfied
with his burial . . . It is possible that this mask was used
inwards such a funeral ceremony . ."
According to Willett's instant theory, the mask may have got been linked to an Ife tradition inwards which a retainer impersonating the Rex set on the robes in addition to crown of province inwards monastic enjoin to prolong the ruler's reign. The mask, Willett suggests, mightiness have got been used inwards the course of didactics of such an
impersonation."
Except for Underwood's really full general thought nearly a ceremonial use, at that topographic point is no existent evidence to back upwardly these theories. The key to the mask's symbolism, it is suggested here, is found instead inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, both as a historic ruler at Ife, and, next his death, as a deity
of the Yoruba people. In this analysis the foremost theme volition live coronation ceremonies at Ife. It volition live argued that the mask is integrally associated with these ceremonies in addition to with the related rites of rulership transition. Following this, the figure of Obalufon II in addition to his topographic point inwards the early on formation of the Ife province volition live discussed. The mask volition live seen to symbolize Obalufon's role inwards assuring the hereafter of the citystate through his association with problems of the succession of rulers in addition to pop back upwardly for the throne. Later Obalufon religious arts in addition to liturgies (explored as a distinct corpus hither for the foremost time), tin live seen to reinforce the identity of the mask both with themes of coronations in addition to with the exigencies of autochthonous rule. The well-known Ife brass in addition to copper heads as good as a number of other cire-perdue works from the menstruum also may live associated with these ideas, for they, similar the mask, appear to live identified with Obalufon in addition to with succession to the throne.
The Arts in addition to the Succession of Rulers: Ife Coronation Ceremonies in addition to the Obalufon Mask
Present-day traditions at Ife provide us with clues as to the possible functioning in addition to symbolism of the Obalufon mask inwards the metropolis inwards ancient times. Contemporary evidence suggests that the mask traditionally may have got had a role inwards Ife coronation ceremonies. M. A. Fabunmi, writer of a 1969 catalogue that inventories local Ife religious shrines in addition to ceremonies, explains inwards this lite that during Ife coronations the royal crown was placed on "the caput of Obalufon" before the novel ruler was allowed to have on it (p. 11). What is meant hither past times the phrasing "the caput of Obalufon" is non clear, but it appears to live a reference to a sculpture from the Ife shrine of Obalufon. Perhaps the ancient Obalufon mask also 1 time had a role inwards Ife coronation rites. Because it is life-size, it could easily have got been worn inwards related ceremonies. Holes placed around the hairline in all probability served to secure a crown. Fabunmi notes that the priest inwards accuse of Obalufon is principal Obalara (p. 10). Obalara's
descendants, this writer explains, play a major component division inwards the coronation ceremonies of the novel king. The original Obalara was the boy of Obalufon, and, as Eluyemi has noted (p. 41), the Obalufon priesthood to this twenty-four hours has remained within this family.
The possible association of the Obalufon mask with Ife coronations is reinforced past times the fact that, according to the slow Rex of Ife (quoted inwards Verger, 439), the crown is brought from the Obalufon shrine (a sanctuary identified with the deified Obalufon). As the slow Rex of Ife explained it, "The
Oni of Ife is proclaimed Rex at the temple of Odudua but he receives his crown the next twenty-four hours at the temple of Orisala [Obatala] where it has been brought from the temple of Obalufon." By maintaining command over the crown inwards this way, the Obalufon priests could also command those who were to live crowned, thereby assuring that a legitimate ruler was indeed coming to the throne. The importance for Ife coronations of Obatala, the deity of the autochthonous people, should non live underestimated. Not only does the coronation select topographic point at the temple of Obatala, but the royal scepter is also associated with this deity (Idowu, 28-29). However Willet suggest that the crowns were in all probability kept inwards the palace. The coronation rites at Ife are discussed past times several scholars. Fabunmi (p. 25) notes that the novel Rex is crowned on a spot called Igbo Kubolaja at Ideta inwards the Ilode quarter. According to K.C. Murray (in Willett, personal communication, March 7, 1985), the Rex is crowned at Ojubo Obalufon. This is close the shrine of Obatala. The king, according to Fabunmi (p. 25), must also ". . . pass a menstruum of probation before taking upwardly residence at the palace at Atobatele house, at nowadays occupied past times Barclays Bank, which stands to the northwest of the palace." Abraham also describes (p. 279) the coronation of the Ife king. He notes that "the coronation is a long ceremony as he has to attend rites at many of the 201 shrines traditionally believed to have got been established past times Odudua inwards Ife . . On some other twenty-four hours occurs the iwesu ceremony wherein a rock is washed to ward off the evil influence of Esu . . . On his appointment . . . a
ceremony takes topographic point at the Igbo-ade where he receives gifts inwards multiples of 201 on the twenty-four hours before the piece of job of the novel Oni begins."
On this same day, the novel Rex pays homage to the dignitaries in addition to people of Ife, showing them
the throne of Obalufon, according to Palau-Marti (p. 22). Additional back upwardly for this linking of the Obalufon mask with ceremonies of royal investiture is found inwards the fact, discussed past times Ogunba, that the tidings Obalufe (the championship for sure enough Ife priest-chiefs), agency "king or principal at Ife" or the "the Rex or of import individual who owns Ife."
The tidings "Oba" inwards Obalufon likewise refers to "king," implying that Obalufon was closely identified with Ife dominion and, past times extension, with the transfer of royal power. If the mask was worn, as its pattern suggests it was intended to be, it was in all probability inwards the context of related coronation
ceremonies. According to Lloyd, during Yoruba coronations reenactment scenes drawn from the early on menstruum of the city-state were often presented. In such performances, the indigenous inhabitants of the metropolis had a telephone substitution place. Indeed inwards many Yoruba cities, the trial often took topographic point at 1 of their compounds. In sentiment of the of import topographic point of Obalufon inwards the Ife coronation rite, it is quite possible that a scene drawn from the life of Obalufon (similar perhaps to the Ede reenactment - take in p. 389) may have got been incorporated. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 priest wearing the Obalufon mask mightiness have got had a telephone substitution role inwards such a dramatization.
Obalufon II: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 King Who Ruled Twice
In sentiment of the apparently unopen association of the Obalufon mask with coronations, the enquiry naturally arises as to why Obalufon II would have got been so closely identified with the succession of rulers at Ife. The response appears to prevarication inwards the figure of Obalufon II himself, who, as Ife's 3rd ruler, played a decisive role inwards political events of the early on city-state. Obalufon II is presented inwards Ife oral accounts as a powerful ruler who, after beingness dethroned, returned to powerfulness in addition to brought the city's various factions into accord, thereby assuring the hereafter of the newly emerging state.
Three aspects of his reign volition live explored here: his dethronement past times Oranmiyan in addition to subsequent homecoming to power; second, his identity as a valiant warrior, protector of the local populace, in addition to symbol of political harmony, in addition to third, his association with the Ogboni society in addition to the arts of casting. Obalufon's telephone substitution role inwards the early on Ife citystate is reinforced past times the pregnant of his name, which, as suggested above, incorporates the tidings "Oba" (king), indicating his of import topographic point inwards Ife rule. Obalufon II, similar many Yoruba kings, also had several subsidiary names. One of these was Alaiyemore, pregnant "owner of the world known as Oreluere," Ore or Oreluere referring to an aboriginal hunter who was a menace to the unusual ruler "Odudua." The significance of this in conclusion yell volition live seen shortly, inwards that Obalufon II played a telephone substitution component division inwards the dispute betwixt the autochthonous peoples of Ife in addition to supporters of "Odudua" over dominion of the city-state. Since the
oral accounts do non hash out whatever trauma or difficulty associated with Obalufon II's death, it tin live inferred that he died peacefully of old age. Following his death, Obalufon II is said to have got been buried close the Wunmonije compound) at the palace. Frank Willett, however, believes that this grave is identified with Lafogido rather than Obalufon. It is hither that the brass in addition to copper heads that are stylistically similar to the Obalufon mask were also buried.
The events surrounding Ife's founding in addition to Obalufon II's role inwards the early on Ife city-state are described inwards some particular inwards Ife oral accounts. Present-day scholars of Yoruba organized religious belief such as Idowu (p. 23) in addition to Awolalu (p. 27) take in the metropolis as developing its political in addition to religious primacy as a outcome of the arrival of a militarily powerful grouping of foreigners who were component division of a distant branch of the Yoruba people. Unfortunately the yell of the leader of this grouping is non known, because inwards the accounts his identity is subsumed past times that of his patron deity, Odudua.
At the fourth dimension of the arrival of this outsider in addition to his party, Ife was occupied past times an indigenous people who were nether the leadership of a hunter named Ore (Oreluere). Not surprisingly, the original
inhabitants of Ife do non appear to have got supported this foreigner, "Odudua," inwards his attempts to gain command of the city. The leader "Odudua" also appears to have got suppressed the worship of the local Ife deity, Obatala. Awolalu summarizes (p. 27) the province of affairs at Ife at this fourth dimension as follows:
"(a) that the original inhabitants of Ife knew in addition to acknowledged Obatala
as the deity that created the ground in addition to to whom worship was due and
given; b) that at a stage inwards the early on history of Ife, some intruders who
were migrating from somewhere, came into Ife, in addition to conquered the original
inhabitants who were devotees of [Obatala]; c) that the newcomers
suppressed the worship of Obatala in addition to embraced that of Oduduwa who
was peradventure a woman individual divinity; d) that at the decease of the conquering
leader, his followers in addition to admirers deified him in addition to called him Odudua
after the primordial divinity whose worship he had encouraged. Thus
Odudua is portrayed as a primordial divinity in addition to as a deified ancestor."
This unusual ruler was, however, past times all accounts a strong in addition to politically effective leader. One of his most of import decisions was to constitute a serial of union alliances with the local populace. Accordingly, both he in addition to his political party married indigenous women "of the land," inwards monastic enjoin to create a novel generation of Ife residents who, inwards Idowu's words (p. 24), "... . would live at domicile inwards both worlds . . . people who were without bitterness towards either of the opposing parties." In the course of didactics of these marriages, the novel ruler fathered a number of children, many of whom eventually laid out to found their ain dynasties inwards other Yoruba states.
On "Odudua's" death, 1 of his sons, Obalufon I (Ogbogbodirin), succeeded him to the throne. Obalufon I's reign appears to have got been beset with problems. Unlike his father, "Odudua," he was a weak ruler. Indeed, the province that his manlike individual parent had latterly formed seems already to have got begun to disintegrate inwards the course of didactics of his reign. According to the Oni of Ife (in Verger, 141-42), Obalufon I's father, Odudua, would have got preferred to acquire out the throne to his oldest son, the warrior Ogun. When the latter died, Odudua remarked, "I have got no longer a powerful boy to sentry over the totality of my kingdom; Obalufon is non plenty the warrior, in addition to he volition separate the lands amongst his diverse
sons." Odudua hither seems to live anticipating the breakup of the kingdom nether the reign of Obalufon I. It was this division, in addition to the enquiry of who would dominion at Ife, which, as volition live seen, played a telephone substitution component division inwards the dominion of Obalufon I's ain son, Obalufon II. Little else is known nearly the
reign of Obalufon I, but at that topographic point is some evidence that the deity Obatala (the god of the autochthonous people - in addition to presumably of Obalufon I's mother) may have got been made a province deity around that time. This was most in all probability inwards response to the continued pressure level on the novel ruler past times the local public for royal back upwardly of local religious belief. Evidence for this comes from the statements of Johnson (p. 11) in addition to Beier (p. 18) that during the reign of Obalufon I's eventual successor, Oranmiyan, an Obatala priest had a topographic point of groovy importance inwards the palace. Presumably this priesthood had already been established past times the fourth dimension he came to power. As already noted, Odudua in addition to his successors married local women, in addition to they also may have got been instrumental inwards bringing Obatala into the palace
In addition, during his dominion at that topographic point appear to have got been frequent attacks against the palace past times the indigenous occupants of Ife. Into this insecure political province of affairs Obalufon II was thrust when, next Obalufon I's death, he appears to have got ascended the throne. So weakened was the city-state of Ife past times this time, that shortly after he came to power, Obalufon II was forced from the throne past times a human named Oranmiyan. According to 1 business concern human relationship (Verger, 329), it was against Obalufon I that Oranmiyan fought to select over Ife rule. This business concern human relationship states that when Oranmiyan ". . . learned that Odudua had died in addition to that Obalufon had inherited from his mother, in addition to had acquire foremost Rex of Ife, Oranmiyan sent a message to Obalufon, menacing him with death; Obalufon fled to Ido, xv miles from Ife. Oranmiyan . . . stayed a sure enough fourth dimension at Ife, so went to Oko Igboho in addition to finally Oyo... " The confusion of the 2 Obalufons in addition to their respective reigns also occurs inwards Yoruba religious ritual associated with Obalufon (see n. 35).
This latter figure, a powerful warrior who is also said to have got ruled at Oyo in addition to Benin, is identified variously as Obalufon's I's blood brother in addition to as his nephew. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3); Smith (p. 19); Fabunmi (pp. 16-17). The accounts also vary as to whether or non Oranmiyan had whatever legitimate claim to the throne. The "official" version (Fabunmi, 16) suggests that it was Oranmiyan in addition to non Obalufon II who had been the intended successor of Obalufon I. According to this version, at the fourth dimension of the latter's death, Oranmiyan was away from courtroom on a military machine create in addition to could not
live found. For this ground Obalufon II was crowned instead. When Oranmiyan returned, he proceeded to claim what was rightfully his. Other evidence suggests, however, that Oranmiyan had no legitimate right, in addition to was indeed a usurper. This evidence is that Oranmiyan is identified as the youngest boy of "Odudua" (Smith, p. 34). Since Oranmiyan is said to have got had many older brothers, he would non have got been called on to succeed his father. Furthermore, the accounts suggest that on Odudua's death, Oranmiyan inherited none of his father's moveable properties
(Johnson, 8). This sentiment of Oranmiyan as a usurper is also suggested past times Frobenius (p. 205), who notes that Oranmiyan's manlike individual parent was a human named Laro, in addition to that Oranmiyan had ". . . 1 time conquered [Ife], but was driven forth again." Ulli Beier argues inwards plough (Yoruba Myths, Cambridge, 1980, 65) that Oranmiyan may non fifty-fifty have got been component division of the royal line. He asserts that Oranmiyan is ". . . evidently representing a slow immigrant with no existent ground rights."
Little is told of Obalufon II's brusk reign prior to his overthrow, but he appears to have got already had the strong backing of the local populace, for it was he, rather than Oranmiyan, who they are said to have got supported as ruler. Obalufon II, although forced from the throne past times Oranmiyan, waged a hard battle to regain command of the kingdom. In the end, his endeavors appear to have got been successful,
for the accounts dot that eventually he returned to power. According to John Abiri (in Adedeji, 327) the defeat/return of Obalufon II may have got taken topographic point after Oranmiyan's decease during the reign of his son, Layiamisan. This, as Adedeji points out, also ". . . usefully explains the ground for Alaiyemore's [Obalufon II 's] homecoming to the throne as 1 of the damage of the rapprochement." This also explains Obalufon II's eventual union to Moremi, who inwards some accounts is said to have got been previously married to Oranmiyan. In his care against Oranmiyan to regain rule, he benefited from the back upwardly of the indigenous Ife population. According to Adedeji, this conflict betwixt Obalufon II in addition to Oranmiyan over the throne parallels a conflict inwards religious doctrine betwixt the followers of Obatala in addition to Odudua, the patron gods of Obalufon in addition to Oranmiyan respectively. This dispute, which is oftentimes discussed inwards the Yoruba literature, centers on the enquiry of who deserves credit for creating the world. Most accounts suggest that it was Odudua who really did so, but that Obatala (Orishanla) rightfully should have. The correct was said to have got been taken away from him because he was viewed as unfit (he had gotten drunk); then, piece he lay sleeping (i.e., inwards a province of beingness unaware), the powerfulness was assumed past times Odudua (Idowu, 23; Willett, 121- 23). As Idowu points out, however, a number of accounts contradict this view, some stating non only that Obatala did non acquire drunkard but was able to send out the creation. Regardless of the considerable differences betwixt the various Yoruba myths as to which deity could claim to live the world's creator, all concur on 1 factor, the presence of a hunter named Ore at the time. In the
most widespread account, when Odudua came downward to create the Earth, he found that Ore, an aboriginal hunter, was already established at that topographic point (Idowu, 23). In the major opposing legend, inwards which Obatala is credited with creating the world, Ore (Oreluere) is said to have got come upwardly downward with
the foremost political party that Obatala sent to world (Idowu, 20). Both versions limited concern for a legitimate claim to the Ife lands (i.e., creation of) and, inwards turn, command over them. Though the accounts differ as to the creator (Odudua or Obatala), they both dot that the hunter Ore (Oreluere) had rightful claim to the land. Interestingly, according to T. J. Bowen (Adventures in addition to Missionary Labours inwards Several Countries inwards the Interior of Africa from 1849 to 1956, London, 1857, 267), the "great mother" of the Yoruba is worshipped nether the yell of Iymmodeh (Iya ommoh Oddeh) "the woman parent of the hunter's [i.e., Ore's] children."
The legends portray Obalufon II at this fourth dimension as an ingenious military machine leader. In his create against Oranmiyan, he is said to have got dressed the local warriors inwards straw masks which made them appear to live spirits from some other world. This disguise frightened in addition to confused Oranmiyan's warriors so that they were unable to care effectively. Eventually, however, Obalufon II's masking deception was discovered. On 1 of his raids, a local Ife adult woman named Moremi allowed herself to live taken captive past times Obalufon's forces. In her captivity, Moremi was able to larn that it was non spirits from some other world but rather the original Ife inhabitants nether Obalufon II's management who
were menacing the capital. When she later escaped, she went domicile to tell Oranmiyan of her discovery. In Obalufon II's subsequent raid, his men were met past times Oranmiyan's torch-bearing warriors who shortly "unmasked" in addition to defeated the autochthonous troops.
This same Moremi helped to convey Obalufon dorsum to the throne. She was viewed as a heroine because of her role inwards Obalufon's capture, in addition to with her novel status she insisted that a to a greater extent than permanent peace live established at Ife. With this inwards mind, she asked that Obalufon II, the exiled king, live returned to power. In turn, she became his wife. Moremi, as a local woman, clearly had allegiance inwards both camps. Accordingly, the solution that she proposed benefited both equally, in addition to indeed, her conclusion to seek a to a greater extent than permanent peace was a critical 1 for the long-term stability
of Ife. This motion brought to the throne non only a forceful leader, but also 1 who had the strong back upwardly of the original Ife inhabitants. With the homecoming of Obalufon II to Ife, the autochthonous Ife citizens also appear to have got returned to this center, in addition to the instant component division of Obalufon II's reign appears to have got been marked past times peace in addition to prosperity.
Many sculptures in addition to shrines inwards in addition to around Ife are identified with persons in addition to events inwards this dispute. The most of import are the mask of Obalufon II in addition to a large rock "staff" associated with Oranmiyan. There are also a number of sacred areas in addition to sculptures that refer to the family, supporters, in addition to patron deities of these 2 historic figures. Many of these are described inwards Fabunmi's analysis of Ife shrines. One such shrine is associated with Moremi; some other is identified with her boy Ela. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 quartz stool that is at nowadays inwards the British Museum is identified with some other son,
Alashe (Oluorogbo). Alashe (Oluorogbo) is also said inwards some accounts to live Moremi's hubby (R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies, London, 1910, 23; Fabunmi, 9). Other examples of Ife fine art of this menstruum have got been found inwards the Iwinrin or Igbo Grove, a sacred expanse closely identified with the original Ife inhabitants. In addition, both Obatala, Obalufon's patron deity, in addition to this deity's wife, Yemo, have got shrines at Ife. Odudua in addition to several of this god's wives, Olokun in addition to Omitoto-Ose, also have got shrines. Oranmiyan's father, Ogun, in addition to several of Oranmiyan's warriors have got shrines with fine art of this menstruum as well. According to Willett (pl. 77), this stool was found inwards the Ife Oluorogbo grove. The leader of the autochthonous peoples, Ore (Oreluere), also has a shrine. At the dorsum of this expanse is a rock carving representing Ore's gate man, Edena (this sculpture is at nowadays inwards the palace museum).
The groovy twenty-four hours inwards Ife history when Obalufon II was returned to the throne next his defeat is reenacted at Ife inwards a special yearly pageant at nearby Ede. In it, a grapheme named Ajagemo, who simultaneously symbolizes the autochthonous peoples, the deity Obatala, in addition to Obalufon II, dances to come across his armed opponent Olunwi who represents the newcomers, "Odudua," in addition to Oranmiyan. In this combat, "Obalufon II" is overpowered in addition to is taken into the palace. He is shortly released, in addition to is carried triumphantly dorsum to the arena. This reenactment takes topographic point during the
festival held inwards laurels of Obatala, the deity associated with Obalufon, in addition to the original residents of Ife. The associated song/prayers reinforce the importance of Obatala in addition to the indigenous Igbo at this festival. The next was recorded past times Adedeji (p. 329).
"Obatala
The Oba that nosotros praise
The really king
Who was born inwards the metropolis of Igbo
And went to acquire Rex inwards the metropolis of Iranje
The groovy Orisa
The divinity of Igbo
They showed him ingratitude
They tricked him with palm wine
They so deserted the divinity from heaven
When they had vanished
They so asked where else could the hugger-mugger live found?"
At the opening of this trial is a ceremony dedicated to the Ogboni society. Adedeji, 328. The human relationship betwixt Ogboni in addition to Yoruba rulership is clear. According to Justine Cordwell ("Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba in addition to Republic of Benin Cultures," Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1952, 43), "The Ogboni society acts non only as advisor to the ruler in addition to courtroom of judge but inwards some areas really controls the ruler in addition to his decisions." Furthermore, both Obalufon in addition to Ogboni are associated with the left hand. "Osi la njo ijo Obalufon" or "It is towards the left mitt that you lot move
when you lot trip the lite fantastic toe inwards laurels of Obalufon," say his worshippers (Awolalu, 107). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 somewhat parallel ceremony is also performed at Ijebu-Ife, at which fourth dimension Obalufe priest-chiefs are identified with persons having prior claim to the land, who were ousted wrongly from political power. These prior claimants are inwards command of many of the sacred aspects of political rule. The ritual, Ogunba suggests (as inwards n. 14, 99), "... gives the impression that the priest-chief has inwards fact been cheated of powerfulness in addition to the yearly coming together in addition to parting becomes something of an atonement for the irrevocable seizure, so that the indigenous gods of the ground may non revolt against the novel political overlord." Appropriately, during the festival it is the priest Obalufe who sacrifices to the Earth, a grade of his unopen association with it. Ogunba notes inwards this study (p. 99), inwards turn, that "priestchiefs similar . . . the Obalufe, send names which audio to a greater extent than akin to the ownership of the ground than the priest kings." Henry Drewal suggests (personal communication, Apr 9, 1984) that at this shrine, Obalufe is also
the caput of the Odudua association. This society, which is of import inwards Yoruba fine art patronage today, is said to have got been formed around the fourth dimension of the to a higher topographic point conflict past times the followers of Obatala to care political injustice. According to Idowu (p. 24):
"Everything points to the fact that it was at this fourth dimension that
the Ogboni cult began. This was a hugger-mugger cult formed, in
all probability, to protect the indigenous institutions of
the ground from annihilation nether the influence of the new
regime. It must have got been originally an exclusive organization
limited to the original owners of the land."
The unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon II in addition to the Ogboni society is of considerable significance because Obalufon is said to have got introduced brass casting at Ife. According to Idowu (p. 208) at Ife at that topographic point was also a theater associated with the brass casters; this theater was called Ile Asude, "the theater of those who smelt brass." It is interesting that Obatala, the deity Ogboni had been formed to support, is oftentimes identified as the sculptor divinity (Awolalu, 21). Today this same society is 1 of the principal patrons of Yoruba brass casting arts. Unfortunately, the historical accounts
provide few farther details on this matter. Most probably, however, Obalufon II's unopen association with the Ogboni society was the ground of his identification with the introduction of brass casting. It seems really plausible that with the homecoming of Obalufon II to the throne, the Ogboni society gained legitimacy in addition to considerable powerfulness at the palace.
Their arts presumably also flourished at this time. It was, it would appear, because of Obalufon's association both with brass casting in addition to with peace in addition to legitimate dominion at Ife that the copper mask bearing his yell came to live associated with coronation ceremonies at Ife. Further evidence that reinforces the identity of the Obalufon mask with coronations in addition to themes of rulership is found inwards the religious rituals in addition to beliefs that developed next Obalufon II's eventual decease in addition to deification. In the nowadays era he has been, as nosotros volition see, viewed both as the god of skilful authorities in addition to as the patron deity of the arts of beadwork, brass casting, in addition to weaving. In addition, brass crowns and masks shape a important component division of the Obalufon fine art corpus.
Obalufon, a God with Many Identities: Deity of War, Peace, Prosperity, in addition to the Arts of Beads, Brass, in addition to Weaving
Obalufon II, similar many groovy Yoruba rulers, was deified at his death. According to Idowu (p. 69) "Obalufon is 1 of the divinities worshipped at Ile-Ife in addition to all over Yorubaland. But he began past times beingness an ancestor." Unlike other Yoruba deities such as Shango, Eshu, Ogun, Odudua, in addition to Ifa, this god has non been the object of whatever study, nor have got the wealth in addition to multifariousness of religious ritual in addition to fine art associated with him been examined. Although today Obalufon's followers are found inwards many parts of Yorubaland, Ile-Ife silent remains an of import middle for Obalufon worship. Ulli Beier notes (Yoruba Beaded Crowns, London, 1982, 9), that piece Obalufon is worshipped inwards a number of Yoruba towns, his worship is especially identified with Ife - only as Shango's worship is especially associated with Oyo. Although it is Obalufon II who is to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the ruler who is deified as "Obalufon," it should live noted that Obalufon the god seems inwards some cases simultaneously linked to both rulers bearing that name. Thus piece Abraham asserts (p. 491) that it was Alaiyemore (i.e., Obalufon II) who is worshipped as Obalufon, Fabunmi indicates (p. 10) that the worship of Obalufon is identified with Ogbogdirin (Obalufon I). Although the assimilation of the 2 kings inwards Obalufon worship appears to live a natural outgrowth of their unopen association with each other (and the fact that they part the same name), most of the rituals, religious tenets, in addition to works of fine art of the Obalufon association seem to live identified to a greater extent than closely with Obalufon II in addition to the various attributes of his rule.
Other places where worship of Obalufon (Balufon, Obalifon, Abalufon, Abalifon) is especially strong include towns inwards Ekiti where Obalufon II is said to have got taken refuge during the menstruum of his banishment. Still other major centers of Obalufon worship are identified with places where the children of Obalufon II eventually settled. Once established inwards these towns, his descendents are said to have got laid upwardly shrines to their father. Thus Verger notes (p. 453) that "... at Ido Osun, close Osogbo, 1 finds a temple for Obalufon, it was said to me: 'Olufande, boy of Obalufon, installed himself at Owaluse close Isesa, so at Igbokiti where he died. His successor... went to Igbo Oyao
so came to constitute himself hither at Ido Osun.' " Unlike most deities inwards the Yoruba pantheon, Obalufon is surrounded with considerable confusion inwards the literature. In Yoruba Ifa divination, William Bascom notes (Ifa Divination: Communication Between Gods in addition to Men inwards West Africa, Bloomington, 1969, 49) that the 8th odu (owonrin meji) refers to Obalufon. But the ranking
of this odu with observe to the total of xvi odu, shows, as with the life of Obalufon, a conflict over legitimacy in addition to place. According to Bascom, although owonrin meji is seen to live equal to ofun meji, inwards rank they are seen to care each other for 8th place. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 legend provided past times Bascom
explains this conflict:
"Ofun meji was the foremost born of all the figures in addition to the foremost to come upwardly to
earth. He was the caput of all the other figures in addition to ruled them similar a
king, but because things went badly nether his rule, they sent to Ifa in
sky to tell him how hard things were on earth. Then Ifa sent Ogbe
Meji downward to ground to select Ofun Meji's topographic point as the caput of the other
figures. Ofun Meji fought [to retain his place] defeating all combinations
until he reached Owonrin Meji. These 2 fought in addition to fought and
fought, until the others sent to Ifa inwards heaven. Ifa ruled that Ofun Meji
in addition to Owinrin Meji should live equal inwards rank, taking turns inwards priority.
This is why Ofun Meji outranks Owonrin Meji when Ofun Meji is
thrown first; but when Owonrin Meji is thrown first, it outranks Ofun
Meji."
There are interesting parallels betwixt this Ifa business concern human relationship in addition to legends of Obalufon's life, in addition to that of his ain deity, Obatala (see n. 23). This is peculiarly truthful inwards the discussions of his powers, habits, in addition to associated symbols. Interestingly, inwards the sectionalization of orisa at Ife betwixt those who are followers of Obatala in addition to those who are followers of Odudua, Obalufon (along with Agemon, Osonyin, Esidale, Obameri, Oranyon, Moremi, Obameri, Eleshije, Ija, in addition to Olokun) is often identified as a supporter of Odudua (Forde, as inwards n. 27, 37; Abraham, 483).
According to Fadipe, Obalufon is the god of warriors; to Farrow he is the god of peace or, to a greater extent than specifically, peace of the kingdom. S. S. Farrow, Faith, Fancies, in addition to Fetish, London, 1926, 59. Obalufon, inwards his deification, is also associated with uprightness in addition to high ethical standards. This appears to have got partial ground inwards Obalufon's back upwardly of Obatala (the god identified with ethical purity) against the insurgent followers of Odudua (Adedeji, 336). Adedeji suggests accordingly that ". . . similar Obatala, he is the embodiment of morals in addition to ethics of the Yoruba." These qualities are especially of import inwards the alternative of Obalufon priests. Thus, Awolalu notes (p. 170), Obalufon worship is sometimes suspended if a priest of high moral grapheme cannot live found. At Owu-Ijebu he explains, ". . . worship was suspended because it was hard to acquire a human of high probity in addition to integrity to preside at the shrine of Obalufon. The Oba explained to the people the high standards required of a presiding priest in addition to added 'If a human has evil hear in addition to silent has the audacity of coming to officiate at the shrine of Obalufon such a human volition non in conclusion the year.
J. Johnson (in Verger, 457) in addition to Dennett offering a similar view, signaling that Obalufon is the "god of the prosperous empire." Also of significance is the fact that Ore (Oreluere), the original hunter whom Obalufon supported, is also associated with ethical standards in addition to morality. According to Idowu (p. 23), Oreluere himself ".o. . was the guardian of domestic morality in addition to preserver of audio menage unit of measurement traditions." Talbot (II, 60, 87) calls him the god of fortune, success, in addition to greatness. Obalufon also has a topographic point inwards agricultural ceremonies, peculiarly those linked to yams in addition to to their harvest. Thus at Ido Osun ". . . yams cannot live eaten before 1 has celebrated the offering of foremost fruits to Obalufon inwards September" (Verger, 453). Obalufon's identity with agriculture seems to live founded at to the lowest degree inwards component division on the mythical dispute betwixt Obatala in addition to Odudua (see n. 26). According to 1 myth (Idowu, 94), during the menstruum of their dispute a groovy drought prevailed inwards which all crops failed in addition to many people died. It was only after the conflict had been resolved, in addition to peace had been restored, that the fields 1 time again flourished. It is also non surprising that Obalufon, as the representative of the original owners of the land, would play a telephone substitution component division inwards ceremonies associated with the productivity of the fields. Like many benevolent Yoruba deities, Obalufon is also said to convey children to his followers (Awolalu, 150). The Yoruba literature suggests
that Obalufon may have got been the deity of spoken communication as good (Talbot I, 87; Verger, 452). This is based on the identification of Obalufon as the foremost human on Earth. According to Bowen (as inwards n. 26, 314) "the yell of the foremost human was . . . Obbalufoh, in addition to the yell of his married adult woman was Iye. They came from sky in addition to had many children. . . Obbalufoh agency the King or Lord of Speech, because the foremost human was the foremost speaker; Iye .. signifies life." Verger points out, however, that this identity appears to live a false 1 since Bowen apparently confused Obalufon with Osalufon (or Obatala).
These associations with war, peace, in addition to prosperity clearly arrange with what nosotros know about
Obulafon II's life. He was known as a valiant, relentless, in addition to ingenious state of war leader who never gave upwardly inwards his care to gain dorsum his throne, in addition to who never turned his dorsum on the autochthonous peoples without whose back upwardly peace would have got been impossible. It is Obalufon II's association with peaceful in addition to prosperous rulership that is emphasized accordingly inwards the Obalufon offerings inwards Ilawe, Ekiti, where Obalufon is the tutelary deity. The human relationship betwixt Obalufon in addition to prosperous rulership is reinforced inwards the religious ceremonies associated with this deity. According to Awolalu (p. 105), during the offerings to Obalufon inwards Ilawe, it was the representative of the Rex who brought the offerings of the people to the Obalufon priest. This royal representative knelt downward before the priest... in addition to prayed for everybody in addition to everything inwards the community."
In add-on to beingness closely tied with kings in addition to the peace in addition to prosperity of their reigns, the deity Obalufon is also associated with a number of Yoruba fine art forms. Thompson identifies Obalufon as the patron god of beadworking, today the principal stuff of the royal crowns in addition to scepters. Robert Farris Thompson (Black Gods in addition to Kings: Yoruba Art at U.C.L.A., Los Angeles, 1971, 8:1) explains accordingly that, "Men similar to live different. The deity Obalufon so invented beads in addition to strung them inwards different colors on bracelets in addition to necklaces so that gods, in addition to men who follow them, mightiness stand upwardly inwards proud distinction . . ." In other Yoruba areas, however, beadwork is to a greater extent than often associated with Olokun. Verger (p. 452) in addition to Abraham (p. 501) depict Obalufon (Balufon) as the patron deity of weaving in addition to clothing. Obalufon is also to a greater extent than often than non viewed as the patron deity of the various brass-casting arts. William Fagg suggests that this association is fairly mutual throughout Yorubaland.
The sculptural forms that today are found inwards the various Obalufon shrines also add together to our agreement of the possible pregnant in addition to role of the before Ife Obalufon mask. Many of these works, similar the original Obalufon mask, are cire-perdue castings. Some of the most of import information on these arts comes from the town of Obo Ile which was settled past times immigrants from Ife. The land notes of William Fagg document the unopen human relationship betwixt Obalufon in addition to brass casting at this center. At Obo Ile, the tradition itself was said to have got originated at Ife. Fagg's fieldnotes dot that brass arts were so of import inwards the nineteenth century that 1 3rd of the population may have got been brass casters. In this town, furthermore, the Rex of the brass casters, Oba Legbede, is also the caput of the Obalufon association. Additional back upwardly for the identification
of Obalufon with the brass-casting arts is found inwards the fact that at Obo Ile, Obanifon (Obalufon) is used as the generic tidings for all works inwards this medium.
Several types of Obalufon arts from Obo Ile have got been documented past times Fagg. One tradition indicates that a brass object (perhaps a staff) was brought to Obo Ile from Ife. This object has the yell of Obalufon. Interestingly, at Ife a brass staff is carried past times Chief Obalara in addition to other Obalufon
priests, Fagg also saw several brass masks associated with Obalufon when he was inwards Obo Ile area. He describes the masks as modern castings, oval inwards shape, in addition to roughly 5 to vi inches inwards height. Possible parallels with these masks should also live noted. Denis Williams has published 2 brass masks from Oyo, in all probability of the 19th century, which were used inwards conjunction with Shango, the patron deity in addition to foremost ruler of Oyo ("Art inwards Metal," Sources of Yoruba History, ed. S.O. Biobaku, Oxford, 1973, 163-64). These were worn at the annual Bere festival, a ceremony that, similar many of those of Obalufon, took topographic point at the yam harvest. The yell of these masks, alakoro, derives from the word, akoro, pregnant chief's headgear. Thus these masks, similar that of Obalufon, may live ultimately identified with crowns. One of these Oyo alakoro brass masks has iii markings converging at the lips (Williams, 61) a motif similar to that found on a number of Ife works. Several pocket-size brass alakora masks also appear on a Shango drum documented past times Thompson (as inwards n. 42,
1/18). One of these masks also was called Obanifon (Obalufon).
At Isare, Fagg's information suggests that Obalufon arts have got a clear royal identity. Here it is the local Alare (king/ chief) who is caput of the Obalufon (Onifon) association. The emphasis both on brass masks in addition to on ideas of rulership inwards these traditions suggests of import secondary support
for the identity of the classic Ife copper mask with Obalufon in addition to with coronations. This parallel, inwards turn, offers evidence for a possible thematic continuum inwards Obalufon arts extending from the nowadays era dorsum to the fourth dimension when the Ife Obalufon mask was made. In add-on to brass masks in addition to scepters, Obalufon is also associated with brass crowns. Several of these have got been documented; 1 is illustrated past times Thompson (p. 10). This Obalufon crown (Fig. 7) is from Obo-Aiyegunle, Ekiti. It incorporates telephone substitution in addition to side faces around its base, in addition to is surmounted past times a bird. Frank Willett photographed some other brass crown associated with Obalufon (Obanifon) at Obo Aiyegunle (Thompson, p. 13, personal communication from Willett). The identification of these brass crowns with Obalufon suggests some other parallel with Ife Obalufon traditions, for inwards these, it volition live recalled, crowns in addition to coronations were all-important concerns.
(Fig 7 Obalufon brass crown from town of Obo-Aiyegunle, Ekiti.
After photograph past times R. F. Thompson (pl. 10)
Figural traditions inwards brass are also associated with Obalufon. Geoffrey Parrinder, inwards his description of the Obalufon shrine at Ibadan, notes (Religion inwards an African City, London, 1953, 30) that the door of that shrine could non live opened past times the uninitiated for fright that they would live struck blind, suggesting to Parrinder that the piece of job within could have got been of brass, a stuff whose polish mightiness have got been identified with such a response.
The only representative of an Obalufon brass sculpture that has been published to appointment is inwards the Nigerian National Museum at Lagos. This piece of job is 1 of a pair of Obalufon brass sculptures from Ijebu-Ode. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 distinctive attribute of this sculpture is the portrayal of fisted hands placed parallel to the ground inwards front end of the body. The piece of job appears to portray serpents issuing from the nostrils, a characteristic really unusual inwards Ogboni brass sculptures but occasionally found inwards ancient Ife fine art in addition to inwards Republic of Benin brass-casting traditions. The motif of the serpent issuing from the nostril is also found on Republic of Benin "Spirit" heads in addition to Agwe masks, on the headdress of the "Tsoede" warrior figure, in addition to on several works from ancient Ife. Stylistically, the published Obalufon brass figure shares closest ties with human face bells from the Yoruba expanse around Ijebu-Ode. These bells, Thompson notes (79, n. 13), are identified with royal lineage chiefs. This similarity is reinforced past times the fact that the caput of the published Obalufon brass figure is cast separately from the body, so that the head, when seen alone, looks remarkably similar these bells. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 spike that extends from this caput is inserted into the hollow brass torso, the 2 parts so beingness strapped together.
The corpus of Obalufon-related arts is, as nosotros have got seen, quite diverse. Several features of these sculptures, however, suggest that they may have got parallels with the Obalufon mask from ancient Ife. These attributes include the predominance of brass inwards Obalufon fine art inwards general; second, the importance of crowns in addition to masks amongst these cireperdue works, in addition to third, an emphasis on rulership in addition to coronation themes inwards the rituals in addition to religious forms of Obalufon worship. These to a greater extent than recent Obalufon works clearly reinforce the identification of the ancient Obalufon mask.
Obalufon in addition to the Head of Lajuwa: A Terra-Cotta Identified with a Tale of Court Intrigue
Visual in addition to thematic evidence suggests that the Obalufon mask may live associated with the ancient Ife terra-cotta caput of a courtroom retainer named "Lajuwa" (Fig. 9). The terra-cotta caput that is said to correspond Lajuwa was published past times the slow Ife king, Adesoji Aderemi, at the same fourth dimension as the Obalufon mask.
(Fig nine Ife terra-cottah ead said to representL ajuwa,1 2th-15thc entury
A.D., h. 32. 8cm. From king's palace, Ife. Nigeria, Museum
of Ife Antiquities, No. 20 (79.R.1)
Although the dating of the Rex identified with Lajuwa is opened upwardly to some dispute, this terra-cotta head
was clearly made around the fourth dimension of both the Obalufon mask in addition to the life-size brass in addition to copper heads. Aderemi (as inwards n. 2, 3) identifies this Rex as Aworokolokin. In style, Willett suggests (p. 58) that it "is almost identical with the Wunmonije bronzes in addition to could good have got been made past times one
of the same artists." The 2 works also appear to live closely tied because they were kept inwards the same chamber at the palace. Both sculptures, Willett suggests, may have got been associated with an incident inwards Ife history inwards which a retainer assumed the role of a Rex inwards monastic enjoin to extend his rule. At
Ife in addition to other Yoruba city-states, sure enough courtroom servants had the correct to personify the king. We know from Johnson (p. 59) that at Oyo on a number of occasions, surrogates of the Rex would correspond him past times assuming his robes in addition to crown. Here, according to Talbot (iII, 569), it was a eunuch with the championship of Olosi or Osi'efa' who took on the king's identity during judicial proceedings, battles, in addition to sure enough affairs of state. This Olosi had considerable powerfulness inwards the palace, for he was 1 of the principal advisors of the king, in addition to had a major role at each coronation. As Johnson suggests
(p. 59),
"The Osi'efa or Olosi . . . represents the Rex inwards all occasions
in addition to inwards all matters civil as good as military. He
sometimes acts as commander inwards principal inwards military machine expeditions,
he is allowed to usage the crown, the province umbrella,
in addition to the kakaki trumpet, in addition to to have got royal honors
paid to him. On such occasions, he is privileged also to
dispense the king's prerogatives."
Johnson farther notes (p. 163), that "The Osi-efa is ever the foremost as good as the in conclusion inwards the king's chamber. If the Rex is ill, he takes his topographic point on province occasions, putting on his robes in addition to crown; inwards state of war he appears as the king's deputy, invested inwards all the paraphernalia of royalty." Perhaps related to this exercise of a courtroom figure beingness asked to portray the Rex for sure enough province events is a tradition at Ife described past times Idowu (p. 208) in addition to Willett (p. 150) inwards which it is said that a peculiarly love Rex died, in addition to 1 of his servants decided to enshroud his body in addition to pretend that he was silent live past times wearing the royal regalia himself. The hoax worked for a time, but eventually it was discovered. The novel king, furious that he had been kept from the throne, ordered the retainer in addition to the palace artists to live killed. The courtroom retainer who is said to have got masterminded the deception is identified as Lajuwa, the chamberlain of King Aworokolokin. Lajuwa, Willett notes (p. 57), is at nowadays identified as the patron deity of palace servants.
Interestingly, Hambly, inwards his description of the Lajuwa caput (p. 465) identifies it as "Lajuwa, the messenger of Onis," suggesting that Lajuwa's role at Ife may have got been to a greater extent than that of a representative/advisor than a retainer per se. He may have got acted as a trusted assist in addition to surrogate of the king. The Obalufon mask, as Willett has noted (p. 150), could easily have got been worn past times someone intending to impersonate the king. It is tempting to suggest inwards this lite that the Obalufon mask may also have got been worn past times designated courtroom officials inwards their roles as representatives of the king. Yoruba crowns today comprise a long fringe of beads that enshroud the ruler's face. Sculptural portrayals of ancient Ife crowns (see Fig. 10) demo no such fringe, suggesting that a naturalistic mask mightiness have got been an of import component division of the representative's costume. Possibly the Obalufon mask, through its identity with royal investiture, also had a secondary role inwards masking those at courtroom whose duty it was to serve as royal personifiers.
(Fig 10) Ife brass figure of a king, 12th-15th century A.D., h.
47.11cm. From the Ita Yemoo site, Ife. Nigeria, Museum of Ife
Antiquities, (79.R.12)
Ife's Life-Size Brass in addition to Copper Heads: Evidence for Their Identification with Obalufon
The copper Obalufon mask is also stylistically related to the ancient Ife brass in addition to copper heads (Figs. 3, 4) that were unearthed inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound close the palace. The Obalufon mask is unopen plenty to 1 of them to live a portrait of the same person. Frank Willett, who published many of these naturalistic copper in addition to brass heads inwards 1967 inwards his piece of job on Ife, presented a theory as good of their possible usage in addition to meaning. This theory, which had originally been suggested past times William Fagg in addition to so supported past times Justine Cordwell, suggests that the heads in all probability played a telephone substitution role inwards the Yoruba establishment of Ako, a tradition inwards which memorial figures were constructed to correspond the deceased. The life-size brass in addition to copper heads, this theory suggests, were incorporated into memorial figures that served as surrogates for deceased Ife kings during funerary
commemorations. At Owo the documented usage of a naturalistic wooden Ako memorial figure was seen to offering a contemporary counterpart for this tradition.
This theory, though silent held past times most African fine art historians, has been brought into enquiry past times several scholars. Kenneth Murray inwards a missive of the alphabet to Odu was the foremost to lift doubts nearly this view, basing himself primarily on the stylistic congruity of the works involved. He notes that these cast life-size heads appear to have got been produced within a relatively brusk period, in all probability past times 1 or 2 artists working within a close-knit school. Indeed, according to Murray, ". . . it mightiness live argued that only 1 artist, working perhaps for only a couplet of years, made the bulk of the heads."
The stylistic congruity of these works would thus dominion out the possibility that the xv heads were commissioned as funeral memorials for successive Ife kings. To the contrary, the likely average reign of xx years which Willett suggests for the Ife kings (p. 130), or 1 of xiii years at nowadays considered to live to a greater extent than realistic, would stretch their execution over 2 or iii hundred years (i.e.,
twenty, or thirteen, years times xv heads). This fourth dimension span is far likewise long, since they demo remarkably few stylistic or formal elements of variance. Equally problematic is the fact that the heads are all inwards a somewhat similar status (apart from blows that some of them received) suggesting that, rather than having differential lengths in addition to places of burial, they were in all probability all buried for nearly the same length of time, nether the same or similar conditions.
Furthermore, if nosotros hold off at sculptural forms elsewhere inwards Africa, it is clear that artistic traditions demo really important stylistic changes over comparable periods of time. At the royal city-state of Benin, for example, Dark notes that at that topographic point is an enormous stylistic difference inwards the bronze heads
made over the course of didactics of several centuries. Garrard has shown that brass "gold weights" from the kingdom of the Ashanti inwards Republic of Ghana during the same fourth dimension span demo as striking changes. Great differences tin also live seen, as Rosenwald points out, betwixt the early on in addition to slow commemorative figures of the Kuba kings, fifty-fifty though they were made over a much shorter period. Willett was aware of the problems inwards the several hundredyear menstruum of industry that his memorial theory necessitated. He suggested accordingly (p. 130) that Ife kings may have got been ritually killed after a brusk reign of only vii years. There is, however, no evidence for the ritual killing of kings inwards whatever of the accounts of Ife history, nor inwards the other Yoruba city-state histories. The only evidence that Willett cites as back upwardly for his tilt is an business concern human relationship given past times Ulli Beier coming from the southern Yoruba metropolis of Ijebu, which refers to traditions nearly events assumed to have got taken topographic point inwards Ife.
Even if nosotros were to select a seven-year reign for the kings of Ife, however, this would silent dot a menstruum of industry of roughly 112 years, a span of fourth dimension silent likewise long for these stylistically similar works. Willett also appears to have got been aware of this difficulty, for he suggests (p. 130) that the heads may have got portrayed non only kings but also palace retainers - i.e., those who would have got been killed to accompany the Rex at the fourth dimension of his death. The possibility that whatever of these copper in addition to brass heads represented courtroom servants, however, is extremely slight, inwards sentiment non only of the scarcity of copper in addition to brass at Ife at this time, but also because, as Willett notes, each caput appears to have got been intended to have on a crown. More latterly Rowland Abiodun has raised farther questions nearly Willett's memorial theory for these heads. Abiodun points out that ". . .if the 'effigy represents the dignitas of the business office itself,' it is unusual that nosotros have got non yet found a unmarried instance where the ako effigy has been made specifically for [a king] . . ." He goes on to banking concern bill that
"..if [kings] are honored as seconds of the gods . ..
in addition to if 'it is unsafe to stare at his naked face' . . . and
if at his decease at that topographic point is fifty-fifty greater secrecy in addition to mystery
surrounding his person, would it non live incongruous to
carve an ako or fifty-fifty to brand whatever image of him inwards the
characteristically naturalistic style in addition to parade the town
with it the way the known ako are treated?"
Murray in addition to Abiodun have got not, however, suggested whatever alternatives for the possible pregnant in addition to usage of these heads. It is only such an alternate theory that the to a higher topographic point tidings of the Obalufon mask may at nowadays permit.
I suggest inwards this lite that these heads, similar the life-size copper mask, may have got been identified with Obalufon II in addition to with his later worship as a god. There is considerable evidence to back upwardly this view. First, all the brass in addition to copper life-size heads from Ife were found inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound (Fig. 6),6 a component division of the upper-case missive of the alphabet that is said to live close the topographic point where Obalufon II himself was buried. According to Fabunmi's map (n.p.), this is also close the topographic point where the novel kings of Ife are crowned. It is also possible that these heads may have got originally been housed on an Obalufon shrine, on the analogy that at other Yoruba centers, brass crowns, masks, in addition to figures are oftentimes found on shrines identified with this deity.
The only other major shrines specifically associated with brass sculptures are those of the Ogboni in addition to Agemo societies. The placement of these heads on the Ife Obalufon shrine would also arrange to the Yoruba tradition that identifies Obalufon as the patron deity of brass casting, in addition to attributes to Obalufon II the introduction of the casting arts. Furthermore, if the heads were intended, as Willett
suggests, to live seen with actual crowns, in addition to if, as stated above, these crowns were kept on the Obalufon shrine, it follows that the heads in addition to the crowns would have got been kept together.
The association of these heads with Obalufon also emerges from the likely circumstances of their slow burial inwards the Wunmonije chemical compound inwards the palace. When the works were brought into the palace for interment, which Willett suggests (pp. 27-28) in all probability took topographic point sometime before the early on nineteenth century, it seems likely that this was done with the intention of protecting them from farther attack. With this inwards mind, the topographic point selected for their burial undoubtedly would have got been chosen with considerable care. Assuming this to live the case, it would follow that the heads would live buried inwards a palace expanse closely associated with the patron deity inwards whose shrine they had
originally been found. Since the heads were buried close the assumed grave of Obalufon II, it seems likely that originally they had also been associated with this ruler.
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Cosmic References inwards Ancient Ife
Suzanne Preston Blier
THIS ESSAY CONSIDERS 1 of the most of import Yoruba cosmological referents, the programme of the upper-case missive of the alphabet Ile-Ife in addition to its palace (fig 11.1), in addition to examines a number of artworks associated with this urban center, especially at its peak around 1300 CE. The Yoruba cosmos has often been compared to a gourd or calabash cutting horizontally so as to shape a separate base of operations in addition to cover, with the upper one-half identified with the sky-linked creator god, Obatala, the lower one-half with the ground god in addition to novel dynasty founder, Odudua (see Lawal, this volume). The shape of the gourd sometimes is used inwards scholarly diagrams that seek to demo the Yoruba cosmos as a well-ordered layering of human in addition to supernatural actors (see fig. 12.6). In my view, however, this neatly delimited model reflects inwards component division a Western taxonomic conception, since to the Yoruba, religious forces in addition to persona are continually moving, intersecting, cross-pollinating, challenging, in addition to energizing 1 some other (and humans) across a myriad of celestial in addition to earthly spheres. Human in addition to sacral worlds, inwards short, are conjoined here.
There also are noteworthy historical contradictions around the identity of this calabash-form as cosmological model, peculiarly inwards its references to Obatala in addition to Odudua. Both of these deity pantheons appear to live relatively slow inventions inwards Yoruba religious history, emerging most likely inwards the aftermath of the establishment of Ife’s instant dynasty inwards nearly 1300 CE when many of Ife’s famous early on arts appear to have got been made, a menstruum closely identified with King Obalufon II. This ruler is credited non only with bringing peace to this center, in addition to with commissioning an array of of import arts (bronze casting, beaded regalia, weaving), but also with a novel metropolis programme inwards which the palace in addition to marketplace are located inwards the middle surrounded past times various religious sanctuaries arrayed inwards human relationship to it. This programme features iv main avenues leading into the city, each roughly running along a key axis through what were 1 time manned gates that pierced the circular metropolis walls at points broadly consistent with the key directions. The programme of Ile-Ife, which may have got housed
some 125,000 inhabitants inwards that era, offers of import clues into early on Yoruba views of both cosmology in addition to directional primacy.
SUN, MOON, THUNDER, AND LIGHTNING
There is compelling evidence supporting the importance of both the Sun in addition to Moon inwards early on Ife in addition to broader Yoruba thought. Celestial light, P. A. Talbot points out, is identified past times the Yoruba with the Sun (male), the Moon (female), in addition to the stars (their children), all traveling each twenty-four hours inwards enormous canoes beneath the ground in addition to across the sky. In ancient Ife contexts sure enough sculptural forms are identified with these heavenly bodies. The Sun is referenced here, inwards part, past times a tall, triangular menhir (fig. 11.2; take in also fig. 11.5), which seems to have got served as a calendrical device. In Ife at that topographic point are beliefs (taboos) nearly the sun’s importance to the usage in addition to display of sure enough ancient Ife
sculptural arts, inwards particular, the ancient terra cotta caput identified with the early on King Osangangan Obamakin (Obalufon I), which was non supposed to ever take in the sun.
Ife oral histories banking concern bill that this sculpture was shielded past times an overturned pot to safeguard it from daylight. This exercise also may have got political in addition to temporal connections to this Rex based on his prominent associations with the foremost dynasty at Ife, the era prior to Odudua’s arrival in addition to cultural enlightenment. Significantly, it was this same Rex (now god) who is credited inwards Obalufon menage unit of measurement myths with bringing lite to earth, an human activity that complements the usage of shining, reflective mica for the diadem on the royal Ife crown (are) that Ife’s Obalufon priest places on the caput of each newly crowned king.
The Moon finds notable reference here, too. Not only is the festival calendar a lunar one, but according to Euba, Ife rituals of divine kingship that shape component division of the yearly. Oduduwa festival necessarily “take topographic point on a moonless dark because the existent Moon inwards the sky must non human face upwardly the symbolic Moon of ‘Oduduwa,’ the latter, a apartment slab of rock referred to as orun Oduduwa, ‘Oduduwa’s heaven,’ that is carried past times the high priest circular the various spots inwards the town where sacrifices are made.” Another moon-linked stone, thought to live of quartz (or mica), was reportedly “stolen” inwards the early on component division of the twentieth century past times a European visitor intent on discovering the properties of “electricity” presumed to live associated with it. This rock carries associations, Euba
suggests, with the ancient thunder in addition to lightning god Oramfe (Ora). Its name, osupa Ijio, “the Moonstone of Ijio,” also links it to Ife Chief Obajio (Oba Ijio), the caput priest of Olokun, the ancient god of large H2O bodies (the ocean), trade, in addition to beads. The unopen link betwixt lightning, thunder, rain, bodies of water, in addition to the annual bike of the seasons seems inwards this way to have got informed this unusual now-missing object.
(Fig11.2) Ita Ogun Esa “sun dial” menhir (dating ca. 1300 CE) located close the Obatala Temple, Ife.
The early on Ife god of thunder in addition to lightning Oramfe (Oranfe/Aramfe, Ora, the precursor of Sango) is identified at 1 time with pelting (storms), royal power, in addition to jurisprudence. E. B. Idowu identifies Oramfe additionally with command of the solar system. Euba non only describes Oramfe as Ife’s 1 time powerful “solar-thunder god,” but also characterizes this “high god” as Ife’s “most senior of the humanized spirits,” honored simultaneously as Onile Ina, “Owner of the House of Fire,” in addition to Ooni Ale, “Owner of the Land.” She also highlights Oramfe’s identity as “the Olodumare of the Ife” (since both are “worshipped inwards the same elementary way”), noting that Oramfe’s Oriki praise names topographic point him, inwards turn, as the “supreme ase,” namely Orisa.
The latter creative force, she adds, is non only symbolized past times “whiteness in addition to personified as the sky god” but also evokes “the humanized ase emanating from the dark earth,” the latter also oftentimes linked to Odudua. There is some other cosmological aspect as well, for as Euba explains: “In the Ife creation myth it is Olodumare (sometimes said to live Ora) who sent downward these divinities to assist ‘him’ inwards the creation of the world in addition to of mankind.”
The god Oramfe has a political role at Ife, in addition to is said to convey to Ife kings in addition to others the powerfulness to attract in addition to halt rain, to command the seasons, in addition to to regulate the bike of the universe to a greater extent than generally. Royal powerfulness also is associated with Oramfe, consistent with this god’s affinity with protecting the kingdom in addition to its rulers. Indeed, as Emmanuel Eze suggests, the human activity of prostration before the Rex reinforces this tie: “The exercise of lying apartment when inwards a thunderstorm is regarded past times the early on Yorubas as an human activity of worship of Sango [and past times extension Oramfe] who becomes appeased in addition to consequently spares the life of the worshiper.”
calm that come upwardly to Oramfe devotees who follow his laws, the society signals the potential blows that are meted out to social deviants, such as thieves, who go against Oramfe’s wishes. At the raise of the man’s left shoulder is a branch of leaves, most likely akoko, a flora shape that figures prominently inwards Ife enthronement rites, perhaps underscoring the role of Oramfe inwards conveying dynastic power. Ife principal Obaluru, priest of Ife’s Oramfe temple, describes this thunder in addition to lightning deity inwards ways that inform the sculpture further:
"Fire comes from Oramfe’s mouth, so you lot cannot sit down close him or else you lot will
burn. He also has rock axes [edun àrà] that come upwardly from his mouth, in addition to kills people
when lightning strikes."
Following 1 peculiarly active lightning tempest inwards Ife inwards 2004, I was told that powerful local babalawo (healers, diviners) would come upwardly out to collect the fallen celts (thunderbolts) for later usage inwards making strong medicines, pointing to connections betwixt these celts in addition to an array of protective or empowering medicinal forms.
(Fig 11.4a in addition to 11.4b) Staff of Oranmiyan (including particular of nails) dating ca. 1300 ce , Ife
On the contrary side of this sculpture (see fig. 11.3b) is a large-eyed aeroplane with looping, snake-like
wings. When asked nearly the significance of birds with this wing attribute, Chief Obaluru noted “this aeroplane was sent to people past times Oramfe when he wanted to do favors for them.” The bird, he explained, carries Oramfe’s lightning in addition to thunder celts to earth, in addition to volition convey both penalty in addition to favors from this god to humans. The exact species of this aeroplane tin live debated, but it may depict the owl resembling African pennant-winged dark jolt (Cosmetornis vexillarius). When inwards flight, its white flash of nether feathers is reminiscent of lightning. The birds, known to the Yoruba as ase, the phoneme se referring to a command or order, also evoke larger Yoruba notions of potency in addition to powerfulness (ase) linked to Oramfe, the thunder, lightning, in addition to omnipotent solar-linked god who safeguards society in addition to helps to save effective rule. The pennant-winged nightjar also carries sure enough sorcery associations here, actions that Oramfe was believed to counter, connecting this sculpture to both positive (kingship) in addition to negative (sorcery) ends.
CELESTIAL- LINKED STONE MONUMENTS
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 grouping of menhirs, or tall standing stones, is amongst the most interesting of ancient Ife artworks that send cosmological significance. These monuments were a major component division of the Ife landscape of circa 1300 ce—and silent are today. Sculpted from granite inwards the same menstruum as the famous Ife copper alloy castings in addition to terracottas, they were erected inwards various parts of the city, often inwards conjunction with temples, shrines, in addition to groves. Many send features that offering insight into ancient Ife beliefs nearly the cosmos.
One of the city’s most famous monuments is the to a greater extent than or less 16 feet 10 inches tall (above ground) staff of Oranmiyan, located around a quarter mile south-southwest of the palace, in addition to identified with King Obalufon II’s main adversary (figs. 11.4a, 11.4b). The Oranmiyan staff is dedicated to the famous warrior in addition to military machine leader who is said to have got conquered Ife in addition to forced King Obalufon II from the throne, the latter eventually returning to powerfulness in addition to bringing peace to the so warring citizens. Before or after this event, Oranmiyan is credited with founding novel dynasties
at Republic of Benin in addition to Oyo. Oral tradition suggests that this tall granite staff represents the sword Oranmiyan used to savage Ife’s citizens, a weapon he purportedly thrust into the ground before leaving Ife for good. Most likely this monument was created in addition to positioned inwards Ife inwards the era next his difference during Obalufon II’s instant reign, inwards conjunction with the truce he forged after Ife’s painful civil war. This was a menstruum when many of the famous early on Ife heroes appear to have got been commemorated with shrines in addition to associated sculptures.
This staff integrates on its surface a sculpted ram horn or ax motif (evoking ase, or vital power/force) in addition to a pattern of Fe nails. Although various interpretations of the unusual Fe pattern have got been given, most likely it depicts a multi-branched staff, a three-arm version of the Y-shaped
beaded staff carried past times the Ooni inwards the course of didactics of the annual Olojo ceremony, a context inwards which the richly costumed in addition to crowned Rex is said to attract rain. As such the Oranmiyan monument also seems to symbolize the powerfulness of kings to command storms in addition to rain, a characteristic linked both to Oramfe (the ancient thunder god) in addition to to Sango (the Oyo-linked god identified with Oranmiyan).
Another of import ancient Ife rock menhir comprises a 7 pes 8 inch tall piece of job known as Ita Ogun Esa, a sculpture identified past times Leo Frobenius as a “sun dial” (fig. 11.5; take in also fig. 11.2). This menhir is located southeast of the palace on Itapa Street close the temple of Obatala. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 tall, narrow, three-sided work, the menhir appears to have got had calendrical functions. As Frobenius explains, “When the shadow of this stela savage inwards sure enough directions in addition to reached a dot drawn on a circle around it, it was fourth dimension for sure enough sacred festivals.”18 Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 rock sundial of this type would have got been critical for determining non only festival times, but also other events. The identification of this
rock with the Obatala temple complex reinforces the larger celestial associations of Obatala with both the heavens in addition to related light.
An additional rock menhir was positioned inwards the now-destroyed Ijugbe temple on Famia Road inwards the city’s western Modakeke sector, a site dedicated to the Obatala-linked agricultural deity, Orisa Teko. This work, a long, sparse 6 pes 6 inch rectangle, was identified past times Willett as the temple’s monument to Ogun, consistent with the importance of Fe inwards agricultural (and other) tools. Orisa Teko is known inwards Ife today as an early on yam farmer (now the god of yams), the forerunner of the Yoruba agriculture god, Orisa Oko. Historically, the priest of the Ijugbe temple also is said to have got been inwards accuse of rain. This menhir, similar the Ita Ogun Esa monument discussed above, possibly
functioned as a sundial (calendar stone, gnomon), inwards this representative in all probability helping to determine the best fourth dimension for planting yams in addition to other agricultural produce. This menhir, similar the 1 identified with the Obatala temple, is thus linked inwards of import ways to the bike of time.
Yet some other menhir, a piece of job 1 time positioned inwards the Ore Grove (and at nowadays located inwards the National Museum, Ile Ife), stands nearly 5 feet 2 inches to a higher topographic point ground in addition to incorporates the unusual pattern of iv holes cutting roughly equidistant from the other (and betwixt xi in addition to 16 inches apart) inwards such a way that they run downward each side of the four-sided column. Iron inserts were secured inwards iv of the holes, only the bases of which remain. The piece of job is thought to have got had spiral-shaped inserts of Fe similar to those embedded inwards the Oranmiyan staff. Frank Willett notes that these holes were positioned consistent with the key directions, suggesting that the menhir is associated with cosmological order. An additional rock shape with a plausible cosmological reference was housed at the palace Ogun temple, Ogun Ladin, this piece of job integrating a pattern of iv holes marking the corners of a square, at the middle of which was a 5th stone, suggesting the iv key points in addition to the Sun at the middle. In many ways this shape also suggests a schematic model of the metropolis itself, with its historic iv main entries leading through the walls into the metropolis middle where they come across at the palace in addition to nearby market.
IFE, Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 CARDINAL CITY
Ife is an unusual metropolis inwards many respects, non the to the lowest degree of which is the number of different plans that figure inwards its conceptualization. At its most basic, Ife is a central-plan urban center, with its (originally four?) main avenues at 1 fourth dimension piercing the metropolis walls close the key points in addition to joining at the palace in addition to marketplace that delimit the center, a programme similar to many other early on Yoruba walled cities. In addressing both the Ife metropolis programme in addition to the key directions, the local Yoruba concept of N (traditional north, e.g., northwest) is employed, 1 that defines the directions vis-à-vis orientations several degrees off truthful north, in all probability as determined around the fourth dimension of the wintertime solstice when the Sun sets on the horizon inwards its most westerly position.
P. A. Talbot provides additional insight into Yoruba views of the cosmos in addition to how issues of shape in addition to directionality figure inwards them. He notes that the Yoruba topographic point the ground as foursquare in addition to that their names for the key directions reverberate this understanding: the eastward is known as ila orun (appearing of the sun), the due west as iwaw orun (the sinking of the sun), the N as igun keta (third corner, or ariwa otun ila orun, the coming to the correct of the earth), in addition to the due south as igun kerin aiya (fourth corner of the world). Leo Frobenius provides a version of the Yoruba creation myth that speaks straight to this dynamic, noting that a key programme is identified with the earth’s creation, a
procedure said past times Idowu to have got taken iv days. Frobenius also identifies each management with a specific god (deity complex): the eastward as Edju/Eshu, the due west as Sango, the N as Ogun, in addition to the due south as Obatala (fig. 11.6). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 complementary sculptural shape tin live seen inwards the double Janus (four-headed) figure documented past times Idowu26 at the Odudua temple. This unusual Ife sculptural
work, similar several others, references the iv faces (directions) of the Ifa oracular divinity Orunmila (fig. 11.7). Other motifs on this sculpture correspond eternal knots, double-headed serpents, an Odu head, in addition to figures of the messenger god, Eshu. The unique shapes of Yoruba Ifa divination boards (rectilinear, circular, a one-half circle, or a combination thereof) underscore ideas of cosmological organisation as well. While rectilinear forms evoke fourth dimension in addition to infinite as delimited past times the key points, the circle suggests circular celestial bodies in addition to ideas of perpetuity. According to Idowu, when
a worshipper creates a circle of ashes or white chalk on the ground, inwards the middle of which he places an offering, the circular shape is seen to reference eternity.
The key directions clearly constitute 1 of the key agency through which the Ife space, planning, in addition to fourth dimension are delimited in addition to experienced, a factor reinforced through the array of ancient potsherd or rock in addition to potsherd pavements that grade this middle in addition to its past. These are largely oriented to a greater extent than or less northeast to southwest or to northwest to southeast, consistent with an overall key management primacy. In the historic Ife metropolis plan, the palace is at the middle (see fig. 11.1). Each grouping of gods also has its topographic point consistent with their religious in addition to cosmological associations. In the department of the metropolis broadly to the eastward of the palace are the shrines of Ifa (Orunmila), the god of divination, located atop Ife’s highest loma (Oke Tase). Also eastward of the palace is the main Edju (Eshu, Esu) shrine, dedicated to the Ifa divination-linked messenger god. The temple of Olurogbo, the ancient Ife messenger betwixt humans in addition to gods is located inwards this sector as well, as is the Ife shrine to the Moon goddess. These Ife temples seem to part an association with heavenly communication, consistent with the positioning of the king’s residence (bedroom) on the eastern side of the palace.
West of the palace are temples linked especially to pelting in addition to storms, including non only that of Oramfe, the ancient Ife deity of thunder in addition to lightning (Ife’s precursor to Sango) in addition to Ogbon Oya
(Sango’s wife), but also the Ife god of agriculture, Orisa Teko. At this latter temple, also sometimes called Ijugbe, were observed rock seats, a large copper alloy frog pierced past times an arrow, in addition to a ram fashioned from quartz, the latter used for offerings during the annual March festival cycle. The military machine conqueror in addition to cultural hero, Oranmiyan, who is identified variously as the manlike individual parent or boy of Sango inwards Oyo (Yoruba) contexts, has his monument due west of the palace as well.
In the northern quadrant of the metropolis is the main Ogun temple, dedicated to the powerful god of war, iron, in addition to the advancement of civilization. Also found inwards Ife’s northern quadrant is the temple of Orisa Akire, the autochthonous Ife warrior god. Another temple, this 1 dedicated to King Obalufon II, founder of Ife’s instant dynasty in addition to the main king/deity credited with enlarging Ife’s route scheme in addition to establishing its metropolis plan, is sited inwards the city’s northern sector as well, non far from the western metropolis wall in addition to gate leading toward Ibadan. Both the Ife palace in addition to the Obalufon temple human face N (northwest), the management of import to Ogun. In the southern quadrant of Ife is some other grouping of Ife sanctuaries. These are identified with Obatala (the sky god), Olokun (the sea god, also Olokun Walode), in addition to an array of royal burial sites or shrines (Wunmonije, Lafogido, in addition to Igbo Odi).
Each cluster of Ife gods thus is identified with a different quadrant of the city, consistent with its key in addition to broader cosmological associations: eastward (with life in addition to renewal: Ifa, Eshu), due west (with dark skies in addition to storms: the thunder in addition to agriculture gods: Oramfe, Orisa Teko), N (with power, war, in addition to technology: Ogun), in addition to due south (with creation, fertility, in addition to the ocean: Obatala, Olokun). The importance of the Sun in addition to Moon within the metropolis landscape in addition to the key orientation of the iv main avenues in addition to palace demo that infinite inwards Ile-Ife carried sustained cosmological significance.
Taken together these various sculptural, architectural, in addition to ritual forms dot to the high grade of early on in addition to ongoing Ife involvement inwards cosmology, issues referenced non only inwards the primacy of cosmological attributes (the sun, the moon, lightning) but also inwards an array of of import calendrical features (stone menhirs functioning as fourth dimension markers), as good as roads, pavements, palaces, in addition to temples linked to the key directions.
source:http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/blier/files/blier_cosmic_references_in_ancient_ife._african_cosmology_ed._kreamer_2012.pdf
Olojo Festival
The Olojo Festival is a festival inwards Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. It is the celebration of the remembrance of “Ogun” the god of Iron, who is believed to live the foremost boy of Oduduwa, progenitor of the Yoruba people.
On this day, the Ooni (king of Ife) appears after several days of seclusion, communing with the ancestors in addition to praying for his people. This ritual is to brand him pure in addition to ensure the efficacy of his prayers. Before the Ooni emerges, women from his maternal in addition to paternal families sweep the Palace, symbolically ridding the Palace of evil.
The Ooni later appears inwards public with the Are crown (King’s Crown), which is believed to live the original crown used past times Oduduwa to atomic number 82 a procession of traditional Chiefs in addition to Priests to perform at the Shrine of Ogun. The next stage of the ceremony is to atomic number 82 the crowd to Okemogun’s shrine. Here he performs duties including the renewal of oath, divination for the Ooni at the pes of Oketage loma past times Araba (Chief Priest), as good as visiting places of historical importance.
At the shrine, the traditional Chiefs with the swords of business office marked with chalk in addition to cam wood, appear inwards ceremonial attire in addition to trip the lite fantastic toe to rhythms from Bembe, a traditional drum. The style of drumming in addition to singing for each Chief is different. Only the Ooni tin trip the lite fantastic toe to the drum called Osirigi.
Olojo has remained pop inwards Ile-Ife due to its myth in addition to history. It connotes the twenty-four hours inwards the twelvemonth specially blessed past times Olodumare (the creator of the Universe). Olojo tin also live literally translated as the “Owner for the day”. Prayers are offered for peace in addition to tranquility inwards Yoruba in addition to Nigeria. All historic menstruum groups participate in addition to it’s significance is inwards the unification of the Yorubas.
Tradition holds that Ile-Ife is the cradle of the Yorubas, the metropolis of survivors, spiritual topographic point of the Yorubas, in addition to ground of the ancients
Olojo festival at Ife
Photo source:http://orishada.com/wordpress/?p=267
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