Info For Yous Amhara People: Ethiopia`S About Culturally Dominant In Addition To Politically Powerful People Of Semitic Ancestry
The Amhara people are mostly agriculturist, 1 of the most culturally dominant together with a powerful politically connected equally good equally Afro-Asiatic speaking ethnic grouping of ancient semitic origins inhabiting the northern together with cardinal highlands of Ethiopia, especially the Amhara Region. The Amhara State shares mutual borders amongst the province of Tigray inwards the north, Afar inwards the east, Oromiya inwards the south, Benishangul/Gumuz inwards the southward west, together with the Republic of Sudan inwards the west.
The Amhara people are closely related amongst the Gurage, together with the Tigray-Tigrinya people. The Amhara combined amongst the Gurage, together with the Tigray-Tigrinya people are called the Habesha ( (Ge'ez: ሐበሻ Ḥabaśā, Amharic (H)ābešā, Tigrinya: ? Ḥābešā; Arabic: الحبشة al-Ḥabašah) people or Abyssinians.
Amhara girls
The State of Amhara covers an estimated surface area of 170,752 foursquare kilometres together with consists of 10 administrative zones, 1 special zone, 105 woredas, together with 78 urban centres. The working capital alphabetic character metropolis of the State of Amhara is Bahir-Dar. According to recent National Population Census, the Amhara constitute virtually 23 1 1000 k people, making upwards to comprising 30.1% of the country's population. Majority of the Amhara population tin hold out found specifically inwards the provinces of Begender, Gojjam, Wallo, some parts of Shoa together with the mountainous areas of Amhara state.
Amhara women
The Amhara who are the 2d largest ethnolinguistic grouping after the Oromo people are descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled amongst indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah together with describe their lineage all the way to King Solomon together with the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I. They carried that same ancestral line all the way to 1974 amongst Emperor Haile Selassie. Also, virtually 50 % of the Amhara are constituent of what is known equally the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which is an ancient Christian church building founded around the 4th century. The Amhara do have got their rituals together with ceremonies, including the annual Coptic together with national holidays together with the monthly saints' days. In addition, daily together with monthly rites celebrate spirits whose identity lies exterior the teachings of the Ethiopian Church.
The Amhara are ardent brute husbandry people, virtually 40% of the livestock population inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are found inwards their territory. The huge livestock potential of this part gives ample chance for meat together with milk production, nutrient processing equally good equally leather together with wool production. The Sate of Amhara also has mineral resources such equally coal, shell, limestone, lignite, gypsum, gemstone, silica, sulfur together with bentonite. Hot springs together with mineral H2O are also found inwards the region.
Most importantly the Amhara province has corking tourism together with heritage industry. The twelfth century Rock-Hewn churches of Lalibela, together with the palaces inwards Gondar are some of the world known heritages. The traditional mural paintings together with paw craft, the preserved corpse of the royalty found inwards the ancient monasteries inwards Lake Tana, equally good equally the Semien mountains national park, which shelters the endemic Walia ibex are spectacular tourist attractions, Three tourist attractions found inwards the part are registered inwards the UNESCO listing of world heritages. Besides these known heritages, the Blue Nile Falls, the caves together with unique stones inwards northern Showa, together with the Merto Le Mariam church building are special tourist attractions.
Origin of the Name Amhara
The etymology of the call Amhara has different sources. It is said that the ethnolinguistic call (the linguistic communication together with its speakers) Amhara comes from the medieval province of Amhara, located around Lake Tana at the headwaters of the Blue Nile together with including a slightly larger surface area than Ethiopia's nowadays Amhara Region.
Other people describe it to amari ("pleasing; beautiful; gracious") or mehare ("gracious"). The Ethiopian historian Getachew Mekonnen Hasen traces it to an ethnic call related to the Himyarites of ancient Yemen. Still others say that it derives from Ge'ez ዓም (ʿam, "people") together with ሓራ (h.ara, "free" or "soldier"), although this has been dismissed yesteryear scholars such equally Donald Levine equally a folk etymology.
Beautiful Amhara children from Ethiopia
Geography together with Climate
The State of Amhara is topographically divided into 2 main parts, namely the highlands together with lowlands. The highlands are to a higher identify 1500 meters to a higher identify ocean plane together with comprise the largest constituent of the northern together with eastern parts of the region. The highlands are also characterized yesteryear chains of mountains together with plateaus. Ras Dejen (4620 m), the highest peak inwards the country, Guna (4236 m), Choke (4184m) together with Abune – Yousef (4190m) are amid the mount peaks that are located inwards the highland parts of the region.
The lowland constituent covers mainly the western together with eastern parts amongst an height betwixt 500-1500 meters to a higher identify ocean level. Areas beyond 2,300 meters to a higher identify ocean plane autumn within the "Dega" climatic Zone, together with areas betwixt the 1,500-2,300 meter to a higher identify ocean plane contour autumn within the "Woina Dega" climatic zone; together with areas below 1,500 contour autumn within the "Kolla" or hot climatic zones. The Dega, Woina Dega together with Kolla parts of the part constitute 25%, 44% together with 31% of the total surface area of the region, respectively.
The annual hateful temperature for most parts of the part lies betwixt 15°C-21°C. The State receives the highest per centum (80%) of the total rainfall inwards the country. The highest rainfall occurs during the summertime season, which starts inwards mid June together with ends inwards early September.
The State of Amhara is divided mainly yesteryear iii river basins, namely the Abbay, Tekezze together with Awash drainage basins. The Blue Nile (Abbay) river is the largest of all roofing or so 172,254 Km2. Its total length to its junction amongst the white Nile inwards Khartoum is 1,450 Km, of which 800 km is within Ethiopia. The drainage-basin of the Tekeze river is virtually 88,800 km2. In addition, Anghereb, Millie, Kessem together with Jema are amid the major national rivers, which are found inwards this region.
Tana, the largest lake inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is located at centre of the region. It covers an surface area of 3,6000 km2. Besides, other crater lakes similar Zengeni, Gudena Yetilba, Ardibo (75km2) together with Logia (35 km2) are little lakes that are found inwards the region.
The rivers together with lakes of the part have got immense potential for hydroelectric powerfulness generation, irrigation together with fishery development.
Blue Nile
Walia ibex, Semien fox, Gelada-baboon, Grey Duiker, Klipspringer, Hyenas together with Corocodile are amid the twenty-one species (three endemic) that are found inwards the region, especially at the Semien mount national park. Wild fowls, Francolins, Pelicans, Cranes, Ibises, together with Stocks are amid the birds that are found inwards the region.
Amhara plateau
Myths (Creation):
It is said that Eve had xxx children, together with 1 twenty-four hr flow God asked Eve to exhibit Him her children. Eve became suspicious together with apprehensive together with hid 15 of them from the sight of God. God knew her human activity of disobedience together with declared the 15 children she showed God equally His chosen children together with cursed the 15 she hid, declaring that they go henceforth into the world equally devils together with wretched creatures of the earth. Now some of the children complained together with begged God’s mercy. God heard them and, existence merciful, made some of them foxes, jackals, rabbits, etc., so that they mightiness be equally Earth’s creatures inwards a dignified manner. Some of the hidden children he left human, but sent them away amongst the curse of existence agents of the devil. These human counterparts of the devil are the ancestors of the buda people. There occurs a pleat inwards fourth dimension together with the story takes upwards its theme 1 time again when Christ was baptized at historic flow thirty.
Language
Amhara people speak Aramaic language (/æmˈhærɪk/ or /ɑːmˈhɑrɪk/; Amharic: አማርኛ Amarəñña, IPA: [ämärɨɲɲä]) which is a Semitic language that belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic linguistic communication phylum. It is the second-most spoken Semitic linguistic communication inwards the world, after Arabic, together with the official working linguistic communication of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Thus, it has official status together with is used nationwide. Amharic is also the official or working linguistic communication of several of the states within the federal system. It has been the working linguistic communication of government, the military, together with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church throughout medieval together with modern times. Outside Ethiopia, Amharic is the linguistic communication of some 2.7 1 1000 k emigrants. It is written (left-to-right) using Amharic Fidel, ፊደል, which grew out of the Ge'ez abugida—called, inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages, ፊደል fidel ("alphabet", "letter", or "character") together with አቡጊዳ abugida (from the initiative of all 4 Ethiopic letters, which gave ascension to the modern linguistic term abugida).
There is no agreed way of transliterating Amharic into Roman characters. The Amharic examples inwards the sections below work 1 scheme that is common, though non universal, amid linguists specializing inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages.
Writing system
The Amharic script is an abugida, together with the graphs of the Amharic writing scheme are called fidel. Each graphic symbol represents a consonant+vowel sequence, but the basic shape of each graphic symbol is determined yesteryear the consonant, which is modified for the vowel. Some consonant phonemes are written yesteryear to a greater extent than than 1 serial of characters: /ʔ/, /s/, /sʼ/, together with /h/ (the in conclusion 1 has 4 distinct alphabetic character forms). This is because these fidel originally represented distinct sounds, but phonological changes merged them. The citation shape for each serial is the consonant+ä form, i.e. the initiative of all column of the fidel. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 font that supports Ethiopic, such equally GF Zemen Unicode, is needed to consider fidel on typical modern estimator systems.
Alphabet
Chart of Amharic fidels
Gemination[edit]
As inwards most other Ethiopian Semitic languages, gemination is contrastive inwards Amharic. That is, consonant length tin distinguish words from 1 another; for example, alä 'he said', allä 'there is'; yǝmätall 'he hits', yǝmmättall 'he is hit'. Gemination is non indicated inwards Amharic orthography, but Amharic readers typically do non uncovering this to hold out a problem. This belongings of the writing scheme is analogous to the vowels of Standard Arabic together with Hebrew or the tones of many Bantu languages, which are non usually indicated inwards writing. The noted Ethiopian novelist Haddis Alemayehu, who was an advocate of Amharic orthography reform, indicated gemination inwards his novel Fǝqǝr Əskä Mäqabǝr yesteryear placing a dot to a higher identify the characters whose consonants were geminated, but this practise is rare.
Punctuation
Punctuation includes:
፠ department mark
፡ give-and-take separator
። total halt (period)
፣ comma
፤ semicolon
፥ colon
፦ Preface colon (introduces oral communication from a descriptive prefix)
፧ interrogation mark
፨ paragraph separator
Grammar
Simple Amharic sentences
One may build unproblematic Amharic sentences yesteryear using a dependent together with a predicate. Here are a few unproblematic sentences:
ʾItyop̣p̣ya ʾAfriqa wəsṭ nat
(lit., Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Africa within is)
'Ethiopia is inwards Africa.'
Ləǧu täññətʷall.
(lit., man child is.asleep)
'The man child is asleep.'
Ayyäru däss yəlall
(lit., atmospheric condition practiced is)
'The atmospheric condition is good.'
Əssu wädä kätäma mäṭṭa.
(lit., he to metropolis came)
'He came to the city.'
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
In most languages, in that location is a little issue of basic distinctions of person, number, together with often gender that play a purpose within the grammer of the language. We consider these distinctions within the basic set of independent personal pronouns, for example, English linguistic communication I, Amharic እኔ ǝne; English linguistic communication she, Amharic እሷ ǝsswa. In Amharic, equally inwards other Semitic languages, the same distinctions appear inwards iii other places within the grammer of the languages.
Subject–verb agreement
All Amharic verbs handgrip amongst their subjects; that is, the person, number, together with (second- together with third-person singular) gender of the dependent of the verb are marked yesteryear suffixes or prefixes on the verb. Because the affixes that signal dependent understanding vary greatly amongst the particular verb tense/aspect/mood, they are usually non considered to hold out pronouns together with are discussed elsewhere inwards this article nether verb conjugation.
Object pronoun suffixes
Amharic verbs often have got additional morphology that indicates the person, number, together with (second- together with third-person singular) gender of the object of the verb.
አልማዝን አየኋት
almazǝn ayyähʷ-at
Almaz-ACC I-saw-her
'I saw Almaz'
While morphemes such equally -at inwards this instance are sometimes described equally signaling object agreement, analogous to dependent agreement, they are to a greater extent than often thought of equally object pronoun suffixes because, dissimilar the markers of dependent agreement, they do non vary significantly amongst the tense/aspect/mood of the verb. For arguments of the verb other than the dependent or the object, in that location are 2 separate sets of related suffixes, 1 amongst a benefactive pregnant (to, for), the other amongst an adversative or locative pregnant (against', to the detriment of, on', at).
ለአልማዝ በሩን ከፈትኩላት
läʾalmaz bärrun käffätku-llat
for-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-opened-for-her
'I opened the door for Almaz'
በአልማዝ በሩን ዘጋሁባት
bäʾalmaz bärrun zäggahu-bbat
on-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-closed-on-her
'I closed the door on Almaz (to her detriment)'
Morphemes such equally -llat together with -bbat inwards these examples volition hold out referred to inwards this article equally prepositional object pronoun suffixes because they correspond to prepositional phrases such equally for her together with on her, to distinguish them from the direct object pronoun suffixes such equally -at 'her'.
Possessive suffixes
Amharic has a farther set of morphemes that are suffixed to nouns, signalling possession: ቤት bet 'house', ቤቴ bete, my house, ቤቷ; betwa, her house.
In each of these 4 aspects of the grammar, independent pronouns, subject–verb agreement, object pronoun suffixes, together with possessive suffixes, Amharic distinguishes 8 combinations of person, number, together with gender. For initiative of all person, in that location is a two-way distinction betwixt singular (I) together with plural (we), whereas for 2d together with tertiary persons, in that location is a distinction betwixt singular together with plural together with within the singular a farther distinction betwixt masculine together with feminine (you m. sg., yous f. sg., yous pl., he, she, they).
Amharic is a pro-drop language. That is, neutral sentences inwards which no chemical ingredient is emphasized usually do non have got independent pronouns: ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', ጋበዝኳት gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'. The Amharic words that interpret he, I, together with her do non appear inwards these sentences equally independent words. However, inwards such cases, the person, number, together with (second- or third-person singular) gender of the dependent together with object are marked on the verb. When the dependent or object inwards such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: እሱ ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ǝssu ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', እኔ ጋበዝኳት ǝne gabbäzkwat 'I invited her', እሷን ጋበዝኳት ǝsswan gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'.
The tabular array below shows alternatives for many of the forms. The pick depends on what precedes the shape inwards question, usually whether this is a vowel or a consonant, for example, for the 1st mortal singular possessive suffix, አገሬ agär-e 'my country', ገላዬ gäla-ye 'my body'.
Amharic Personal Pronouns
Within second- together with third-person singular, in that location are 2 additional "polite" independent pronouns, for reference to people that the speaker wishes to exhibit honour towards. This usage is an instance of the so-called T-V distinction that is made inwards many languages. The polite pronouns inwards Amharic are እርስዎ ǝrswo 'you (sg. polite)'. together with እሳቸው ǝssaččäw 's/he (polite)'. Although these forms are singular semantically—they refer to 1 person—they correspond to third-person plural elsewhere inwards the grammar, equally is mutual inwards other T-V systems. For the possessive pronouns, however, the polite 2nd mortal has the special suffix -wo 'your sg. pol.'
For possessive pronouns (mine, yours, etc.), Amharic adds the independent pronouns to the preposition yä- 'of': የኔ yäne 'mine', ያንተ yantä 'yours m. sg.', ያንቺ yanči 'yours f. sg.', የሷ yässwa 'hers', etc.
Reflexive pronouns
For reflexive pronouns ('myself', 'yourself', etc.), Amharic adds the possessive suffixes to the substantive ራስ ras 'head': ራሴ rase 'myself', ራሷ raswa 'herself', etc.
Demonstrative pronouns
Like English, Amharic makes a two-way distinction betwixt close ('this, these') together with far ('that, those') demonstrative expressions (pronouns, adjectives, adverbs). Besides number, equally inwards English, Amharic also distinguishes masculine together with feminine gender inwards the singular.
Amharic Demonstrative Pronouns
There are also separate demonstratives for formal reference, comparable to the formal personal pronouns: እኚህ ǝññih 'this, these (formal)' together with እኒያ ǝnniya 'that, those (formal)'.
The singular pronouns have got combining forms showtime amongst zz instead of y when they follow a preposition: ስለዚህ sǝläzzih 'because of this; therefore', እንደዚያ ǝndäzziya 'like that'. Note that the plural demonstratives, similar the 2d together with tertiary mortal plural personal pronouns, are formed yesteryear adding the plural prefix እነ ǝnnä- to the singular masculine forms.
Nouns
Amharic nouns tin hold out primary or derived. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 substantive similar əgər 'foot, leg' is primary, together with a substantive similar əgr-äñña 'pedestrian' is a derived noun.
Gender
Amharic nouns tin have got a masculine or feminine gender. There are several ways to limited gender. An instance is the old suffix -t for femininity. This suffix is no longer productive together with is limited to sure enough patterns together with some isolated nouns. Nouns together with adjectives ending inwards -awi usually pick out the suffix -t to shape the feminine form, e.g. ityop̣p̣ya-(a)wi 'Ethiopian (m.)' vs. ityop̣p̣ya-wi-t 'Ethiopian (f.)'; sämay-awi 'heavenly (m.)' vs. sämay-awi-t 'heavenly (f.)'. This suffix also occurs inwards nouns together with describing word based on the pattern qət(t)ul, e.g. nəgus 'king' vs. nəgəs-t 'queen' together with qəddus 'holy (m.)' vs. qəddəs-t 'holy (f.)'.
Some nouns together with adjectives pick out a feminine mark -it: ləǧ 'child, boy' vs. ləǧ-it 'girl'; bäg 'sheep, ram' vs. bäg-it 'ewe'; šəmagəlle 'senior, elderberry (m.)' vs. šəmagəll-it 'old woman'; t'ot'a 'monkey' vs. t'ot'-it 'monkey (f.)'. Some nouns have got this feminine mark without having a masculine opposite, e.g. šärär-it 'spider', azur-it 'whirlpool, eddy'. There are, however, also nouns having this -it suffix that are treated equally masculine: säraw-it 'army', nägar-it 'big drum'.
The feminine gender is non only used to betoken biological gender, but may also hold out used to limited smallness, e.g. bet-it-u 'the footling house' (lit. house-FEM-DEF). The feminine mark tin also serve to limited tenderness or sympathy.
Specifiers
Amharic has special words that tin hold out used to betoken the gender of people together with animals. For people, wänd is used for masculinity together with set for femininity, e.g. wänd ləǧ 'boy', set ləǧ 'girl'; wänd hakim 'physician, Dr. (m.)', set hakim 'physician, Dr. (f.)'. For animals, the words täbat, awra, or wänd (less usual) tin hold out used to betoken masculine gender, together with anəst or set to betoken feminine gender. Examples: täbat t'əǧa 'calf (m.)'; awra doro 'cock (rooster)'; set doro 'hen'.
The plural suffix -očč is used to limited plurality of nouns. Some morphophonological alternations occur depending on the concluding consonant or vowel. For nouns ending inwards a consonant, manifestly -očč is used: bet 'house' becomes bet-očč 'houses'. For nouns ending inwards a dorsum vowel (-a, -o, -u), the suffix takes the shape -ʷočč, e.g. wəšša 'dog', wəšša-ʷočč 'dogs'; käbäro 'drum', käbäro-ʷočč 'drums'. Nouns that halt inwards a front end vowel pluralize using -ʷočč or -yočč, e.g. ṣähafi 'scholar', ṣähafi-ʷočč or ṣähafi-yočč 'scholars'. Another possibility for nouns ending inwards a vowel is to delete the vowel together with work manifestly očč, equally inwards wəšš-očč 'dogs'.
Besides using the normal external plural (-očč), nouns together with adjectives tin hold out pluralized yesteryear way of reduplicating 1 of the radicals. For example, wäyzäro 'lady' tin pick out the normal plural, yielding wäyzär-očč, but wäyzazər 'ladies' is also found (Leslau 1995:173).
Some kinship-terms have got 2 plural forms amongst a slightly different meaning. For example, wändəmm 'brother' tin hold out pluralized equally wändəmm-očč 'brothers' but also equally wändəmmam-ač 'brothers of each other'. Likewise, əhət 'sister' tin hold out pluralized equally əhət-očč ('sisters'), but also equally ətəmm-am-ač 'sisters of each other'.
In chemical compound words, the plural mark is suffixed to the 2d noun: betä krəstiyan 'church' (lit. solid of Christian) becomes betä krəstiyan-očč 'churches'.
Archaic forms
Amsalu Aklilu has pointed out that Amharic has inherited a large issue of old plural forms direct from Classical Ethiopic (Ge'ez) (Leslau 1995:172). There are basically 2 archaic pluralizing strategies, called external together with internal plural. The external plural consists of adding the suffix -an (usually masculine) or -at (usually feminine) to the singular form. The internal plural employs vowel character or apophony to pluralize words, similar to English linguistic communication human being vs. men together with goose vs. geese. Sometimes combinations of the 2 systems are found. The archaic plural forms are sometimes used to shape novel plurals, but this is only considered grammatical inwards to a greater extent than established cases.
Examples of the external plural: mämhər 'teacher', mämhər-an; t'äbib 'wise person', t'äbib-an; kahən 'priest', kahən-at; qal 'word', qal-at.
Examples of the internal plural: dəngəl 'virgin', dänagəl; hagär 'land', ahəgur.
Examples of combined systems: nəgus 'king', nägäs-t; kokäb 'star', käwakəb-t; mäs'əhaf 'book', mäs'ahəf-t.
Definiteness
If a substantive is definite or specified, this is expressed yesteryear a suffix, the article, which is -u or -w for masculine singular nouns together with -wa, -itwa or -ätwa for feminine singular nouns. For example:
In singular forms, this article distinguishes betwixt the virile mortal together with woman mortal gender; inwards plural forms this distinction is absent, together with all definites are marked amongst -u, e.g. bet-očč-u 'houses', gäräd-očč-u 'maids'. As inwards the plural, morphophonological alternations occur depending on the concluding consonant or vowel.
Accusative
Amharic has an accusative marker, -(ə)n. Its work is related to the definiteness of the object, thus Amharic shows differential object marking. In general, if the object is definite, possessed, or a proper noun, the accusative must hold out used (Leslau 1995: pp. 181 ff.).
There has non been much published virtually Amharic dialect differences. All dialects are mutually intelligible, but sure enough modest variations are noted.
Mittwoch described a shape of Amharic spoken yesteryear the descendants of Weyto linguistic communication speakers, but it was probable non a dialect of Amharic so much equally the resultant of incomplete linguistic communication learning equally the community shifted languages from Weyto to Amharic.
Literature
There is a growing torso of literature inwards Amharic inwards many genres. This literature includes regime proclamations together with records, educational books, religious material, novels, poetry, saying collections, dictionaries (monolingual together with bilingual), technical manuals, medical topics, etc. The Holy Bible was initiative of all translated into Amharic yesteryear Abu Rumi inwards the early 19th century, but other translations of the Bible into Amharic have got been done since. The most famous Amharic novel is Fiqir Iske Meqabir (transliterated diverse ways) yesteryear Haddis Alemayehu (1909–2003), translated into English linguistic communication yesteryear Sisay Ayenew amongst the championship Love unto Crypt, published inwards 2005 (ISBN 978-1-4184-9182-6).
Rastafari movement
The etymology of the give-and-take Rastafari comes from Amharic. Ras Täfäri was the pre-regnal championship of Haile Selassie I, composed of the Amharic words Ras (literally "Head", an Ethiopian championship equivalent to duke), together with Haile Selassie's pre-regnal name, Tafari.
Many Rastafarians acquire Amharic equally a 2d language, equally they consider it to hold out a sacred language. After Haile Selassie’s 1966 see to Jamaica, report circles inwards Amharic were organized inwards Jamaica equally constituent of the ongoing exploration of Pan-African identity together with culture. Various reggae artists inwards the 1970s, including Ras Michael, Lincoln Thompson together with Misty-in-Roots, have got sung inwards Amharic, thus bringing the linguistic communication to a wider audience. The Abyssinians have got also used Amharic most notably inwards the vocal Satta Massagana. The championship was believed to hateful "Give thanks" yet this phrase is incorrect. Säţţä agency "he gave" together with the give-and-take amässägänä for "thanks" or "praise" agency "he thanked" or "he praised". The right way to say "give thanks" inwards Amharic is 1 word, misgana. The give-and-take "satta" has go a mutual human face inwards Rastafari vocabulary pregnant "to sit down downwards together with partake".
History
Amhara descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled amongst indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah together with describe their lineage all the way to King Solomon together with the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I.
There is a tape of hunting expeditions yesteryear the Ptolemean rulers of Arab Republic of Egypt inwards Ethiopia.
Ptolemy III (245-222 b.c.) placed at the port of Adulis (near present-day Mesewa) a Greek inscription recording that he captured elephants, together with an inscribed block of stones amongst magical hieroglyphs. At the same port virtually a.d. 60, a Greek merchant named Periplus recorded the importation of atomic issue 26 together with the production of spears for hunting elephants, together with inwards a.d. 350 Aeizana, virile mortal monarch of Aksum, defeated the Nubians together with carried off atomic issue 26 together with bronze from Meroë.
The Abyssinian tradition of the Solomonic dynasty, equally told inwards the Ge'ez-language volume Kebra Nagast (Honor of the Kings) refers to the dominion of Menilek I, virtually 975-950 b.c. It relates that he was the boy of Makeda, conceived from King Solomon during her see to Jerusalem. Interrupted inwards a.d. 927 yesteryear sovereigns of a Zagwe line, the Solomonic line was restored inwards 1260 together with claimed continuity until Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed inwards 1974. Abyssinian churches are soundless built on the regulation of Solomon's temple of Jerusalem, amongst a Holy of Holies department inwards the interior. Christianity came to Aksum inwards the 4th century a.d., when Greek-speaking Syrians converted the regal family. This strain of Christianity retained a issue of Old Testament rules, some of which are observed to this day: the consumption of pork is forbidden; circumcision of boys takes identify virtually a calendar week after birth; upper-level priests consider Sabbatum a twenty-four hr flow of rest, 2d only to Sunday; weddings preferably pick out identify on Sunday, so that the presumed deflowering, after nightfall, is considered to have got taken identify on the eve of Monday. Ecclesiastic dominion over Abyssinia was administered early yesteryear the archbishop of Alexandria, detached only after World War II. At the Council of Chalcedon inwards a.d. 451, the theological Monophysites of Alexandria, including the Abyssinians, had broken away from the European church; hence the designation "Coptic."
The spread of Islam to regions surrounding it produced relative isolation inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from the 7th to the sixteenth centuries. During this period, the Solomonic dynasty was restored inwards 1260 inwards the province of Shewa yesteryear King Yekuno Amlak, who extended his realm from Abyssinia to some Cuchitic-speaking lands southward together with east. Amharic developed out of this linguistic blend. From fourth dimension to time, Europeans heard rumors of a Prester John, a Christian virile mortal monarch on the other side of the Muslim world. Using a vast issue of serfs on feudal church building territories, Abuna (archbishop) Tekle Haymanot built churches together with monasteries, often on easily defensible hilltops, such equally Debra Líbanos monastery inwards Shewa, which is soundless the most of import inwards Ethiopia.
With the Muslim conquest of somali solid reason inwards 1430, the band around Abyssinia was complete, together with of late Islamicized Oromo (Galla) seminomadic tribes from the southward invaded through the Rift Valley, burning churches together with monasteries. Some manuscripts together with church building paintings had to hold out hidden on islands on Lake Tana. When a 2d moving ridge of invaders came, equipped amongst Turkish firearms, the Shewan virile mortal monarch Lebna Dengel sent a immature Armenian to Portugal to solicit aid. Before it could arrive, the Oromo leader Mohammed Grañ ("the lefthanded") attacked amongst the assist of Arabs from Yemen, Somalis, together with Danakils together with proceeded equally far N equally Aksum, which he razed, killing the virile mortal monarch inwards battle inwards 1540. His children together with the clergy took refuge on together with N of Lake Tana. One yr later, Som Christofo Da Gama landed at Mesewa amongst 450 Portuguese musketeers; the slain king's son, Galaudeos (Claudius), fought on until he died inwards battle. The tide turned, however, together with inwards 1543 Mohammed Grañ cruel inwards battle.
Shewa nevertheless remained settled yesteryear Oromo, who learned the agriculture of the region. The regal household unit of measurement had only a tent metropolis inwards what became the town of Gonder. There the Portuguese built bridges together with castles, together with Jesuits began to convert the regal household unit of measurement to Roman Christianity. King Za Dengel was the initiative of all regal convert, but the Monophysite clergy organized a rebellion that led to his removal. His successor, King Susneos, had also been converted but was careful non to urge his people to convert; shortly earlier his expiry inwards 1632, he proclaimed religious freedom for all his subjects.
Amhara people
The novel king, Fasilidas (1632-1667), expelled the Portuguese together with restored the privileges of the Monophysite clergy. He—and afterwards his boy together with grandson—employed workmen trained yesteryear the Portuguese to build the castles that stand upwards to this day. Special walled paths shielded the regal household unit of measurement from mutual sight, but the king, piece sitting nether a fig tree, judged cases brought earlier him. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 stone-lined H2O puddle was constructed nether his balcony, together with a mausoleum entombed his favorite horse. All these structures soundless exist. But the skills of stonemasonry afterwards cruel into disuse; warfare required mobility, which necessitated the formation of military machine tent cities. Portuguese viticulture was also lost (though the call of the middle elevation remains "Woyna Dega"), together with the clergy had to import raisins to create sacramental wine.
Gonder had been abandoned yesteryear the Solomonic line when a usurping commoner chieftain, Kassa, chose it equally the location to have got himself crowned King Theodore inwards 1855. He defeated the virile mortal monarch of Shewa together with held the dynastic heir, the man child Menilek II, hostage at his court. Theodore realized the urgency of uniting the many ethnic groups of the solid reason into a nation, to foreclose Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from losing its independence to European colonial powers. Thinking that all Europeans knew how to manufacture cannons, Theodore invited unusual technicians and, at first, fifty-fifty welcomed unusual missionaries. But when the latter proved unable to cast cannons for him together with fifty-fifty criticized his often violent behavior, he jailed together with chained British missionaries. This led to the Lord Napier expedition, which was welcomed together with assisted yesteryear the population of Tigray Province. When the fort of Magdalla fell, Theodore committed suicide. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 conservative Tigray chief, Yohannes, was crowned at Aksum.
In 1889 the Muslim mahdi took reward of the disarray inwards Ethiopia; he razed Gonder together with devastated the subprovince of Dembeya, causing a severe together with prolonged famine. Meanwhile, the Shewan dynastic heir, Menilek II, had grown to manhood together with realized that Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia could no longer isolate itself if it were to retain independence. He proceeded, amongst patient persistence, to unify the country. As an Amhara from Shewa, he understood his Oromo neighbors together with won their loyalty amongst solid reason grants together with military machine alliances. He negotiated a settlement amongst the Tigray. He equipped his forces amongst firearms from whatever source, some fifty-fifty from the Italians (in telephone substitution for granting them territory inwards Eritrea).
His policies were so successful that he managed to defeat the Italian invasion at Adwa, inwards 1896, an trial that placed Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on the international map diplomatically. Empress Taitu liked the hot mineral springs of a district inwards Shewa, fifty-fifty though it was inwards an Oromo region, together with the emperor thence agreed to build his working capital alphabetic character there, naming it "Addis Ababa" (new flower). When expanding Addis Ababa threatened to exhaust the local fuel supply, Menilek ordered the importation of eucalyptus trees from Australia, which grew chop-chop during each three-month rainy season.
Menilek II died inwards 1913, together with his immature lady Zauditu became nominal head; a 2d cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, became regent together with was crowned King of Kings Haile Selassie I inwards 1930. He made it possible for Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to bring together the League of Nations inwards 1923, yesteryear outlawing the slave trade. One of his initiative of all acts equally emperor was to grant his subjects a written constitution. He allied himself yesteryear union to the Oromo virile mortal monarch of Welo Province. When Mussolini invaded Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards 1935, Emperor Haile Selassie appeared inwards Geneva to plead his instance earlier the League, alert that his solid reason would non hold out the in conclusion victim of aggression. The Italian job ended inwards 1941 amongst give upwards to the British together with homecoming of the emperor. During succeeding decades, the emperor promoted an educated elite together with sought assistance from the United States, rather than the British, inwards diverse fields. Beginning inwards virtually 1960, a young, educated generation of Ethiopians grew increasingly impatient amongst the slowness of development, especially inwards the political sphere. At the same time, the aging emperor, who was suffering retentiveness loss, was losing his powerfulness to maintain control. In 1974 he was deposed, together with he died a yr later. The revolutionary committees, claiming to follow a Marxist ideology, formed military machine dictatorships that deported villagers nether conditions of corking suffering together with executed students together with each other without legal trials. Dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam fled Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards May 1991 equally Eritrean together with Tigrayan rebel armies approached from the north. The solid reason remains largely rural; traditional civilization patterns together with agency of survival are the norm.
Settlements
The typical rural settlement is the hamlet, tis, called mender if several are linked on 1 large hill. The hamlet may consist of 2 to a dozen huts. Thus, the hamlet is often footling to a greater extent than than an isolated or semi-isolated farmstead, together with some other hamlet may hold out unopen yesteryear if their plowed fields are near. Four factors appear to create upwards one's heed where a hamlet is probable to hold out situated: ecological considerations, such equally H2O within a woman's walking distance, or available pasturage for the flock; kinship considerations—persons within a hamlet are nearly e'er related together with shape a household unit of measurement economical community; administrative considerations, such equally inherited household unit of measurement ownership of land, tenancy of solid reason belonging to a feudal lord of onetime times, or continuing understanding amongst the nearby church building that had held the solid reason equally a fief upwards to 1975 together with continues to have constituent of the crop inwards telephone substitution for its services; together with ethnic considerations. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 hamlet may hold out alone inhabited yesteryear Falasha blacksmiths together with pottery makers or Faqi tanners. Most of the Falasha have got directly left Ethiopia.
To avoid existence flooded during the rainy season, settlements are typically built on or close hilltops. There is usually a valley inwards between, where brooks or irrigation canals shape the border for planted fields. The hillsides, if non terrace farmed, serve equally pasturage for all hamlets on the hill. Not only sheep together with goats, but also cows, climb over fairly steep, bushy hillsides to feed. Carrying H2O together with branches for fuel is soundless considered a woman's job, together with she may have got to climb for several hours from the nearest year-round H2O supply. The hamlet is usually patrilocal together with patrilineal. When union occurs, usually early inwards life, a boy may have work of constituent of his father's rented (or owned) acre together with build his hut nearby. If no solid reason is available owing to fragmentation, the boy may reluctantly hold out compelled to found himself at the bride's hamlet. When warfare has killed off the adult males inwards a hamlet, in-laws may also hold out able to displace in. Some hamlets are fenced inwards yesteryear thorn bushes against night-roving hyenas together with to corral cattle. Calves together with the household unit of measurement mule may hold out taken into the living hut at night. There is usually at to the lowest degree 1 vehement reddish-brown domestic dog inwards each hamlet.
Economy
Much Amhara ingenuity has long been invested inwards the direct exploitation of natural resources. An Amhara would rather pass equally much fourth dimension equally necessary searching for suitably shaped hard or soft saplings for a walking cane than perform carpentry, which is traditionally largely limited to constructing the master copy bed (alga ), wooden saddles, together with unproblematic musical instruments. Soap is obtained yesteryear crushing the fruit of the endod (Pircunia abyssinica ) bush. Tannin for depilation of hides together with curing is obtained from the yellowish fruit of the embway bush. Butter is preserved together with perfumed yesteryear boiling it amongst the leaves of the odes (myrtle) bush. In times of crop failure, edible fossil oil is obtained yesteryear gathering together with crushing wild-growing sunflower seeds (Carthamus tinctorus ). If necessary, leaves of the lola bush tin hold out split yesteryear women to bake the festive breadstuff dabbo. The dear of a small, tiny-stingered bee (Apis dorsata ) is gathered to create alcoholic mead, tej, whereas the dear of the wild bee tazemma (Apis Africans miaia ) is gathered to care for colds together with ticker ailments. Fishing is mostly limited to the three-month rainy season, when rivers are total together with the H2O is soiled from runoff so that the fish cannot consider the fishers. Hunting elephants used to hold out a sport of immature feudal nobles, but hunting for ivory took identify largely inwards non-Amhara regions. Since rifles became available inwards Amhara farming regions, Ethiopian duikers together with guinea fowl have got nearly disappeared.
Subsistence farming provides the main economic scheme for most rural Amhara. The traditional method required much solid reason to prevarication fallow because no fertilization was applied. Cattle manure is formed into apartment cakes, Sun dried, together with used equally fuel for cooking. New land, if available, is cleared yesteryear the slash-and-burn method. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 wooden scratch turn amongst a pointed atomic issue 26 tip, pulled yesteryear oxen, is the main farming tool. Insecurity of solid reason tenure has long been a major factor inwards discouraging Amhara farmers from producing to a greater extent than than the amount required for subsistence. The sharecropping peasant (gabbar ) was footling to a greater extent than than a serf who feared the (often absentee) feudal landlord or military machine quartering that would absorb whatever surplus. The revolutionary regime (1975-1991) added additional fears yesteryear its villagization program, moving peasants at command to facilitate province command together with deporting peasants to the southward of Ethiopia, where many perished owing to pitiable regime planning together with support.
The preferred crop of the Amhara is tyeff (Eragrostis abyssinica; Poa abyssinica ), the little seeds of which are rich inwards iron. At lower or drier elevations, several sorghums (durras) are grown: mashella (Andropogon sorghum), often mixed amongst the costlier tyeff blossom to bake the flapjack breadstuff injera; zengada (Eleusina multiforme), grown equally crop insurance; together with dagussa (Eleusine coracana, or tocusso ), used equally an ingredient inwards beer together amongst barley. Wheat (Triticum spp.), sendē, is grown inwards higher elevations together with is considered a luxury. Barley (Hordeum spp.), gebs, is a year-round crop, used primarily for brewing talla, a mild beer, or to popular a parched grain, gebs qolo, a ready snack kept available for guests. Maize, bahēr mashella, is recognized equally a foreign-introduced crop.
Amhara farmers
The most of import vegetable fossil oil derives from nug (Guizotia abyssinica ), the dark Niger seed, together with from talba (Linum usitatissimum ), flax seed. Cabbage (gomen ) is regarded equally a pitiable food. Chick-peas are appreciated equally a staple that is non expected to neglect fifty-fifty inwards state of war together with famine; they are consumed during the Lenten season, equally are peas. Onions together with garlic are grown equally ingredients for wot, the spicy stew that also contains beans, may include chicken, together with e'er features spicy carmine peppers—unless sick heath prevents their consumption. Lentils substitute for meat during fasting periods. The raising of livestock is traditionally non direct related to available pasture, but to agriculture together with the want for prestige. Oxen are needed to draw the plow, but traditionally in that location was no breeding to obtain practiced milkers. Coffee may grow wild, but the beans are usually bought at a marketplace together with crushed together with boiled inwards front end of guests; salt—but non sugar—may hold out added.
Division of Labor
Although much needed, the castelike skilled occupations similar blacksmithing, pottery making, together with tanning are held inwards depression esteem and, inwards rural regions, are usually associated amongst a socially excluded ethnic grouping. Moreover, ethnic workmanship is suspected of having been acquired yesteryear dealings amongst evil spirits that enable the artisans to turn themselves into hyenas at nighttime to eat corpses, motion diseases yesteryear staring, together with turn humans into donkeys to utilize their labor.
Such fake accusations tin hold out rattling serious. On the other hand, the magic powerfulness accredited to these workers is believed to brand their products strong, whereas those manufactured yesteryear an outsider who mightiness have got learned the merchandise would presently break. The merchandise of weaving is non afflicted yesteryear such suspicions, although it is sometimes associated amongst Muslims or migrants from the south.
Land Tenure
Land tenure amid traditional rural Amhara resembled that of medieval Europe to a greater extent than than that found elsewhere inwards Africa. Feudal institutions required the gabbar to perform labor (hudād ) for his lord together with allocated solid reason work inwards telephone substitution for military machine service, gult. In a scheme resembling the European entail, inheritable land, rest, was dependent to taxation (which could hold out passed on to the sharecroppers) together with to expropriation inwards instance of rebellion against the king. Over the centuries, endowed solid reason was added to fief-holding church building land, together with debber ager. Royal household lands were classified equally mād-bet, together with melkenya solid reason was granted to taxation collectors. Emperor Haile Selassie attempted to alter the feudal scheme early inwards his administration. He defeated feudal armies, but was stymied inwards abrogating feudalistic solid reason tenure, especially inwards the Amhara region, yesteryear feudal lords such equally Ras Kassa. The parliament that he had called into existence had no existent powerfulness All remaining feudal solid reason tenure was abrogated during the revolutionary dictatorship (1975-1991), but feudalistic attitudes practiced yesteryear rural officials, such equally shum shir (frequently moving lower officials to other positions to maintain control), appear to have got persisted.
Kinship
The extended patrilocal, patrilineal, patriarchal household unit of measurement is especially strong amid holders of residuum solid reason tenure, but is found, inwards principle, fifty-fifty on the hamlet plane of sharecroppers. There are several levels of kin, zemed, which also include those yesteryear affinity, amachenet. In thought of the emphasis on seeking safety inwards kinship relations, in that location are also several formal methods of establishing fictive kinship, zemed hone, provided the mortal to hold out adopted is attentam ("of practiced bones," i.e., non of Shanqalla slave ancestry). Full adoption provides a pectus begetter (yetut abbat ) or a pectus woman parent (yetut ennat ). The traditional world ceremony included coating the nipples amongst dear together with simulating breast-feeding, fifty-fifty if the kid was already inwards adolescence.
Marriage together with Family
Marriage. There are iii predominant types of union inwards Amhara tradition. The iii types of union inwards Amhara tradition:
Eucharist church building union (Qurban)
Kin-negotiated civil union (Semanya) and
Temporary union (Damoz)
Only a minority—the priesthood, some older persons, together with nobility—engage inwards eucharistic church building union (qurban ). No divorce is possible. Widows together with widowers may remarry, except for priests, who are instead expected to go monks.
Kin-negotiated civil union (semanya; lit., "eighty") is most common. (Violation of the oath of union used to hold out penalized yesteryear a fine of 80 Maria Theresa thalers.) No church building ceremony is involved, but a priest may hold out nowadays at the marriage to bless the couple. Divorce, which involves the segmentation of belongings together with decision of custody of children, tin hold out negotiated. Temporary union (damoz ) obliges the hubby to pay housekeeper's reward for a flow stated inwards advance. This was felt to hold out an essential organisation inwards an economic scheme where eating seat together with hotel services were non available.
The term is a contraction of demewez, "blood together with sweat" (compensation). The contract, although oral, was earlier witnesses together with was thence enforceable yesteryear courtroom order. The married adult woman had no right of inheritance, but if children were conceived during the contract period, they could brand a claim for constituent of the father's property, should he die. Damoz rights were fifty-fifty recognized inwards modern police during the dominion of Emperor Haile Selassie.
Socialization inwards the domestic unit of measurement begins amongst the naming of the babe (giving him or her the "world name"), a privilege that usually belongs to the mother. She may base of operations it on her predominant emotion at the fourth dimension (e.g., Desta [joy] or Almaz [diamond]), on a important trial occurring at the time, or on a special wishing she may have got for the personality or hereafter of her babe (Seyum, "to hold out appointed to dignity").
Amhara schoolhouse kids
Socialization
Breast-feeding may in conclusion 2 years, during which the nursling is never out of comport on amongst the torso of the woman parent or some other woman. Until they are weaned, at virtually historic flow 7, children are treated amongst permissiveness, inwards contrast to the authoritarian preparation that is to follow. The province of argue together with incipient acre of report begins gradually at virtually historic flow 5 for girls together with 7 for boys. The onetime assist their mothers inwards watching babies together with fetching wood; boys pick out sheep together with cows to pasture and, amongst slingshots, guard crops against birds together with baboons. Both tin hold out questioned inwards courtroom to limited preferences concerning guardianship inwards instance of their parents' divorce. Neglect of duty is punished yesteryear immediate scolding together with beating.
Formal educational activity inwards the traditional rural church building schoolhouse rarely began earlier historic flow 11 for boys. Hazing patterns to examine courage are mutual amid boys equally they grow up, both physically together with verbally. Girls are enculturated to appear shy, but may play solid amongst boys prior to adolescence. Adolescence is the showtime of stricter obedience for both sexes, compensated yesteryear pride inwards existence assigned greater responsibilities. Young men are addressed equally ashker together with do most of the plowing; yesteryear historic flow 18 they may hold out addressed equally gobez, signifying (strong, handsome) immature warrior. On the Temqet (baptism of Jesus) festival, the immature men encounter each other inwards teams to compete inwards the game of guks, a tournament fought on horseback amongst blunt, wooden lances, inwards which injuries are avoided yesteryear ducking or protecting oneself amongst leather shields. At Christmas, a hockeylike game called genna is played together with celebrated yesteryear boasting (fukkara ). Female adolescents are addressed equally qonjo (beautiful), no longer equally leja-gered (servant maid), unless criticized. Singing loudly inwards groups piece gathering firewood attracts groups of immature men, away from parental supervision. Young men together with women also encounter next the guks together with genna games, wearing novel clothes together with traditional makeup together with hairstyles. Outdoor flirting reaches a peak on Easter (Fassika), at the halt of the dry out season.
Domestic Unit
The traditional historic flow of a immature lady at initiative of all union may hold out equally immature equally 14, to protect her virginity, together with to enable the groom to tame her to a greater extent than easily. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 groom iii to 5 years older than the bride is preferred. To protect the bride against excessive violence, she is assigned 2 best men, who hold off behind a mantle equally the union is consummated; later, she may telephone band on them inwards instance of batter.
The term shemagelyē signifies an elderberry together with connotes seriousness, wisdom, together with command of human relations within the residential kin grouping or beyond. He may hold out 40 years of historic flow together with already a grandfather. There is no automatic equivalency for elderberry women, but they tin pick out the qob of a nun together with go along to alive at dwelling solid piece working inwards the churchyard, baking breadstuff together with brewing beer for the priests. Only women yesteryear menopause, usually widows, are accepted equally nuns yesteryear the Monophysite Aybssinian church. Younger women are non considered sufficiently serious to hold out able to deny their sexual practice drives.
Inheritance patterns:
Though the potency of the household caput is thus relatively independent of kinship ties, the land-use rights on which the household equally an economical unit of measurement relies are not, for plots of solid reason together with potential rights to additional plots are inherited bilaterally—that is, yesteryear sons together with daughters (or their husbands or children) through both parents.
Amhara elders
In Amhara theory these actual together with potential rights, both of which are termed rist, are rights to a portion of the solid reason initiative of all held yesteryear an illustrious ancestor (a principal ancestor or wanna abbat ) whose call the solid reason soundless bears. The arable lands inwards older Amhara regions are these ancestral blocks, which vary from 1 one-half to 2 or iii foursquare kilometers inwards area. In Amhara legal theory rist rights inwards these lands are the inalienable together with inextinguishable birthright of all the initiative of all ancestor’s descendant’s inwards all lines, regardless of whether or non the rights were utilized yesteryear intermediate lineal ancestors inwards the claimant’s pedigree. In fact, most claims are forgotten.
Though rist solid reason rights are “hereditary,” the amount of solid reason a human being tin command yesteryear virtue of these rights is dependent, to a higher identify all, on his political influence; together with solid reason work rights over plots are considered to hold out held yesteryear individuals.
Sociopolitical Organization
Social organisation is linked to solid reason tenure of kinfolk, feudalistic traditions together with the church, ethnic segmentation of labor, gender, together with historic flow status. The peasant grade is divided betwixt landowning farmers, who, fifty-fifty though they have got no formal political power, tin thwart distant regime powerfulness yesteryear their rural remoteness, pitiable roads, together with weight of numbers, together with the sharecroppers, who have got no such powerfulness against local landlords. Fear of a mortal who engages inwards a skilled occupation, tebib (lit., "the knowing one," to whom supernatural secrets are revealed), enters into grade stratification, especially for blacksmiths, pottery makers, together with tanners. They are despised equally members of a lower caste, but their products are needed, together with thence they are tolerated. Below them on the social scale are the descendants of slaves who used to hold out imported from the negroid Shanqalla of the Sudanese border, or the Nilotic Barya, so that both damage became synonymous amongst "slave."
Social command is traditionally maintained, together with conflict situations are resolved, inwards accordance amongst the powerfulness hierarchy. Judges interpret laws subjectively together with brand no sudden distinction betwixt civil together with criminal procedures. In add-on to written Abyssinian together with church building laws, in that location are unwritten codes, such equally the payment of blood coin to the kin of a murder victim. An aggrieved mortal could appeal to a higher potency yesteryear lying prostrate inwards his path together with shouting "abyet" (hear me). Contracts did non have got to hold out written, provided in that location were reliable witnesses. To obtain a loan or a job, a personal guarantor (was ) is necessary, together with the was tin also human activity equally bondsman to maintain an defendant out of jail. The drama of litigation, to verbalise good inwards court, is much appreciated. Even children enact it amongst the proper torso linguistic communication of pointing a toga at the justice to emphasize the speech.
Religious Belief
The religious belief of most Amhara is Monophysite--that is, Tewahedo (Orthodox)--Christianity, to such an extent that the term "Amhara" is used synonymously amongst "Abyssinian Christian." Christian Amhara have on a bluish cervix cord (METEB), to distinguish themselves from Muslims.
There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs.
Ethiopian Church priest together with his censer. (Timkat ceremony) at northern Ethiopia
First, in that location is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, together with the saints together with angels inwards Heaven. Second, in that location are the zar together with the adbar spirits, “protectors” who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical together with emotional safety together with who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the practise of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a grade of people who possess the evil eye, together with who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendents of God’s “chosen children.” The 4th category of beliefs includes the [unknown]ciraq together with satan, ghouls together with devils that prowl the countryside, creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 2d of import influence inwards the evolution of Amhara civilization was heralded yesteryear the introduction of Christianity during the 4th century. These initiative of all missionaries were men from the eastern Mediterranean and, after the corking schism announced at Chalcedon, the Ethiopian Church continued its ties amongst the Orthodox faction, equally a dependency of the Coptic See of Alexandria. The success of Islam, sweeping across Arab Republic of Egypt together with Nubia, severely limited contact betwixt the Abyssinian highland together with the residuum of Christendom. In consequence, the evolution of the Ethiopian Coptic Church and, ultimately, of its human relationship to Amhara civilization has been to a greater extent than substantially influenced yesteryear autochthonous forces than would otherwise have got been the case.
The influence of the Church is nowhere to a greater extent than apparent than inwards a review of Amhara art. The Amhara have got no concept which approximates “art” equally it is used inwards English, together with each of the varieties of Amhara graphic art—Church painting, occult drawing, together with tattooing—is considered discrete, a distinctive musical instrument to accomplish particular ends. Painting, for example, is largely didactic, depicting biblical scenes together with personages, episodes from the lives of the saints together with the history of the Church. In a trend of obvious Byzantine affinity, the painter sets these motifs inwards contiguous panels upon the muslin-faced walls together with ceilings of highland churches.
The mystical drawing is known inwards Amharic equally telsem (cognate of the English linguistic communication “talisman”) together with differs radically from the church building icon inwards form, intent, together with production. Ethiopian talismans, sewn into a leather amulet together amongst the appropriate herbal ingredients, are worn to ward off the numerous satans, persecutors of human being together with foes of the Church, who alive inwards the forests, lakes, together with rivers of the countryside together with inwards the hearth ashes together with beer dregs of the home. Both the church building painter together with talisman drawer are ecclesiastics, since a religious educational activity is the sole agency of acquiring the literacy together with special noesis required yesteryear these endeavors. Indeed, the paintings together with drawings accompanying this article are the operate of a unmarried private who lives inwards Gondar town (about xxx miles N of Lake Tana), national working capital alphabetic character during the seventeenth together with eighteenth centuries.
Amhara people
Ceremonies
Ceremonies often score the annual bike for the public, despite the sacredotal emphasis of the religion. The calendar of Abyssinia is Julian, but the yr begins on 11 September, next ancient Egyptian usage, together with is called amete mehrāt (year of grace). Thus, the Abyssinian yr 1948 a.m. corresponds roughly amongst the Gregorian (Western) a.d. 1956.
The novel yr begins amongst the calendar month of Meskerem, which follows the rainy flavour together with is named after the initiative of all religious holy twenty-four hr flow of the year, Mesqel-abeba, celebrating the Feast of the Cross. On the seventeenth day, huge poles are stacked upwards for the bonfire inwards the evening, amongst much world parading, dancing, together with feasting. By contrast, Christmas (Ledet) has footling social significance except for the genna game of the immature men. Far to a greater extent than of import is Epiphany (Temqet), on the eleventh twenty-four hr flow of Ter. Ceremonial parades escort the priests who send the tabot, symbolic of the holy ark, on their heads, to a H2O pool. There are all-night services, world feasting, together with prayers for plentiful rains.
This is the halt of the genna flavour together with the showtime of the guks tournaments fought on horseback yesteryear the immature men. The long Lenten flavour is approaching, together with clergy equally good equally the world seem forrad to the feasting at Easter (Fassika), on the seventeenth twenty-four hr flow of Miyazya. Children have novel clothes together with collect gifts, chanting solid to house. Even the voluntary fraternal association mehabber is said to have got originated from the practise of private communion. Members pick out turns equally hosts at monthly meetings, drinking barley beer together amongst the confessor-priest, who intones prayers. Members are expected to human activity equally a mutual assist society, raising regular contributions, extending loans, fifty-fifty paying for the tazkar (formal memorial service) 40 days after a member's death, if his household unit of measurement cannot afford it.
Passage rituals (birth, death, puberty, seasonal):
When expiry is approaching, elderberry kin of the dying mortal convey the confessor, together with the in conclusion volition concerning inheritance is pronounced. Fields are given to patrilineal descendants, cattle to all offspring. Personal belongings, such equally ox cover mats together with a SHAMMA (toga), may hold out given to the confessor, who administers in conclusion rites together with assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard.
The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a SHAMMA, carried to church building for the mass, together with buried, traditionally without a mark except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief amongst loud keening together with wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk acquire inwards to console the relatives of the deceased. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 memorial feast (TAZKAR) is held 40 days after death, when the soul has the earliest chance to hold out freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the FETET, the prayer for absolution, together with materials, food, together with imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (DASS) is erected, together with fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate together with eat equally much TALLA together with WOT equally available.
Clothing/Costume
Whether it is at a church building service or at court, on the trail or inwards the privacy of the homestead, decorous together with elaborate forms of speech, dress, together with gesture are employed yesteryear the Amhara to limited toward 1 some other appropriate degrees of subordination together with superordination. In virtually all of these situations it is possible (with adequate knowledge) to discern a pattern of ranking, an ordered divergence inwards the amount of deference that people give together with receive. An accidental or transitional lapse inwards this orientation causes the Amhara discomfort or embarrassment. There is a instant of confusion or deliberate “not noticing” piece people rearrange their positioning together with their wearable so equally to satisfactorily reorder the scene amongst regard to the main sources of secular or sacred authority.
Food
The Amhara similar other Ethiopian staple foods are mainly their grains, which are Tef, Barley, together with Emmer Wheat. Grains are grinded inwards the dwelling solid or inwards a local mill, amongst the latter choice existence to a greater extent than together with to a greater extent than common. These grains are made into a breadstuff called injera. Injera is a thin, pancake-like, sour, leavened bread. Which grain is used depends on which is the main crop inwards a specific area. Injera has been made yesteryear the people of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia since at to the lowest degree 100 B.C. This breadstuff is usually accompanied yesteryear a sauce called wot. Some mutual types of wat are geyy wat, dorro wat together with allicha wat. Pictured below is Doro Wat. This is the national dish of Ethiopia.
Food items of flora beginning are cereals, legumes, vegetables, tubers, spices, oilseeds, together with fruit. Cereals consist of teff, corn, sorghum, barley wheat together with millet. The most mutual legumes are chickpeas, acre peas, lentils, together with broad beans. The most mutual vegetables are onions, kale, pumpkins, together with greenish chickpeas. The most mutual tubers are potatoes, sweetness potatoes, galla potatoes. Spices are extremely of import together with the most of import are chili together with bird’s-eye chili. These spices are used inwards the spice mixtures berberre together with mitmitta. Additionally the oilseeds of niger flax, sunflowers, together with safflowers are together with of import cash crop together with fruit is non grown inwards large quantities. The most mutual fruits are lemons together with bananas.
Gondar, Amhara Region, Ethiopia: injera amongst meat - Ethiopian food
Food items of brute beginning consist of milk, cow, sheep, or goat, chicken, fish. Ethiopian people do non eat pork. Milk is mainly given to little children together with it is used to brand sour milk, butter together with low-fat sour-milk cheese. The wealthy grade tin afford meats but the bulk of the population only tin serve meat at ceremonial occasions.
In addition, Coffee is some other nutrient staple inwards Ethiopia. Drinking java is the most of import social constituent amid the women inwards a hamlet together with inwards some institutions. Women should non hold out disturbed during their java drinking hours. Coffee is usually served amongst a little snack, such equally toasted cereals, legumes, or a slice injera. The potable for weekdays is the local beer called tella together with for feasts it is dear vino called tejj. It is considered polite to serve a potable drinking glass so total that it overflows, together with also to serve a 2d drinking glass equally presently equally the initiative of all is finished.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Christians participate in fasts. The fasting rules dictate that nutrient should non include whatever brute origin, amongst the exception of fish. Therefore, the main ingredient inwards the wot has to hold out of vegetable origin. Fish is to a greater extent than often than non equally good expensive for the bulk of people inwards Ethiopia; thence they eat nutrient mainly based of vegetable origins.
Adornment (beads, feathers, lip plates, etc.):
Many designs are specific for torso surface area together with ailment; the zigzag, for example, customarily appears equally multiple necklaces together with is directed against goiter. Other patterns may hold out inscribed on several areas; circles together with crucifixes appear on forehead together with temples to foreclose recurrent headaches, on the forearm for musculus paralysis, together with at joints for rheumatism.
The effectiveness of the designs is yesteryear agency of an unknown modus vivendi, together with excogitation is discouraged on this account. Cosmetic together with medical motives are ofttimes hard to distinguish from 1 another: Prophylactic together with therapeutic tattoos on human face upwards together with pharynx are often regarded equally fortuitously enhancing the bearer’s beauty.
Similarly, essentially decorative tattooing is sometimes given a secondary, prophylactic, rationale; the “beaded ankle” motif, for example, is believed to attract the witch’s evil optic away from the vulnerable oral cavity area.
Arts
Verbal arts—such equally bedanya agree (speaking good earlier a judge)—are highly esteemed inwards full general Amhara culture, but in that location is a pronounced grade distinction betwixt the oral communication of the rustic peasant, balager (hence belegē, unpolished, sometimes fifty-fifty vulgar), together with chowa lij, upper-class speech. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 farther differentiation within the latter is the oral communication of those whose traditional educational activity has included sewassow (Ge'ez: grammar; lit., "ladder," "uplifting"), which is fully mastered mainly yesteryear church building scholars; the speeches of onetime emperor Haile Selassie, who had also mastered sewas-sow, impressed the average layperson equally esoteric together with hard to understand, together with thence all the to a greater extent than to hold out respected. In the arts of politeness, veiled mockery, puns amongst double meanings, such equally semmena-worq (wax together with gold), fifty-fifty partial noesis of grammer is an advantage. The draping of the toga (shamma) is used at courtroom together with other occasions to emphasize spoken words, or to communicate fifty-fifty without speech. It is draped differently to limited social status inwards deference to a mortal of high status, on different occasions, together with fifty-fifty to limited moods ranging from outgoing together with expansive to calm sobriety, to sadness, reserve, pride, social distance, desperate pleading, religious devotion, together with so on. Artistic human face inwards the fine arts had long been linked to the church, equally inwards paintings, together with sponsorship yesteryear feudal lords who could afford it, especially when giving feasts celebrated amongst a diversity of musical instruments.
Medicine.
The basic concepts together with practices of Amhara medicine tin hold out traced to ancient Arab Republic of Egypt together with the ancient Near East together with tin also hold out attributed to regional ecological links within Ethiopia. Often no sudden distinctions are made betwixt bodily together with spiritual ailments, but in that location are special occupations: the woggesha (surgeon-herbologist) is a pragmatist inwards practice; the debtera (scribe) invokes the spirit world. The latter is officially or unofficially linked to the church, but the zar cult is apart together with may fifty-fifty hold out woman mortal dominated. Its spirit healing has a complex cosmology; it involves the social status of the patient together with includes grouping therapy. The primary zar Dr. is often a matriarch who entered the profession when she herself was possessed yesteryear a spirit; she has managed to command some powerful spirits that she tin together with so employ inwards her battles to overcome the spirits that possess her patients. No cure is expected, only command through negotiation together with appeasement of the offended spirit, inwards the promise of turning it into a weqabi (protective spirit).
Many men consider the zar cult effeminate together with consult its doctors yesteryear stealth only, at night. Husbands may resent the fiscal outlays if their wives are patients, but fright the wives' relapse into hysterical or catatonic states. Women, whose participation inwards the Abyssinian church building is severely limited, uncovering human face inwards the zar cult. The zar doctors at Gonder handgrip their annual convention on the twenty-third nighttime of the calendar month of Yekatit, but earlier the showtime of the Monophysite Christian Lent (Kudade; lit., "suffering"). There is much chanting, dancing, drumming, together with consumption of diverse drinks at the love feasts of the zars. Poor patients who are unable to pay amongst coin or commodities tin operate off their debts inwards labor service to the cult—waitressing, weaving baskets, fetching H2O together with fuel, brewing barley beer, together with so forth. They are to a greater extent than often than non analyzed yesteryear the zar Dr. equally existence possessed yesteryear a low-status zar spirit.
By contrast, possession yesteryear an evil spirit (buda ) is considered to a greater extent than serious together with less manageable than possession yesteryear a zar, together with in that location is no cult. An travail is made to foreclose it yesteryear wearing amulets together with avoiding tebib persons, who are skilled inwards trades similar blacksmithing together with pottery making. Since these spirits are believed to strike beautiful or successful persons, such individuals—especially if they are children—must non hold out praised out loud. If a mortal sickens together with wastes away, an exorcism yesteryear the church building may hold out attempted, or a tanqway (divinersorcerer) may hold out consulted; however, the latter recourse is considered risky together with shameful.
Death together with Afterlife
When an elderberry is close death, other elders from his kin grouping convey the confessor together with say to him, "Confess yourself." Then they enquire him for his in conclusion will—what to exit to his children together with what for his soul (the church). The confessor gives in conclusion rites and, after death, assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard. The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a shamma, carried to church building for the mass, together with buried, traditionally without a mark except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief amongst loud keening together with wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk acquire inwards to console. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 memorial feast (tazkar) is held 40 days after the expiry of a human being or a woman, when the soul has the earliest chance to hold out freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the fetet, the prayer for absolution, together with materials, food, together with imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (dass ) is erected, together with fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate together with eat equally much talla together with wot equally available.
Source:http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Amhara.aspx
A BRIEF NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF THE AMARA AND OROMO
By Fikre Tolossa
I gave my give-and-take in conclusion nighttime to Ato Zewge Fanta together with Wondimu Mekonnen that I would provide briefly the genealogy of the Amara. This information is based on on my reading of Ethiopian history together with Metsehafe Djan Shewa, (an ancient Ethiopian manuscript inwards Geez discovered yesteryear Meri Ras Aman Belay, inwards the ruins of an Ethiopian church building inwards Nubia, a constituent of the Ethiopian Empire) which has been, translated into Amharic, abridged together with published equally Metsehafe Subae yesteryear the discoverer himself. According to this ancient manuscript, both the Amara together with the Oromo are the descendants of 1 human being or father- Melchizedek, King of Salem the highest priest of God on Earth, founder of Jerusalem to whom Abraham together with other kings bowed together with paid tithes to have his blessings.
About 2000 years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ, God ordered Melchizedek to send his boy Ethel who was named equally Ethiop afterwards on yesteryear God, to go together with settle inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia at the islands of Lake Tana, the source of the River Nile. God sent Ethel (meaning the gift of God) to Ethiopia, so that when God (Jesus Christ) is born equally a human existence 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethel would convey him to Bethlehem Ethiopian gifts such equally yellowish gold, myrrh together with incense, led yesteryear a star which would appear inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to Pb them to Bethlehem. Accordingly Ethel went to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with settled inwards what is today known equally Gojjam. God changed his call from Ethel to "Ethiop" pregnant "the gift of yellowish aureate to God". Thus, non only Ethel became Ethiop, but the solid reason inwards which he settled also started to hold out called "Ethiopia". Lo together with behold, 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethiop became 12 kings inwards the together with so Ethiopian Empire. They headed for Bethlehem amongst gifts led yesteryear the star which God had said would Pb them. Now Ethiop begat xiii children- 10 boys together with iii girls. The boys were: Atiba, Bior, Biora, Temna, Ater, Ashan, Azib, Berissa, Tesbi, Tola (by the way, the call of my uncle, the blood brother of my begetter Tolossa, was Tola.), together with Azeb. The girls were, Loza, Milka together with Suba. All of them became the fathers together with mothers of many, many Ethiopian tribes. Out of the 10 boys of Ethiop, I volition pick out only the line of 1 of them- the line of Bior together with exhibit that the Amara together with Oromo descend from him. Ethiop begat Bior, Bior begat Aram, Aram begat Nage who begat Hage, who begat Biora, who begat Belam (a prophet inwards the Sinai who prophesied the Birth of Jesus equally a Star.
He is inwards the Bible known equally Baalam), Belam begat Keramid, who begat Shemshel (a female, corking prophetess who was able to enhance the dead). Shemshel begat Deshet. Her boy Deshet too, became a major prophet who designed the Zodiac which was taken out of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with did spread elsewhere inwards the world. Deshet, piece meditating at the Bank of the River Nile virtually 15 hundred years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ saw inwards the foam of the River a vision of Mary, Jesus together with the Star, that would Pb his descendants to Bethlehem, together with drew them on a tablet together with passed the tablet to them. Now Deshet begat 4 sons who became the fathers of many Ethiopian tribes including the Amara together with the Oromo. They are: Maji, Jimma, Mendi together with Medebai. Maji begat Mara (Amara) together with Jema or Jama (the people who settled at the River Jema inwards today's Shoa, a river they named after their tribe. The Jamacans of Jamaica were captured yesteryear Ahmed Gragn when they fought him fiercely, taken from there, sold equally slaves to Arabs who sold them to European slave traders, who sold them inwards Jamaica). Jimma begat Geneti, Arerti together with Moren. Out of Medebay descended the Oromo. In fact, earlier the Oromo were called Oromo during the reign of Menelik I virtually 2950 years ago, they used to hold out called Medebay. There are some inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia who are soundless called Medebay retaining their original name. There is a argue why they started existence called "Gala" together with "Oromo" then, but I won't dwell on it now. Later on, the children of Mara began to hold out called "A-mara" or "Ha-mara". The words, "A" together with "Ha" were used equally indicators. Thus the Oromo together with Amara portion the same begetter together with grand father. It is tragic together with unfortunate that the Oromo together with the Amara have got been misled to cope each other inwards the yesteryear together with inwards our time. Both the Oromo together with Amara originated inwards Gojjam. The Oromo didn't come upwards from Asia or Madagascar, equally Aleka Taye together with other ill-informed historians suggest. Later, each tribe split together with spread all over the breath together with length of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with fifty-fifty the residuum of Africa to seek out their fortune. In the hateful time, they developed different languages together with cultures. The Oromo became pastoralists. The Amara specialized inwards warfare together with administration. For example, when Axumite was a footling man child he was crowned equally the Pharaoh of Arab Republic of Egypt yesteryear the call of Ramzes. It was the Amara who accompanied him all the way from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to Arab Republic of Egypt virtually 2850 years agone to protect his throne. About 350,000 Amaras went amongst him to Egypt. Some of them returned to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia only after 1850 years of rest inwards Egypt, accompanying King Lalibela to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia after his homecoming from exile inwards Jerusalem. They built together amongst the local Agew people, the Rock Hewen Churches of Lalibela. Later, when Axumite found the metropolis of Axum together with became Emperor of Ethiopia, he gave his immature lady Ribla inwards union to King Nabukedenesor of Babylon (today's Iraq). It was the Amara soldiers 1 time again who accompanied Ribla to Iraq. She found a metropolis after her name. The Amara found a metropolis called "Amara" inwards Republic of Iraq after their ain name. The metropolis of "Amara" exists to this twenty-four hr flow inwards Iraq. It was captured yesteryear Shiite Moslems virtually a yr ago. I have got an American paper inwards my possession which printed the capture of the metropolis of "Amara" yesteryear the Shiites. Pertaining to the Amara language, it had already begun to evolve equally far dorsum equally 3000 years ago.In fact, it had existed long earlier Geez. Menelik the I declared Geez equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia virtually 2950 years agone to honour together with empower the Agazi, a tribe he brought from Gaaza which fought for him when Ethiopian tribes warred against him treating him equally a Jewish "keles" who had ambition over the Ethiopian throne. Indeed, it had developed together with evolved to a greater extent than than 3000 years; i.e, a piece earlier Geez was decreed yesteryear Menelik I equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia yesteryear imposition. For instance, in that location are kings together with throne names that have got Amara names such equally Zerffe together with Sendek-alma inwards the listing of Ethiopian kings who reigned earlier Queen Sheba, woman parent of Menelik I; equally good ancient towns inwards Arab Republic of Egypt known equally Amarna (konjo honin) together with Delta (we are comfortable, nosotros are doing fine), inwards the part inwards which Jesus, Joseph together with Mary found refuge 2000 years ago. When Menelik I was born, the Amara wondered what King Solomon would say virtually his son, Menelik, together with called him "Menelik" (min yilik, abateh?). If the Amara language didn't be over 3000 years ago, how come upwards they called Menelik, "Minyilik" virtually 3000 years ago? I recollect this give-and-take lonely suffices to evidence that Amaregna together with the Amara had existed inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to a greater extent than than 3000 years ago. This is what I wanted to say for now. If I uncovering time, I volition particular all this inwards an article. I have got gathered all the literature that I demand to evidence my point. I am Fikre Tolossa, descendant of Melchitsedek, King of Salem, of Ethiop together with Deshet, the prophet, as, of course, all of you, my immature human being Ethiopians,
source:http://fikretolossa.com/FILES_ARCHIVE/MISCELANEOUS/A_BRIEF_NOTE_ON_THE_ORIGIN_OF_THE_AMARA_AND_OROMO[1]_2.pdf
The Evil Eye Belief Among the Amhara of Ethiopia
Ronald Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Reminick
Cleveland State University
Variations of the belief inwards the evil optic are known throughout much of the world, yet surprisingly footling attending has been given to explaining the dynamics of this aspect of civilization ( cf. SpoonerI9 70; FosterI 972; Douglas I970). The Amhara of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia handgrip to this belief. Data for this study
were gathered amid the Manze Amhara of the cardinal highlands of Shoa Province, Ethiopia. Their habitat is a rolling plateau ranging inwards height from 9,500 to I3,000 feet. The seasons vary from temperate together with dry out to moisture together with cold. The Amhara are settled agriculturists raising primarily barley,
wheat, together with a diversity of beans together with importing teff grain cotton, together with spices from the lower together with warmer regions inwards the gorges together with valleys nearby. Amhara technology is simple, involving the bull draw plow, crop rotation, soil furrowing for drainage together with some irrigation where streams are accessible. The soil is rich plenty to maintain iii harvests annually. Other of import technological items include the sickle loom, together with the walking together with fighting stick for the men; the spindle large clay H2O jug grindstone, together with cooking u tensilsf or the women. The most highly prized item of technology is the ride which symbolizes the proud warrior traditions of the Amhara together with a man's duty to defend his inherited land.
The homestead is the primary domain of potency within the larger political structure. The homestead varies inwards size from that of a nuclear household unit of measurement to a large hamlet consisting of several related families together with their servants tenants together with onetime slaves. The scheme of potency tin hold out characterized inwards damage of Webers patriarchalism where a grouping is organized on the footing of kinship together with economic science amongst potency exercised yesteryear a particular mortal controlling the resources upon which the grouping depends (Weber I948: 346H ).
Amhara family
Obedience together with loyalty are owed to the mortal rather than to the purpose or the rule, together with this mortal rules only yesteryear the consent of the grouping members who stand upwards to gain a portion of their patriarch`s wealth equally good equally legacy upon his death. This establishment of patriarchal potency is reinforced yesteryear a cultural emphasis on virile mortal qualities of aggressiveness oriented around the acquisition together with defense strength of land. Land is the fundamental requirement of the patriarchal system, for without it a human being cannot fulfill his basic purpose of supporting his dependents together with providing a legacy for his children equally a reward for their loyalty together with service. But solid reason is a scarce resource, together with in that location are often to a greater extent than claims to solid reason than tin hold out supported. Thus, closest siblings may unite against a to a greater extent than distant relative to maintain solid reason amid themselves or siblings may compete for scarce solid reason amid themselves becoming bitter enemies together with dividing the kinship or domestic group.
Amhara shepherd boy
The Amhara peasant`s supernatural world includes both Christian together with infidel (traditional) elements. Although Monophysite Christianity is the legitimate faith of the Amhara people who inwards fact define their tribal identity largely inwards damage of their Christian God, the infidel or "non legitimate" systems of belief also play an of import purpose inwards the everyday routine of the peasant's social together with cultural life. There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs. First,there is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, together with the saints together with angels inwards Heaven. Second, in that location are the zar together with the adbar spirits," protectors who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical together with emotional safety together with who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the practise of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a grade of people who possess the evil eye, together with who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendants of God's" chosen children." The 4th category of beliefs includes the ciraq together with satan, ghouls together with devils that prowl the countryside creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
source: http://www.refugeelegalaidinformation.org/sites/srlan/files/fileuploads/Reminick-TheEvilEyeBeliefAmongAmharaEthiopia_again.pdf
Beautiful Amhara adult woman from Addis Ababa inwards her traditional costume dancing
The Amhara people are closely related amongst the Gurage, together with the Tigray-Tigrinya people. The Amhara combined amongst the Gurage, together with the Tigray-Tigrinya people are called the Habesha ( (Ge'ez: ሐበሻ Ḥabaśā, Amharic (H)ābešā, Tigrinya: ? Ḥābešā; Arabic: الحبشة al-Ḥabašah) people or Abyssinians.
Amhara girls
The State of Amhara covers an estimated surface area of 170,752 foursquare kilometres together with consists of 10 administrative zones, 1 special zone, 105 woredas, together with 78 urban centres. The working capital alphabetic character metropolis of the State of Amhara is Bahir-Dar. According to recent National Population Census, the Amhara constitute virtually 23 1 1000 k people, making upwards to comprising 30.1% of the country's population. Majority of the Amhara population tin hold out found specifically inwards the provinces of Begender, Gojjam, Wallo, some parts of Shoa together with the mountainous areas of Amhara state.
Amhara women
The Amhara who are the 2d largest ethnolinguistic grouping after the Oromo people are descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled amongst indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah together with describe their lineage all the way to King Solomon together with the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I. They carried that same ancestral line all the way to 1974 amongst Emperor Haile Selassie. Also, virtually 50 % of the Amhara are constituent of what is known equally the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which is an ancient Christian church building founded around the 4th century. The Amhara do have got their rituals together with ceremonies, including the annual Coptic together with national holidays together with the monthly saints' days. In addition, daily together with monthly rites celebrate spirits whose identity lies exterior the teachings of the Ethiopian Church.
The Amhara are ardent brute husbandry people, virtually 40% of the livestock population inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are found inwards their territory. The huge livestock potential of this part gives ample chance for meat together with milk production, nutrient processing equally good equally leather together with wool production. The Sate of Amhara also has mineral resources such equally coal, shell, limestone, lignite, gypsum, gemstone, silica, sulfur together with bentonite. Hot springs together with mineral H2O are also found inwards the region.
Most importantly the Amhara province has corking tourism together with heritage industry. The twelfth century Rock-Hewn churches of Lalibela, together with the palaces inwards Gondar are some of the world known heritages. The traditional mural paintings together with paw craft, the preserved corpse of the royalty found inwards the ancient monasteries inwards Lake Tana, equally good equally the Semien mountains national park, which shelters the endemic Walia ibex are spectacular tourist attractions, Three tourist attractions found inwards the part are registered inwards the UNESCO listing of world heritages. Besides these known heritages, the Blue Nile Falls, the caves together with unique stones inwards northern Showa, together with the Merto Le Mariam church building are special tourist attractions.
Origin of the Name Amhara
The etymology of the call Amhara has different sources. It is said that the ethnolinguistic call (the linguistic communication together with its speakers) Amhara comes from the medieval province of Amhara, located around Lake Tana at the headwaters of the Blue Nile together with including a slightly larger surface area than Ethiopia's nowadays Amhara Region.
Other people describe it to amari ("pleasing; beautiful; gracious") or mehare ("gracious"). The Ethiopian historian Getachew Mekonnen Hasen traces it to an ethnic call related to the Himyarites of ancient Yemen. Still others say that it derives from Ge'ez ዓም (ʿam, "people") together with ሓራ (h.ara, "free" or "soldier"), although this has been dismissed yesteryear scholars such equally Donald Levine equally a folk etymology.
Beautiful Amhara children from Ethiopia
Geography together with Climate
The State of Amhara is topographically divided into 2 main parts, namely the highlands together with lowlands. The highlands are to a higher identify 1500 meters to a higher identify ocean plane together with comprise the largest constituent of the northern together with eastern parts of the region. The highlands are also characterized yesteryear chains of mountains together with plateaus. Ras Dejen (4620 m), the highest peak inwards the country, Guna (4236 m), Choke (4184m) together with Abune – Yousef (4190m) are amid the mount peaks that are located inwards the highland parts of the region.
The lowland constituent covers mainly the western together with eastern parts amongst an height betwixt 500-1500 meters to a higher identify ocean level. Areas beyond 2,300 meters to a higher identify ocean plane autumn within the "Dega" climatic Zone, together with areas betwixt the 1,500-2,300 meter to a higher identify ocean plane contour autumn within the "Woina Dega" climatic zone; together with areas below 1,500 contour autumn within the "Kolla" or hot climatic zones. The Dega, Woina Dega together with Kolla parts of the part constitute 25%, 44% together with 31% of the total surface area of the region, respectively.
The annual hateful temperature for most parts of the part lies betwixt 15°C-21°C. The State receives the highest per centum (80%) of the total rainfall inwards the country. The highest rainfall occurs during the summertime season, which starts inwards mid June together with ends inwards early September.
The State of Amhara is divided mainly yesteryear iii river basins, namely the Abbay, Tekezze together with Awash drainage basins. The Blue Nile (Abbay) river is the largest of all roofing or so 172,254 Km2. Its total length to its junction amongst the white Nile inwards Khartoum is 1,450 Km, of which 800 km is within Ethiopia. The drainage-basin of the Tekeze river is virtually 88,800 km2. In addition, Anghereb, Millie, Kessem together with Jema are amid the major national rivers, which are found inwards this region.
Tana, the largest lake inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is located at centre of the region. It covers an surface area of 3,6000 km2. Besides, other crater lakes similar Zengeni, Gudena Yetilba, Ardibo (75km2) together with Logia (35 km2) are little lakes that are found inwards the region.
The rivers together with lakes of the part have got immense potential for hydroelectric powerfulness generation, irrigation together with fishery development.
Blue Nile
Walia ibex, Semien fox, Gelada-baboon, Grey Duiker, Klipspringer, Hyenas together with Corocodile are amid the twenty-one species (three endemic) that are found inwards the region, especially at the Semien mount national park. Wild fowls, Francolins, Pelicans, Cranes, Ibises, together with Stocks are amid the birds that are found inwards the region.
Amhara plateau
Myths (Creation):
It is said that Eve had xxx children, together with 1 twenty-four hr flow God asked Eve to exhibit Him her children. Eve became suspicious together with apprehensive together with hid 15 of them from the sight of God. God knew her human activity of disobedience together with declared the 15 children she showed God equally His chosen children together with cursed the 15 she hid, declaring that they go henceforth into the world equally devils together with wretched creatures of the earth. Now some of the children complained together with begged God’s mercy. God heard them and, existence merciful, made some of them foxes, jackals, rabbits, etc., so that they mightiness be equally Earth’s creatures inwards a dignified manner. Some of the hidden children he left human, but sent them away amongst the curse of existence agents of the devil. These human counterparts of the devil are the ancestors of the buda people. There occurs a pleat inwards fourth dimension together with the story takes upwards its theme 1 time again when Christ was baptized at historic flow thirty.
Language
Amhara people speak Aramaic language (/æmˈhærɪk/ or /ɑːmˈhɑrɪk/; Amharic: አማርኛ Amarəñña, IPA: [ämärɨɲɲä]) which is a Semitic language that belong to the larger Afro-Asiatic linguistic communication phylum. It is the second-most spoken Semitic linguistic communication inwards the world, after Arabic, together with the official working linguistic communication of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Thus, it has official status together with is used nationwide. Amharic is also the official or working linguistic communication of several of the states within the federal system. It has been the working linguistic communication of government, the military, together with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church throughout medieval together with modern times. Outside Ethiopia, Amharic is the linguistic communication of some 2.7 1 1000 k emigrants. It is written (left-to-right) using Amharic Fidel, ፊደል, which grew out of the Ge'ez abugida—called, inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages, ፊደል fidel ("alphabet", "letter", or "character") together with አቡጊዳ abugida (from the initiative of all 4 Ethiopic letters, which gave ascension to the modern linguistic term abugida).
There is no agreed way of transliterating Amharic into Roman characters. The Amharic examples inwards the sections below work 1 scheme that is common, though non universal, amid linguists specializing inwards Ethiopian Semitic languages.
Writing system
The Amharic script is an abugida, together with the graphs of the Amharic writing scheme are called fidel. Each graphic symbol represents a consonant+vowel sequence, but the basic shape of each graphic symbol is determined yesteryear the consonant, which is modified for the vowel. Some consonant phonemes are written yesteryear to a greater extent than than 1 serial of characters: /ʔ/, /s/, /sʼ/, together with /h/ (the in conclusion 1 has 4 distinct alphabetic character forms). This is because these fidel originally represented distinct sounds, but phonological changes merged them. The citation shape for each serial is the consonant+ä form, i.e. the initiative of all column of the fidel. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 font that supports Ethiopic, such equally GF Zemen Unicode, is needed to consider fidel on typical modern estimator systems.
Alphabet
Chart of Amharic fidels
| ä [ə] | u | i | a | e | ə [ɨ], ∅ | o | ʷä [ʷə] | ʷi | ʷa | ʷe | ʷə [ʷɨ] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| h | ሀ | ሁ | ሂ | ሃ | ሄ | ህ | ሆ | ||||||
| l | ለ | ሉ | ሊ | ላ | ሌ | ል | ሎ | ሏ | |||||
| h | ሐ | ሑ | ሒ | ሓ | ሔ | ሕ | ሖ | ሗ | |||||
| m | መ | ሙ | ሚ | ማ | ሜ | ም | ሞ | ሟ | |||||
| s | ሠ | ሡ | ሢ | ሣ | ሤ | ሥ | ሦ | ሧ | |||||
| r | ረ | ሩ | ሪ | ራ | ሬ | ር | ሮ | ሯ | |||||
| s | ሰ | ሱ | ሲ | ሳ | ሴ | ስ | ሶ | ሷ | |||||
| ʃ | ሸ | ሹ | ሺ | ሻ | ሼ | ሽ | ሾ | ሿ | |||||
| q | ቀ | ቁ | ቂ | ቃ | ቄ | ቅ | ቆ | ቈ | ቊ | ቋ | ቌ | ቍ | |
| b | በ | ቡ | ቢ | ባ | ቤ | ብ | ቦ | ቧ | |||||
| v | ቨ | ቩ | ቪ | ቫ | ቬ | ቭ | ቮ | ቯ | |||||
| t | ተ | ቱ | ቲ | ታ | ቴ | ት | ቶ | ቷ | |||||
| tʃ | ቸ | ቹ | ቺ | ቻ | ቼ | ች | ቾ | ቿ | |||||
| ħ | ኀ | ኁ | ኂ | ኃ | ኄ | ኅ | ኆ | ኈ | ኊ | ኋ | ኌ | ኍ | |
| n | ነ | ኑ | ኒ | ና | ኔ | ን | ኖ | ኗ | |||||
| ɲ | ኘ | ኙ | ኚ | ኛ | ኜ | ኝ | ኞ | ኟ | |||||
| ʔ | አ | ኡ | ኢ | ኣ | ኤ | እ | ኦ | ኧ | |||||
| k | ከ | ኩ | ኪ | ካ | ኬ | ክ | ኮ | ኰ | ኲ | ኳ | ኴ | ኵ | |
| x | ኸ | ኹ | ኺ | ኻ | ኼ | ኽ | ኾ | ||||||
| w | ወ | ዉ | ዊ | ዋ | ዌ | ው | ዎ | ||||||
| ʔ | ዐ | ዑ | ዒ | ዓ | ዔ | ዕ | ዖ | ||||||
| z | ዘ | ዙ | ዚ | ዛ | ዜ | ዝ | ዞ | ዟ | |||||
| ʒ | ዠ | ዡ | ዢ | ዣ | ዤ | ዥ | ዦ | ዧ | |||||
| j | የ | ዩ | ዪ | ያ | ዬ | ይ | ዮ | ||||||
| d | ደ | ዱ | ዲ | ዳ | ዴ | ድ | ዶ | ዷ | |||||
| dʒ | ጀ | ጁ | ጂ | ጃ | ጄ | ጅ | ጆ | ጇ | |||||
| g | ገ | ጉ | ጊ | ጋ | ጌ | ግ | ጎ | ጐ | ጒ | ጓ | ጔ | ጕ | |
| t' | ጠ | ጡ | ጢ | ጣ | ጤ | ጥ | ጦ | ጧ | |||||
| tʃ' | ጨ | ጩ | ጪ | ጫ | ጬ | ጭ | ጮ | ጯ | |||||
| p' | ጰ | ጱ | ጲ | ጳ | ጴ | ጵ | ጶ | ጷ | |||||
| ts' | ጸ | ጹ | ጺ | ጻ | ጼ | ጽ | ጾ | ጿ | |||||
| ts' | ፀ | ፁ | ፂ | ፃ | ፄ | ፅ | ፆ | ||||||
| f | ፈ | ፉ | ፊ | ፋ | ፌ | ፍ | ፎ | ፏ | |||||
| p | ፐ | ፑ | ፒ | ፓ | ፔ | ፕ | ፖ | ፗ | |||||
| ä [ə] | u | i | a | e | ə [ɨ], ∅ | o | ʷä [ʷə] | ʷi | ʷa | ʷe | ʷə [ʷɨ] | ||
As inwards most other Ethiopian Semitic languages, gemination is contrastive inwards Amharic. That is, consonant length tin distinguish words from 1 another; for example, alä 'he said', allä 'there is'; yǝmätall 'he hits', yǝmmättall 'he is hit'. Gemination is non indicated inwards Amharic orthography, but Amharic readers typically do non uncovering this to hold out a problem. This belongings of the writing scheme is analogous to the vowels of Standard Arabic together with Hebrew or the tones of many Bantu languages, which are non usually indicated inwards writing. The noted Ethiopian novelist Haddis Alemayehu, who was an advocate of Amharic orthography reform, indicated gemination inwards his novel Fǝqǝr Əskä Mäqabǝr yesteryear placing a dot to a higher identify the characters whose consonants were geminated, but this practise is rare.
Punctuation
Punctuation includes:
፠ department mark
፡ give-and-take separator
። total halt (period)
፣ comma
፤ semicolon
፥ colon
፦ Preface colon (introduces oral communication from a descriptive prefix)
፧ interrogation mark
፨ paragraph separator
Grammar
Simple Amharic sentences
One may build unproblematic Amharic sentences yesteryear using a dependent together with a predicate. Here are a few unproblematic sentences:
ʾItyop̣p̣ya ʾAfriqa wəsṭ nat
(lit., Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Africa within is)
'Ethiopia is inwards Africa.'
Ləǧu täññətʷall.
(lit., man child is.asleep)
'The man child is asleep.'
Ayyäru däss yəlall
(lit., atmospheric condition practiced is)
'The atmospheric condition is good.'
Əssu wädä kätäma mäṭṭa.
(lit., he to metropolis came)
'He came to the city.'
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
In most languages, in that location is a little issue of basic distinctions of person, number, together with often gender that play a purpose within the grammer of the language. We consider these distinctions within the basic set of independent personal pronouns, for example, English linguistic communication I, Amharic እኔ ǝne; English linguistic communication she, Amharic እሷ ǝsswa. In Amharic, equally inwards other Semitic languages, the same distinctions appear inwards iii other places within the grammer of the languages.
Subject–verb agreement
All Amharic verbs handgrip amongst their subjects; that is, the person, number, together with (second- together with third-person singular) gender of the dependent of the verb are marked yesteryear suffixes or prefixes on the verb. Because the affixes that signal dependent understanding vary greatly amongst the particular verb tense/aspect/mood, they are usually non considered to hold out pronouns together with are discussed elsewhere inwards this article nether verb conjugation.
Object pronoun suffixes
Amharic verbs often have got additional morphology that indicates the person, number, together with (second- together with third-person singular) gender of the object of the verb.
አልማዝን አየኋት
almazǝn ayyähʷ-at
Almaz-ACC I-saw-her
'I saw Almaz'
While morphemes such equally -at inwards this instance are sometimes described equally signaling object agreement, analogous to dependent agreement, they are to a greater extent than often thought of equally object pronoun suffixes because, dissimilar the markers of dependent agreement, they do non vary significantly amongst the tense/aspect/mood of the verb. For arguments of the verb other than the dependent or the object, in that location are 2 separate sets of related suffixes, 1 amongst a benefactive pregnant (to, for), the other amongst an adversative or locative pregnant (against', to the detriment of, on', at).
ለአልማዝ በሩን ከፈትኩላት
läʾalmaz bärrun käffätku-llat
for-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-opened-for-her
'I opened the door for Almaz'
በአልማዝ በሩን ዘጋሁባት
bäʾalmaz bärrun zäggahu-bbat
on-Almaz door-DEF-ACC I-closed-on-her
'I closed the door on Almaz (to her detriment)'
Morphemes such equally -llat together with -bbat inwards these examples volition hold out referred to inwards this article equally prepositional object pronoun suffixes because they correspond to prepositional phrases such equally for her together with on her, to distinguish them from the direct object pronoun suffixes such equally -at 'her'.
Possessive suffixes
Amharic has a farther set of morphemes that are suffixed to nouns, signalling possession: ቤት bet 'house', ቤቴ bete, my house, ቤቷ; betwa, her house.
In each of these 4 aspects of the grammar, independent pronouns, subject–verb agreement, object pronoun suffixes, together with possessive suffixes, Amharic distinguishes 8 combinations of person, number, together with gender. For initiative of all person, in that location is a two-way distinction betwixt singular (I) together with plural (we), whereas for 2d together with tertiary persons, in that location is a distinction betwixt singular together with plural together with within the singular a farther distinction betwixt masculine together with feminine (you m. sg., yous f. sg., yous pl., he, she, they).
Amharic is a pro-drop language. That is, neutral sentences inwards which no chemical ingredient is emphasized usually do non have got independent pronouns: ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', ጋበዝኳት gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'. The Amharic words that interpret he, I, together with her do non appear inwards these sentences equally independent words. However, inwards such cases, the person, number, together with (second- or third-person singular) gender of the dependent together with object are marked on the verb. When the dependent or object inwards such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: እሱ ኢትዮጵያዊ ነው ǝssu ʾityop̣p̣yawi näw 'he's Ethiopian', እኔ ጋበዝኳት ǝne gabbäzkwat 'I invited her', እሷን ጋበዝኳት ǝsswan gabbäzkwat 'I invited her'.
The tabular array below shows alternatives for many of the forms. The pick depends on what precedes the shape inwards question, usually whether this is a vowel or a consonant, for example, for the 1st mortal singular possessive suffix, አገሬ agär-e 'my country', ገላዬ gäla-ye 'my body'.
Amharic Personal Pronouns
| English | Independent | Object pronoun suffixes | Possessive suffixes | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Direct | Prepositional | ||||
| Benefactive | Locative/Adversative | ||||
| I | እኔ ǝne | -(ä/ǝ)ñ | -(ǝ)llǝñ | -(ǝ)bbǝñ | -(y)e |
| you (m. sg.) | አንተ antä | -(ǝ)h | -(ǝ)llǝh | -(ǝ)bbǝh | -(ǝ)h |
| you (f. sg.) | አንቺ anči | -(ǝ)š | -(ǝ)llǝš | -(ǝ)bbǝš | -(ǝ)š |
| you (polite) | እርስዎ əswo | -(ə)wo(t) | -(ǝ)llǝwo(t) | -(ǝ)bbǝwo(t) | -wo |
| he | እሱ ǝssu | -(ä)w, -t | -(ǝ)llät | -(ǝ)bbät | -(w)u |
| she | እሷ ǝsswa | -at | -(ǝ)llat | -(ǝ)bbat | -wa |
| s/he (polite) | እሳቸው əssaččäw | -aččäw | -(ǝ)llaččäw | -(ǝ)bbaččäw | -aččäw |
| we | እኛ ǝñña | -(ä/ǝ)n | -(ǝ)llǝn | -(ǝ)bbǝn | -aččǝn |
| you (pl.) | እናንተ ǝnnantä | -aččǝhu | -(ǝ)llaččǝhu | -(ǝ)bbaččǝhu | -aččǝhu |
| they | እነሱ ǝnnässu | -aččäw | -(ǝ)llaččäw | -(ǝ)bbaččäw | -aččäw |
Within second- together with third-person singular, in that location are 2 additional "polite" independent pronouns, for reference to people that the speaker wishes to exhibit honour towards. This usage is an instance of the so-called T-V distinction that is made inwards many languages. The polite pronouns inwards Amharic are እርስዎ ǝrswo 'you (sg. polite)'. together with እሳቸው ǝssaččäw 's/he (polite)'. Although these forms are singular semantically—they refer to 1 person—they correspond to third-person plural elsewhere inwards the grammar, equally is mutual inwards other T-V systems. For the possessive pronouns, however, the polite 2nd mortal has the special suffix -wo 'your sg. pol.'
For possessive pronouns (mine, yours, etc.), Amharic adds the independent pronouns to the preposition yä- 'of': የኔ yäne 'mine', ያንተ yantä 'yours m. sg.', ያንቺ yanči 'yours f. sg.', የሷ yässwa 'hers', etc.
Reflexive pronouns
For reflexive pronouns ('myself', 'yourself', etc.), Amharic adds the possessive suffixes to the substantive ራስ ras 'head': ራሴ rase 'myself', ራሷ raswa 'herself', etc.
Demonstrative pronouns
Like English, Amharic makes a two-way distinction betwixt close ('this, these') together with far ('that, those') demonstrative expressions (pronouns, adjectives, adverbs). Besides number, equally inwards English, Amharic also distinguishes masculine together with feminine gender inwards the singular.
Amharic Demonstrative Pronouns
| Number, Gender | Near | Far | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Masculine | ይህ yǝh(ǝ) | ያ ya |
| Feminine | ይቺ yǝčči, ይህች yǝhǝčč | ያቺ yačči | |
| Plural | እነዚህ ǝnnäzzih | እነዚያ ǝnnäzziya | |
There are also separate demonstratives for formal reference, comparable to the formal personal pronouns: እኚህ ǝññih 'this, these (formal)' together with እኒያ ǝnniya 'that, those (formal)'.
The singular pronouns have got combining forms showtime amongst zz instead of y when they follow a preposition: ስለዚህ sǝläzzih 'because of this; therefore', እንደዚያ ǝndäzziya 'like that'. Note that the plural demonstratives, similar the 2d together with tertiary mortal plural personal pronouns, are formed yesteryear adding the plural prefix እነ ǝnnä- to the singular masculine forms.
Nouns
Amharic nouns tin hold out primary or derived. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 substantive similar əgər 'foot, leg' is primary, together with a substantive similar əgr-äñña 'pedestrian' is a derived noun.
Gender
Amharic nouns tin have got a masculine or feminine gender. There are several ways to limited gender. An instance is the old suffix -t for femininity. This suffix is no longer productive together with is limited to sure enough patterns together with some isolated nouns. Nouns together with adjectives ending inwards -awi usually pick out the suffix -t to shape the feminine form, e.g. ityop̣p̣ya-(a)wi 'Ethiopian (m.)' vs. ityop̣p̣ya-wi-t 'Ethiopian (f.)'; sämay-awi 'heavenly (m.)' vs. sämay-awi-t 'heavenly (f.)'. This suffix also occurs inwards nouns together with describing word based on the pattern qət(t)ul, e.g. nəgus 'king' vs. nəgəs-t 'queen' together with qəddus 'holy (m.)' vs. qəddəs-t 'holy (f.)'.
Some nouns together with adjectives pick out a feminine mark -it: ləǧ 'child, boy' vs. ləǧ-it 'girl'; bäg 'sheep, ram' vs. bäg-it 'ewe'; šəmagəlle 'senior, elderberry (m.)' vs. šəmagəll-it 'old woman'; t'ot'a 'monkey' vs. t'ot'-it 'monkey (f.)'. Some nouns have got this feminine mark without having a masculine opposite, e.g. šärär-it 'spider', azur-it 'whirlpool, eddy'. There are, however, also nouns having this -it suffix that are treated equally masculine: säraw-it 'army', nägar-it 'big drum'.
The feminine gender is non only used to betoken biological gender, but may also hold out used to limited smallness, e.g. bet-it-u 'the footling house' (lit. house-FEM-DEF). The feminine mark tin also serve to limited tenderness or sympathy.
Amhara man child amongst his tribal hairstyle
Specifiers
Amharic has special words that tin hold out used to betoken the gender of people together with animals. For people, wänd is used for masculinity together with set for femininity, e.g. wänd ləǧ 'boy', set ləǧ 'girl'; wänd hakim 'physician, Dr. (m.)', set hakim 'physician, Dr. (f.)'. For animals, the words täbat, awra, or wänd (less usual) tin hold out used to betoken masculine gender, together with anəst or set to betoken feminine gender. Examples: täbat t'əǧa 'calf (m.)'; awra doro 'cock (rooster)'; set doro 'hen'.
Amhara people
PluralThe plural suffix -očč is used to limited plurality of nouns. Some morphophonological alternations occur depending on the concluding consonant or vowel. For nouns ending inwards a consonant, manifestly -očč is used: bet 'house' becomes bet-očč 'houses'. For nouns ending inwards a dorsum vowel (-a, -o, -u), the suffix takes the shape -ʷočč, e.g. wəšša 'dog', wəšša-ʷočč 'dogs'; käbäro 'drum', käbäro-ʷočč 'drums'. Nouns that halt inwards a front end vowel pluralize using -ʷočč or -yočč, e.g. ṣähafi 'scholar', ṣähafi-ʷočč or ṣähafi-yočč 'scholars'. Another possibility for nouns ending inwards a vowel is to delete the vowel together with work manifestly očč, equally inwards wəšš-očč 'dogs'.
Besides using the normal external plural (-očč), nouns together with adjectives tin hold out pluralized yesteryear way of reduplicating 1 of the radicals. For example, wäyzäro 'lady' tin pick out the normal plural, yielding wäyzär-očč, but wäyzazər 'ladies' is also found (Leslau 1995:173).
Some kinship-terms have got 2 plural forms amongst a slightly different meaning. For example, wändəmm 'brother' tin hold out pluralized equally wändəmm-očč 'brothers' but also equally wändəmmam-ač 'brothers of each other'. Likewise, əhət 'sister' tin hold out pluralized equally əhət-očč ('sisters'), but also equally ətəmm-am-ač 'sisters of each other'.
In chemical compound words, the plural mark is suffixed to the 2d noun: betä krəstiyan 'church' (lit. solid of Christian) becomes betä krəstiyan-očč 'churches'.
Amhara man
Archaic forms
Amsalu Aklilu has pointed out that Amharic has inherited a large issue of old plural forms direct from Classical Ethiopic (Ge'ez) (Leslau 1995:172). There are basically 2 archaic pluralizing strategies, called external together with internal plural. The external plural consists of adding the suffix -an (usually masculine) or -at (usually feminine) to the singular form. The internal plural employs vowel character or apophony to pluralize words, similar to English linguistic communication human being vs. men together with goose vs. geese. Sometimes combinations of the 2 systems are found. The archaic plural forms are sometimes used to shape novel plurals, but this is only considered grammatical inwards to a greater extent than established cases.
Examples of the external plural: mämhər 'teacher', mämhər-an; t'äbib 'wise person', t'äbib-an; kahən 'priest', kahən-at; qal 'word', qal-at.
Examples of the internal plural: dəngəl 'virgin', dänagəl; hagär 'land', ahəgur.
Examples of combined systems: nəgus 'king', nägäs-t; kokäb 'star', käwakəb-t; mäs'əhaf 'book', mäs'ahəf-t.
Smiling Amhara immature lady from Ethiopia
Definiteness
If a substantive is definite or specified, this is expressed yesteryear a suffix, the article, which is -u or -w for masculine singular nouns together with -wa, -itwa or -ätwa for feminine singular nouns. For example:
| masculine sg | masculine sg definite | feminine sg | feminine sg definite |
|---|---|---|---|
| bet | bet-u | gäräd | gärad-wa |
| house | the house | maid | the maid |
Accusative
Amharic has an accusative marker, -(ə)n. Its work is related to the definiteness of the object, thus Amharic shows differential object marking. In general, if the object is definite, possessed, or a proper noun, the accusative must hold out used (Leslau 1995: pp. 181 ff.).
| ləǧ-u | wəšša-w-ən | abbarär-ä. | |
| child-def | dog-def-acc | chase-3msSUBJ | |
| 'The kid chased the dog.' | |||
| *ləǧ-u | wəšša-w | abbarär-ä. | |
| child-def | dog-def | chase-3msSUBJ | |
| 'The kid chased the dog.' | |||
The accusative suffix is usually placed after the initiative of all give-and-take of the substantive phrase:
| Yəh-ən | sä’at | gäzz-ä. |
| this-acc | watch | buy-3msSUBJ |
'He bought this watch.'
DialectsThere has non been much published virtually Amharic dialect differences. All dialects are mutually intelligible, but sure enough modest variations are noted.
Mittwoch described a shape of Amharic spoken yesteryear the descendants of Weyto linguistic communication speakers, but it was probable non a dialect of Amharic so much equally the resultant of incomplete linguistic communication learning equally the community shifted languages from Weyto to Amharic.
Ethiopian Amhara woman
Literature
There is a growing torso of literature inwards Amharic inwards many genres. This literature includes regime proclamations together with records, educational books, religious material, novels, poetry, saying collections, dictionaries (monolingual together with bilingual), technical manuals, medical topics, etc. The Holy Bible was initiative of all translated into Amharic yesteryear Abu Rumi inwards the early 19th century, but other translations of the Bible into Amharic have got been done since. The most famous Amharic novel is Fiqir Iske Meqabir (transliterated diverse ways) yesteryear Haddis Alemayehu (1909–2003), translated into English linguistic communication yesteryear Sisay Ayenew amongst the championship Love unto Crypt, published inwards 2005 (ISBN 978-1-4184-9182-6).
Amhara girl
Rastafari movement
The etymology of the give-and-take Rastafari comes from Amharic. Ras Täfäri was the pre-regnal championship of Haile Selassie I, composed of the Amharic words Ras (literally "Head", an Ethiopian championship equivalent to duke), together with Haile Selassie's pre-regnal name, Tafari.
Many Rastafarians acquire Amharic equally a 2d language, equally they consider it to hold out a sacred language. After Haile Selassie’s 1966 see to Jamaica, report circles inwards Amharic were organized inwards Jamaica equally constituent of the ongoing exploration of Pan-African identity together with culture. Various reggae artists inwards the 1970s, including Ras Michael, Lincoln Thompson together with Misty-in-Roots, have got sung inwards Amharic, thus bringing the linguistic communication to a wider audience. The Abyssinians have got also used Amharic most notably inwards the vocal Satta Massagana. The championship was believed to hateful "Give thanks" yet this phrase is incorrect. Säţţä agency "he gave" together with the give-and-take amässägänä for "thanks" or "praise" agency "he thanked" or "he praised". The right way to say "give thanks" inwards Amharic is 1 word, misgana. The give-and-take "satta" has go a mutual human face inwards Rastafari vocabulary pregnant "to sit down downwards together with partake".
Amhara adult woman from Rthiopia
History
Amhara descendants of ancient Semitic conquerors who migrated southward to mingled amongst indigenous Cushitic peoples (Oromos) built the powerful ancient Kingdom of Aksum inwards Ethiopia. They claim ancestry through Shem the eldest boy of biblical Noah together with describe their lineage all the way to King Solomon together with the Queen of Sheba; aw good equally the legendary ancient King Menelik I.
There is a tape of hunting expeditions yesteryear the Ptolemean rulers of Arab Republic of Egypt inwards Ethiopia.
Lebna Dengel, nəgusä nägäst (Emperor) of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with a fellow member of the Solomonic dynasty.
Ptolemy III (245-222 b.c.) placed at the port of Adulis (near present-day Mesewa) a Greek inscription recording that he captured elephants, together with an inscribed block of stones amongst magical hieroglyphs. At the same port virtually a.d. 60, a Greek merchant named Periplus recorded the importation of atomic issue 26 together with the production of spears for hunting elephants, together with inwards a.d. 350 Aeizana, virile mortal monarch of Aksum, defeated the Nubians together with carried off atomic issue 26 together with bronze from Meroë.
Amhara human being together with Emperor Tewodros II, nəgusä nägäst Founder of Modern Ethiopia.
The Abyssinian tradition of the Solomonic dynasty, equally told inwards the Ge'ez-language volume Kebra Nagast (Honor of the Kings) refers to the dominion of Menilek I, virtually 975-950 b.c. It relates that he was the boy of Makeda, conceived from King Solomon during her see to Jerusalem. Interrupted inwards a.d. 927 yesteryear sovereigns of a Zagwe line, the Solomonic line was restored inwards 1260 together with claimed continuity until Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed inwards 1974. Abyssinian churches are soundless built on the regulation of Solomon's temple of Jerusalem, amongst a Holy of Holies department inwards the interior. Christianity came to Aksum inwards the 4th century a.d., when Greek-speaking Syrians converted the regal family. This strain of Christianity retained a issue of Old Testament rules, some of which are observed to this day: the consumption of pork is forbidden; circumcision of boys takes identify virtually a calendar week after birth; upper-level priests consider Sabbatum a twenty-four hr flow of rest, 2d only to Sunday; weddings preferably pick out identify on Sunday, so that the presumed deflowering, after nightfall, is considered to have got taken identify on the eve of Monday. Ecclesiastic dominion over Abyssinia was administered early yesteryear the archbishop of Alexandria, detached only after World War II. At the Council of Chalcedon inwards a.d. 451, the theological Monophysites of Alexandria, including the Abyssinians, had broken away from the European church; hence the designation "Coptic."
The spread of Islam to regions surrounding it produced relative isolation inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from the 7th to the sixteenth centuries. During this period, the Solomonic dynasty was restored inwards 1260 inwards the province of Shewa yesteryear King Yekuno Amlak, who extended his realm from Abyssinia to some Cuchitic-speaking lands southward together with east. Amharic developed out of this linguistic blend. From fourth dimension to time, Europeans heard rumors of a Prester John, a Christian virile mortal monarch on the other side of the Muslim world. Using a vast issue of serfs on feudal church building territories, Abuna (archbishop) Tekle Haymanot built churches together with monasteries, often on easily defensible hilltops, such equally Debra Líbanos monastery inwards Shewa, which is soundless the most of import inwards Ethiopia.
With the Muslim conquest of somali solid reason inwards 1430, the band around Abyssinia was complete, together with of late Islamicized Oromo (Galla) seminomadic tribes from the southward invaded through the Rift Valley, burning churches together with monasteries. Some manuscripts together with church building paintings had to hold out hidden on islands on Lake Tana. When a 2d moving ridge of invaders came, equipped amongst Turkish firearms, the Shewan virile mortal monarch Lebna Dengel sent a immature Armenian to Portugal to solicit aid. Before it could arrive, the Oromo leader Mohammed Grañ ("the lefthanded") attacked amongst the assist of Arabs from Yemen, Somalis, together with Danakils together with proceeded equally far N equally Aksum, which he razed, killing the virile mortal monarch inwards battle inwards 1540. His children together with the clergy took refuge on together with N of Lake Tana. One yr later, Som Christofo Da Gama landed at Mesewa amongst 450 Portuguese musketeers; the slain king's son, Galaudeos (Claudius), fought on until he died inwards battle. The tide turned, however, together with inwards 1543 Mohammed Grañ cruel inwards battle.
Shewa nevertheless remained settled yesteryear Oromo, who learned the agriculture of the region. The regal household unit of measurement had only a tent metropolis inwards what became the town of Gonder. There the Portuguese built bridges together with castles, together with Jesuits began to convert the regal household unit of measurement to Roman Christianity. King Za Dengel was the initiative of all regal convert, but the Monophysite clergy organized a rebellion that led to his removal. His successor, King Susneos, had also been converted but was careful non to urge his people to convert; shortly earlier his expiry inwards 1632, he proclaimed religious freedom for all his subjects.
Amhara people
The novel king, Fasilidas (1632-1667), expelled the Portuguese together with restored the privileges of the Monophysite clergy. He—and afterwards his boy together with grandson—employed workmen trained yesteryear the Portuguese to build the castles that stand upwards to this day. Special walled paths shielded the regal household unit of measurement from mutual sight, but the king, piece sitting nether a fig tree, judged cases brought earlier him. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 stone-lined H2O puddle was constructed nether his balcony, together with a mausoleum entombed his favorite horse. All these structures soundless exist. But the skills of stonemasonry afterwards cruel into disuse; warfare required mobility, which necessitated the formation of military machine tent cities. Portuguese viticulture was also lost (though the call of the middle elevation remains "Woyna Dega"), together with the clergy had to import raisins to create sacramental wine.
Gonder had been abandoned yesteryear the Solomonic line when a usurping commoner chieftain, Kassa, chose it equally the location to have got himself crowned King Theodore inwards 1855. He defeated the virile mortal monarch of Shewa together with held the dynastic heir, the man child Menilek II, hostage at his court. Theodore realized the urgency of uniting the many ethnic groups of the solid reason into a nation, to foreclose Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia from losing its independence to European colonial powers. Thinking that all Europeans knew how to manufacture cannons, Theodore invited unusual technicians and, at first, fifty-fifty welcomed unusual missionaries. But when the latter proved unable to cast cannons for him together with fifty-fifty criticized his often violent behavior, he jailed together with chained British missionaries. This led to the Lord Napier expedition, which was welcomed together with assisted yesteryear the population of Tigray Province. When the fort of Magdalla fell, Theodore committed suicide. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 conservative Tigray chief, Yohannes, was crowned at Aksum.
In 1889 the Muslim mahdi took reward of the disarray inwards Ethiopia; he razed Gonder together with devastated the subprovince of Dembeya, causing a severe together with prolonged famine. Meanwhile, the Shewan dynastic heir, Menilek II, had grown to manhood together with realized that Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia could no longer isolate itself if it were to retain independence. He proceeded, amongst patient persistence, to unify the country. As an Amhara from Shewa, he understood his Oromo neighbors together with won their loyalty amongst solid reason grants together with military machine alliances. He negotiated a settlement amongst the Tigray. He equipped his forces amongst firearms from whatever source, some fifty-fifty from the Italians (in telephone substitution for granting them territory inwards Eritrea).
His policies were so successful that he managed to defeat the Italian invasion at Adwa, inwards 1896, an trial that placed Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on the international map diplomatically. Empress Taitu liked the hot mineral springs of a district inwards Shewa, fifty-fifty though it was inwards an Oromo region, together with the emperor thence agreed to build his working capital alphabetic character there, naming it "Addis Ababa" (new flower). When expanding Addis Ababa threatened to exhaust the local fuel supply, Menilek ordered the importation of eucalyptus trees from Australia, which grew chop-chop during each three-month rainy season.
Menilek II died inwards 1913, together with his immature lady Zauditu became nominal head; a 2d cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, became regent together with was crowned King of Kings Haile Selassie I inwards 1930. He made it possible for Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to bring together the League of Nations inwards 1923, yesteryear outlawing the slave trade. One of his initiative of all acts equally emperor was to grant his subjects a written constitution. He allied himself yesteryear union to the Oromo virile mortal monarch of Welo Province. When Mussolini invaded Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards 1935, Emperor Haile Selassie appeared inwards Geneva to plead his instance earlier the League, alert that his solid reason would non hold out the in conclusion victim of aggression. The Italian job ended inwards 1941 amongst give upwards to the British together with homecoming of the emperor. During succeeding decades, the emperor promoted an educated elite together with sought assistance from the United States, rather than the British, inwards diverse fields. Beginning inwards virtually 1960, a young, educated generation of Ethiopians grew increasingly impatient amongst the slowness of development, especially inwards the political sphere. At the same time, the aging emperor, who was suffering retentiveness loss, was losing his powerfulness to maintain control. In 1974 he was deposed, together with he died a yr later. The revolutionary committees, claiming to follow a Marxist ideology, formed military machine dictatorships that deported villagers nether conditions of corking suffering together with executed students together with each other without legal trials. Dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam fled Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia inwards May 1991 equally Eritrean together with Tigrayan rebel armies approached from the north. The solid reason remains largely rural; traditional civilization patterns together with agency of survival are the norm.
Settlements
The typical rural settlement is the hamlet, tis, called mender if several are linked on 1 large hill. The hamlet may consist of 2 to a dozen huts. Thus, the hamlet is often footling to a greater extent than than an isolated or semi-isolated farmstead, together with some other hamlet may hold out unopen yesteryear if their plowed fields are near. Four factors appear to create upwards one's heed where a hamlet is probable to hold out situated: ecological considerations, such equally H2O within a woman's walking distance, or available pasturage for the flock; kinship considerations—persons within a hamlet are nearly e'er related together with shape a household unit of measurement economical community; administrative considerations, such equally inherited household unit of measurement ownership of land, tenancy of solid reason belonging to a feudal lord of onetime times, or continuing understanding amongst the nearby church building that had held the solid reason equally a fief upwards to 1975 together with continues to have constituent of the crop inwards telephone substitution for its services; together with ethnic considerations. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 hamlet may hold out alone inhabited yesteryear Falasha blacksmiths together with pottery makers or Faqi tanners. Most of the Falasha have got directly left Ethiopia.
To avoid existence flooded during the rainy season, settlements are typically built on or close hilltops. There is usually a valley inwards between, where brooks or irrigation canals shape the border for planted fields. The hillsides, if non terrace farmed, serve equally pasturage for all hamlets on the hill. Not only sheep together with goats, but also cows, climb over fairly steep, bushy hillsides to feed. Carrying H2O together with branches for fuel is soundless considered a woman's job, together with she may have got to climb for several hours from the nearest year-round H2O supply. The hamlet is usually patrilocal together with patrilineal. When union occurs, usually early inwards life, a boy may have work of constituent of his father's rented (or owned) acre together with build his hut nearby. If no solid reason is available owing to fragmentation, the boy may reluctantly hold out compelled to found himself at the bride's hamlet. When warfare has killed off the adult males inwards a hamlet, in-laws may also hold out able to displace in. Some hamlets are fenced inwards yesteryear thorn bushes against night-roving hyenas together with to corral cattle. Calves together with the household unit of measurement mule may hold out taken into the living hut at night. There is usually at to the lowest degree 1 vehement reddish-brown domestic dog inwards each hamlet.
Economy
Much Amhara ingenuity has long been invested inwards the direct exploitation of natural resources. An Amhara would rather pass equally much fourth dimension equally necessary searching for suitably shaped hard or soft saplings for a walking cane than perform carpentry, which is traditionally largely limited to constructing the master copy bed (alga ), wooden saddles, together with unproblematic musical instruments. Soap is obtained yesteryear crushing the fruit of the endod (Pircunia abyssinica ) bush. Tannin for depilation of hides together with curing is obtained from the yellowish fruit of the embway bush. Butter is preserved together with perfumed yesteryear boiling it amongst the leaves of the odes (myrtle) bush. In times of crop failure, edible fossil oil is obtained yesteryear gathering together with crushing wild-growing sunflower seeds (Carthamus tinctorus ). If necessary, leaves of the lola bush tin hold out split yesteryear women to bake the festive breadstuff dabbo. The dear of a small, tiny-stingered bee (Apis dorsata ) is gathered to create alcoholic mead, tej, whereas the dear of the wild bee tazemma (Apis Africans miaia ) is gathered to care for colds together with ticker ailments. Fishing is mostly limited to the three-month rainy season, when rivers are total together with the H2O is soiled from runoff so that the fish cannot consider the fishers. Hunting elephants used to hold out a sport of immature feudal nobles, but hunting for ivory took identify largely inwards non-Amhara regions. Since rifles became available inwards Amhara farming regions, Ethiopian duikers together with guinea fowl have got nearly disappeared.
„A immature shepherd man child rugs upwards inwards the Simien Mountains, Amhara“. yesteryear Lonely Planet Images
Subsistence farming provides the main economic scheme for most rural Amhara. The traditional method required much solid reason to prevarication fallow because no fertilization was applied. Cattle manure is formed into apartment cakes, Sun dried, together with used equally fuel for cooking. New land, if available, is cleared yesteryear the slash-and-burn method. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 wooden scratch turn amongst a pointed atomic issue 26 tip, pulled yesteryear oxen, is the main farming tool. Insecurity of solid reason tenure has long been a major factor inwards discouraging Amhara farmers from producing to a greater extent than than the amount required for subsistence. The sharecropping peasant (gabbar ) was footling to a greater extent than than a serf who feared the (often absentee) feudal landlord or military machine quartering that would absorb whatever surplus. The revolutionary regime (1975-1991) added additional fears yesteryear its villagization program, moving peasants at command to facilitate province command together with deporting peasants to the southward of Ethiopia, where many perished owing to pitiable regime planning together with support.
The preferred crop of the Amhara is tyeff (Eragrostis abyssinica; Poa abyssinica ), the little seeds of which are rich inwards iron. At lower or drier elevations, several sorghums (durras) are grown: mashella (Andropogon sorghum), often mixed amongst the costlier tyeff blossom to bake the flapjack breadstuff injera; zengada (Eleusina multiforme), grown equally crop insurance; together with dagussa (Eleusine coracana, or tocusso ), used equally an ingredient inwards beer together amongst barley. Wheat (Triticum spp.), sendē, is grown inwards higher elevations together with is considered a luxury. Barley (Hordeum spp.), gebs, is a year-round crop, used primarily for brewing talla, a mild beer, or to popular a parched grain, gebs qolo, a ready snack kept available for guests. Maize, bahēr mashella, is recognized equally a foreign-introduced crop.
Amhara farmers
The most of import vegetable fossil oil derives from nug (Guizotia abyssinica ), the dark Niger seed, together with from talba (Linum usitatissimum ), flax seed. Cabbage (gomen ) is regarded equally a pitiable food. Chick-peas are appreciated equally a staple that is non expected to neglect fifty-fifty inwards state of war together with famine; they are consumed during the Lenten season, equally are peas. Onions together with garlic are grown equally ingredients for wot, the spicy stew that also contains beans, may include chicken, together with e'er features spicy carmine peppers—unless sick heath prevents their consumption. Lentils substitute for meat during fasting periods. The raising of livestock is traditionally non direct related to available pasture, but to agriculture together with the want for prestige. Oxen are needed to draw the plow, but traditionally in that location was no breeding to obtain practiced milkers. Coffee may grow wild, but the beans are usually bought at a marketplace together with crushed together with boiled inwards front end of guests; salt—but non sugar—may hold out added.
Division of Labor
Although much needed, the castelike skilled occupations similar blacksmithing, pottery making, together with tanning are held inwards depression esteem and, inwards rural regions, are usually associated amongst a socially excluded ethnic grouping. Moreover, ethnic workmanship is suspected of having been acquired yesteryear dealings amongst evil spirits that enable the artisans to turn themselves into hyenas at nighttime to eat corpses, motion diseases yesteryear staring, together with turn humans into donkeys to utilize their labor.
Such fake accusations tin hold out rattling serious. On the other hand, the magic powerfulness accredited to these workers is believed to brand their products strong, whereas those manufactured yesteryear an outsider who mightiness have got learned the merchandise would presently break. The merchandise of weaving is non afflicted yesteryear such suspicions, although it is sometimes associated amongst Muslims or migrants from the south.
Land Tenure
Land tenure amid traditional rural Amhara resembled that of medieval Europe to a greater extent than than that found elsewhere inwards Africa. Feudal institutions required the gabbar to perform labor (hudād ) for his lord together with allocated solid reason work inwards telephone substitution for military machine service, gult. In a scheme resembling the European entail, inheritable land, rest, was dependent to taxation (which could hold out passed on to the sharecroppers) together with to expropriation inwards instance of rebellion against the king. Over the centuries, endowed solid reason was added to fief-holding church building land, together with debber ager. Royal household lands were classified equally mād-bet, together with melkenya solid reason was granted to taxation collectors. Emperor Haile Selassie attempted to alter the feudal scheme early inwards his administration. He defeated feudal armies, but was stymied inwards abrogating feudalistic solid reason tenure, especially inwards the Amhara region, yesteryear feudal lords such equally Ras Kassa. The parliament that he had called into existence had no existent powerfulness All remaining feudal solid reason tenure was abrogated during the revolutionary dictatorship (1975-1991), but feudalistic attitudes practiced yesteryear rural officials, such equally shum shir (frequently moving lower officials to other positions to maintain control), appear to have got persisted.
Kinship
The extended patrilocal, patrilineal, patriarchal household unit of measurement is especially strong amid holders of residuum solid reason tenure, but is found, inwards principle, fifty-fifty on the hamlet plane of sharecroppers. There are several levels of kin, zemed, which also include those yesteryear affinity, amachenet. In thought of the emphasis on seeking safety inwards kinship relations, in that location are also several formal methods of establishing fictive kinship, zemed hone, provided the mortal to hold out adopted is attentam ("of practiced bones," i.e., non of Shanqalla slave ancestry). Full adoption provides a pectus begetter (yetut abbat ) or a pectus woman parent (yetut ennat ). The traditional world ceremony included coating the nipples amongst dear together with simulating breast-feeding, fifty-fifty if the kid was already inwards adolescence.
Beautiful Amhara woman
Marriage together with Family
Marriage. There are iii predominant types of union inwards Amhara tradition. The iii types of union inwards Amhara tradition:
Eucharist church building union (Qurban)
Kin-negotiated civil union (Semanya) and
Temporary union (Damoz)
Only a minority—the priesthood, some older persons, together with nobility—engage inwards eucharistic church building union (qurban ). No divorce is possible. Widows together with widowers may remarry, except for priests, who are instead expected to go monks.
Kin-negotiated civil union (semanya; lit., "eighty") is most common. (Violation of the oath of union used to hold out penalized yesteryear a fine of 80 Maria Theresa thalers.) No church building ceremony is involved, but a priest may hold out nowadays at the marriage to bless the couple. Divorce, which involves the segmentation of belongings together with decision of custody of children, tin hold out negotiated. Temporary union (damoz ) obliges the hubby to pay housekeeper's reward for a flow stated inwards advance. This was felt to hold out an essential organisation inwards an economic scheme where eating seat together with hotel services were non available.
The term is a contraction of demewez, "blood together with sweat" (compensation). The contract, although oral, was earlier witnesses together with was thence enforceable yesteryear courtroom order. The married adult woman had no right of inheritance, but if children were conceived during the contract period, they could brand a claim for constituent of the father's property, should he die. Damoz rights were fifty-fifty recognized inwards modern police during the dominion of Emperor Haile Selassie.
Socialization inwards the domestic unit of measurement begins amongst the naming of the babe (giving him or her the "world name"), a privilege that usually belongs to the mother. She may base of operations it on her predominant emotion at the fourth dimension (e.g., Desta [joy] or Almaz [diamond]), on a important trial occurring at the time, or on a special wishing she may have got for the personality or hereafter of her babe (Seyum, "to hold out appointed to dignity").
Amhara schoolhouse kids
Socialization
Breast-feeding may in conclusion 2 years, during which the nursling is never out of comport on amongst the torso of the woman parent or some other woman. Until they are weaned, at virtually historic flow 7, children are treated amongst permissiveness, inwards contrast to the authoritarian preparation that is to follow. The province of argue together with incipient acre of report begins gradually at virtually historic flow 5 for girls together with 7 for boys. The onetime assist their mothers inwards watching babies together with fetching wood; boys pick out sheep together with cows to pasture and, amongst slingshots, guard crops against birds together with baboons. Both tin hold out questioned inwards courtroom to limited preferences concerning guardianship inwards instance of their parents' divorce. Neglect of duty is punished yesteryear immediate scolding together with beating.
Formal educational activity inwards the traditional rural church building schoolhouse rarely began earlier historic flow 11 for boys. Hazing patterns to examine courage are mutual amid boys equally they grow up, both physically together with verbally. Girls are enculturated to appear shy, but may play solid amongst boys prior to adolescence. Adolescence is the showtime of stricter obedience for both sexes, compensated yesteryear pride inwards existence assigned greater responsibilities. Young men are addressed equally ashker together with do most of the plowing; yesteryear historic flow 18 they may hold out addressed equally gobez, signifying (strong, handsome) immature warrior. On the Temqet (baptism of Jesus) festival, the immature men encounter each other inwards teams to compete inwards the game of guks, a tournament fought on horseback amongst blunt, wooden lances, inwards which injuries are avoided yesteryear ducking or protecting oneself amongst leather shields. At Christmas, a hockeylike game called genna is played together with celebrated yesteryear boasting (fukkara ). Female adolescents are addressed equally qonjo (beautiful), no longer equally leja-gered (servant maid), unless criticized. Singing loudly inwards groups piece gathering firewood attracts groups of immature men, away from parental supervision. Young men together with women also encounter next the guks together with genna games, wearing novel clothes together with traditional makeup together with hairstyles. Outdoor flirting reaches a peak on Easter (Fassika), at the halt of the dry out season.
Domestic Unit
The traditional historic flow of a immature lady at initiative of all union may hold out equally immature equally 14, to protect her virginity, together with to enable the groom to tame her to a greater extent than easily. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 groom iii to 5 years older than the bride is preferred. To protect the bride against excessive violence, she is assigned 2 best men, who hold off behind a mantle equally the union is consummated; later, she may telephone band on them inwards instance of batter.
The term shemagelyē signifies an elderberry together with connotes seriousness, wisdom, together with command of human relations within the residential kin grouping or beyond. He may hold out 40 years of historic flow together with already a grandfather. There is no automatic equivalency for elderberry women, but they tin pick out the qob of a nun together with go along to alive at dwelling solid piece working inwards the churchyard, baking breadstuff together with brewing beer for the priests. Only women yesteryear menopause, usually widows, are accepted equally nuns yesteryear the Monophysite Aybssinian church. Younger women are non considered sufficiently serious to hold out able to deny their sexual practice drives.
Inheritance patterns:
Though the potency of the household caput is thus relatively independent of kinship ties, the land-use rights on which the household equally an economical unit of measurement relies are not, for plots of solid reason together with potential rights to additional plots are inherited bilaterally—that is, yesteryear sons together with daughters (or their husbands or children) through both parents.
Amhara elders
In Amhara theory these actual together with potential rights, both of which are termed rist, are rights to a portion of the solid reason initiative of all held yesteryear an illustrious ancestor (a principal ancestor or wanna abbat ) whose call the solid reason soundless bears. The arable lands inwards older Amhara regions are these ancestral blocks, which vary from 1 one-half to 2 or iii foursquare kilometers inwards area. In Amhara legal theory rist rights inwards these lands are the inalienable together with inextinguishable birthright of all the initiative of all ancestor’s descendant’s inwards all lines, regardless of whether or non the rights were utilized yesteryear intermediate lineal ancestors inwards the claimant’s pedigree. In fact, most claims are forgotten.
Amhara girl
Though rist solid reason rights are “hereditary,” the amount of solid reason a human being tin command yesteryear virtue of these rights is dependent, to a higher identify all, on his political influence; together with solid reason work rights over plots are considered to hold out held yesteryear individuals.
Amhara family
Social organisation is linked to solid reason tenure of kinfolk, feudalistic traditions together with the church, ethnic segmentation of labor, gender, together with historic flow status. The peasant grade is divided betwixt landowning farmers, who, fifty-fifty though they have got no formal political power, tin thwart distant regime powerfulness yesteryear their rural remoteness, pitiable roads, together with weight of numbers, together with the sharecroppers, who have got no such powerfulness against local landlords. Fear of a mortal who engages inwards a skilled occupation, tebib (lit., "the knowing one," to whom supernatural secrets are revealed), enters into grade stratification, especially for blacksmiths, pottery makers, together with tanners. They are despised equally members of a lower caste, but their products are needed, together with thence they are tolerated. Below them on the social scale are the descendants of slaves who used to hold out imported from the negroid Shanqalla of the Sudanese border, or the Nilotic Barya, so that both damage became synonymous amongst "slave."
Social command is traditionally maintained, together with conflict situations are resolved, inwards accordance amongst the powerfulness hierarchy. Judges interpret laws subjectively together with brand no sudden distinction betwixt civil together with criminal procedures. In add-on to written Abyssinian together with church building laws, in that location are unwritten codes, such equally the payment of blood coin to the kin of a murder victim. An aggrieved mortal could appeal to a higher potency yesteryear lying prostrate inwards his path together with shouting "abyet" (hear me). Contracts did non have got to hold out written, provided in that location were reliable witnesses. To obtain a loan or a job, a personal guarantor (was ) is necessary, together with the was tin also human activity equally bondsman to maintain an defendant out of jail. The drama of litigation, to verbalise good inwards court, is much appreciated. Even children enact it amongst the proper torso linguistic communication of pointing a toga at the justice to emphasize the speech.
Amhara girl
The religious belief of most Amhara is Monophysite--that is, Tewahedo (Orthodox)--Christianity, to such an extent that the term "Amhara" is used synonymously amongst "Abyssinian Christian." Christian Amhara have on a bluish cervix cord (METEB), to distinguish themselves from Muslims.
There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs.
Ethiopian Church priest together with his censer. (Timkat ceremony) at northern Ethiopia
First, in that location is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, together with the saints together with angels inwards Heaven. Second, in that location are the zar together with the adbar spirits, “protectors” who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical together with emotional safety together with who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the practise of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a grade of people who possess the evil eye, together with who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendents of God’s “chosen children.” The 4th category of beliefs includes the [unknown]ciraq together with satan, ghouls together with devils that prowl the countryside, creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 2d of import influence inwards the evolution of Amhara civilization was heralded yesteryear the introduction of Christianity during the 4th century. These initiative of all missionaries were men from the eastern Mediterranean and, after the corking schism announced at Chalcedon, the Ethiopian Church continued its ties amongst the Orthodox faction, equally a dependency of the Coptic See of Alexandria. The success of Islam, sweeping across Arab Republic of Egypt together with Nubia, severely limited contact betwixt the Abyssinian highland together with the residuum of Christendom. In consequence, the evolution of the Ethiopian Coptic Church and, ultimately, of its human relationship to Amhara civilization has been to a greater extent than substantially influenced yesteryear autochthonous forces than would otherwise have got been the case.
The influence of the Church is nowhere to a greater extent than apparent than inwards a review of Amhara art. The Amhara have got no concept which approximates “art” equally it is used inwards English, together with each of the varieties of Amhara graphic art—Church painting, occult drawing, together with tattooing—is considered discrete, a distinctive musical instrument to accomplish particular ends. Painting, for example, is largely didactic, depicting biblical scenes together with personages, episodes from the lives of the saints together with the history of the Church. In a trend of obvious Byzantine affinity, the painter sets these motifs inwards contiguous panels upon the muslin-faced walls together with ceilings of highland churches.
The mystical drawing is known inwards Amharic equally telsem (cognate of the English linguistic communication “talisman”) together with differs radically from the church building icon inwards form, intent, together with production. Ethiopian talismans, sewn into a leather amulet together amongst the appropriate herbal ingredients, are worn to ward off the numerous satans, persecutors of human being together with foes of the Church, who alive inwards the forests, lakes, together with rivers of the countryside together with inwards the hearth ashes together with beer dregs of the home. Both the church building painter together with talisman drawer are ecclesiastics, since a religious educational activity is the sole agency of acquiring the literacy together with special noesis required yesteryear these endeavors. Indeed, the paintings together with drawings accompanying this article are the operate of a unmarried private who lives inwards Gondar town (about xxx miles N of Lake Tana), national working capital alphabetic character during the seventeenth together with eighteenth centuries.
Amhara people
Ceremonies
Ceremonies often score the annual bike for the public, despite the sacredotal emphasis of the religion. The calendar of Abyssinia is Julian, but the yr begins on 11 September, next ancient Egyptian usage, together with is called amete mehrāt (year of grace). Thus, the Abyssinian yr 1948 a.m. corresponds roughly amongst the Gregorian (Western) a.d. 1956.
The novel yr begins amongst the calendar month of Meskerem, which follows the rainy flavour together with is named after the initiative of all religious holy twenty-four hr flow of the year, Mesqel-abeba, celebrating the Feast of the Cross. On the seventeenth day, huge poles are stacked upwards for the bonfire inwards the evening, amongst much world parading, dancing, together with feasting. By contrast, Christmas (Ledet) has footling social significance except for the genna game of the immature men. Far to a greater extent than of import is Epiphany (Temqet), on the eleventh twenty-four hr flow of Ter. Ceremonial parades escort the priests who send the tabot, symbolic of the holy ark, on their heads, to a H2O pool. There are all-night services, world feasting, together with prayers for plentiful rains.
Amhara Boy From Bahir Dar, West Gojam, Amhara Region inwards Ethiopia
This is the halt of the genna flavour together with the showtime of the guks tournaments fought on horseback yesteryear the immature men. The long Lenten flavour is approaching, together with clergy equally good equally the world seem forrad to the feasting at Easter (Fassika), on the seventeenth twenty-four hr flow of Miyazya. Children have novel clothes together with collect gifts, chanting solid to house. Even the voluntary fraternal association mehabber is said to have got originated from the practise of private communion. Members pick out turns equally hosts at monthly meetings, drinking barley beer together amongst the confessor-priest, who intones prayers. Members are expected to human activity equally a mutual assist society, raising regular contributions, extending loans, fifty-fifty paying for the tazkar (formal memorial service) 40 days after a member's death, if his household unit of measurement cannot afford it.
Amhara people
When expiry is approaching, elderberry kin of the dying mortal convey the confessor, together with the in conclusion volition concerning inheritance is pronounced. Fields are given to patrilineal descendants, cattle to all offspring. Personal belongings, such equally ox cover mats together with a SHAMMA (toga), may hold out given to the confessor, who administers in conclusion rites together with assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard.
The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a SHAMMA, carried to church building for the mass, together with buried, traditionally without a mark except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief amongst loud keening together with wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk acquire inwards to console the relatives of the deceased. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 memorial feast (TAZKAR) is held 40 days after death, when the soul has the earliest chance to hold out freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the FETET, the prayer for absolution, together with materials, food, together with imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (DASS) is erected, together with fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate together with eat equally much TALLA together with WOT equally available.
Clothing/Costume
Whether it is at a church building service or at court, on the trail or inwards the privacy of the homestead, decorous together with elaborate forms of speech, dress, together with gesture are employed yesteryear the Amhara to limited toward 1 some other appropriate degrees of subordination together with superordination. In virtually all of these situations it is possible (with adequate knowledge) to discern a pattern of ranking, an ordered divergence inwards the amount of deference that people give together with receive. An accidental or transitional lapse inwards this orientation causes the Amhara discomfort or embarrassment. There is a instant of confusion or deliberate “not noticing” piece people rearrange their positioning together with their wearable so equally to satisfactorily reorder the scene amongst regard to the main sources of secular or sacred authority.
Amhara adult woman wearing traditional Amhara dress
Food
The Amhara similar other Ethiopian staple foods are mainly their grains, which are Tef, Barley, together with Emmer Wheat. Grains are grinded inwards the dwelling solid or inwards a local mill, amongst the latter choice existence to a greater extent than together with to a greater extent than common. These grains are made into a breadstuff called injera. Injera is a thin, pancake-like, sour, leavened bread. Which grain is used depends on which is the main crop inwards a specific area. Injera has been made yesteryear the people of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia since at to the lowest degree 100 B.C. This breadstuff is usually accompanied yesteryear a sauce called wot. Some mutual types of wat are geyy wat, dorro wat together with allicha wat. Pictured below is Doro Wat. This is the national dish of Ethiopia.
Food items of flora beginning are cereals, legumes, vegetables, tubers, spices, oilseeds, together with fruit. Cereals consist of teff, corn, sorghum, barley wheat together with millet. The most mutual legumes are chickpeas, acre peas, lentils, together with broad beans. The most mutual vegetables are onions, kale, pumpkins, together with greenish chickpeas. The most mutual tubers are potatoes, sweetness potatoes, galla potatoes. Spices are extremely of import together with the most of import are chili together with bird’s-eye chili. These spices are used inwards the spice mixtures berberre together with mitmitta. Additionally the oilseeds of niger flax, sunflowers, together with safflowers are together with of import cash crop together with fruit is non grown inwards large quantities. The most mutual fruits are lemons together with bananas.
Gondar, Amhara Region, Ethiopia: injera amongst meat - Ethiopian food
Food items of brute beginning consist of milk, cow, sheep, or goat, chicken, fish. Ethiopian people do non eat pork. Milk is mainly given to little children together with it is used to brand sour milk, butter together with low-fat sour-milk cheese. The wealthy grade tin afford meats but the bulk of the population only tin serve meat at ceremonial occasions.
In addition, Coffee is some other nutrient staple inwards Ethiopia. Drinking java is the most of import social constituent amid the women inwards a hamlet together with inwards some institutions. Women should non hold out disturbed during their java drinking hours. Coffee is usually served amongst a little snack, such equally toasted cereals, legumes, or a slice injera. The potable for weekdays is the local beer called tella together with for feasts it is dear vino called tejj. It is considered polite to serve a potable drinking glass so total that it overflows, together with also to serve a 2d drinking glass equally presently equally the initiative of all is finished.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Christians participate in fasts. The fasting rules dictate that nutrient should non include whatever brute origin, amongst the exception of fish. Therefore, the main ingredient inwards the wot has to hold out of vegetable origin. Fish is to a greater extent than often than non equally good expensive for the bulk of people inwards Ethiopia; thence they eat nutrient mainly based of vegetable origins.
Adornment (beads, feathers, lip plates, etc.):
Many designs are specific for torso surface area together with ailment; the zigzag, for example, customarily appears equally multiple necklaces together with is directed against goiter. Other patterns may hold out inscribed on several areas; circles together with crucifixes appear on forehead together with temples to foreclose recurrent headaches, on the forearm for musculus paralysis, together with at joints for rheumatism.
Amhara girl
The effectiveness of the designs is yesteryear agency of an unknown modus vivendi, together with excogitation is discouraged on this account. Cosmetic together with medical motives are ofttimes hard to distinguish from 1 another: Prophylactic together with therapeutic tattoos on human face upwards together with pharynx are often regarded equally fortuitously enhancing the bearer’s beauty.
Amhara girl
Similarly, essentially decorative tattooing is sometimes given a secondary, prophylactic, rationale; the “beaded ankle” motif, for example, is believed to attract the witch’s evil optic away from the vulnerable oral cavity area.
Amhara adult woman from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia amongst her forehead tattooed inwards Cross design
Arts
Verbal arts—such equally bedanya agree (speaking good earlier a judge)—are highly esteemed inwards full general Amhara culture, but in that location is a pronounced grade distinction betwixt the oral communication of the rustic peasant, balager (hence belegē, unpolished, sometimes fifty-fifty vulgar), together with chowa lij, upper-class speech. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 farther differentiation within the latter is the oral communication of those whose traditional educational activity has included sewassow (Ge'ez: grammar; lit., "ladder," "uplifting"), which is fully mastered mainly yesteryear church building scholars; the speeches of onetime emperor Haile Selassie, who had also mastered sewas-sow, impressed the average layperson equally esoteric together with hard to understand, together with thence all the to a greater extent than to hold out respected. In the arts of politeness, veiled mockery, puns amongst double meanings, such equally semmena-worq (wax together with gold), fifty-fifty partial noesis of grammer is an advantage. The draping of the toga (shamma) is used at courtroom together with other occasions to emphasize spoken words, or to communicate fifty-fifty without speech. It is draped differently to limited social status inwards deference to a mortal of high status, on different occasions, together with fifty-fifty to limited moods ranging from outgoing together with expansive to calm sobriety, to sadness, reserve, pride, social distance, desperate pleading, religious devotion, together with so on. Artistic human face inwards the fine arts had long been linked to the church, equally inwards paintings, together with sponsorship yesteryear feudal lords who could afford it, especially when giving feasts celebrated amongst a diversity of musical instruments.
Medicine.
The basic concepts together with practices of Amhara medicine tin hold out traced to ancient Arab Republic of Egypt together with the ancient Near East together with tin also hold out attributed to regional ecological links within Ethiopia. Often no sudden distinctions are made betwixt bodily together with spiritual ailments, but in that location are special occupations: the woggesha (surgeon-herbologist) is a pragmatist inwards practice; the debtera (scribe) invokes the spirit world. The latter is officially or unofficially linked to the church, but the zar cult is apart together with may fifty-fifty hold out woman mortal dominated. Its spirit healing has a complex cosmology; it involves the social status of the patient together with includes grouping therapy. The primary zar Dr. is often a matriarch who entered the profession when she herself was possessed yesteryear a spirit; she has managed to command some powerful spirits that she tin together with so employ inwards her battles to overcome the spirits that possess her patients. No cure is expected, only command through negotiation together with appeasement of the offended spirit, inwards the promise of turning it into a weqabi (protective spirit).
Many men consider the zar cult effeminate together with consult its doctors yesteryear stealth only, at night. Husbands may resent the fiscal outlays if their wives are patients, but fright the wives' relapse into hysterical or catatonic states. Women, whose participation inwards the Abyssinian church building is severely limited, uncovering human face inwards the zar cult. The zar doctors at Gonder handgrip their annual convention on the twenty-third nighttime of the calendar month of Yekatit, but earlier the showtime of the Monophysite Christian Lent (Kudade; lit., "suffering"). There is much chanting, dancing, drumming, together with consumption of diverse drinks at the love feasts of the zars. Poor patients who are unable to pay amongst coin or commodities tin operate off their debts inwards labor service to the cult—waitressing, weaving baskets, fetching H2O together with fuel, brewing barley beer, together with so forth. They are to a greater extent than often than non analyzed yesteryear the zar Dr. equally existence possessed yesteryear a low-status zar spirit.
By contrast, possession yesteryear an evil spirit (buda ) is considered to a greater extent than serious together with less manageable than possession yesteryear a zar, together with in that location is no cult. An travail is made to foreclose it yesteryear wearing amulets together with avoiding tebib persons, who are skilled inwards trades similar blacksmithing together with pottery making. Since these spirits are believed to strike beautiful or successful persons, such individuals—especially if they are children—must non hold out praised out loud. If a mortal sickens together with wastes away, an exorcism yesteryear the church building may hold out attempted, or a tanqway (divinersorcerer) may hold out consulted; however, the latter recourse is considered risky together with shameful.
Death together with Afterlife
When an elderberry is close death, other elders from his kin grouping convey the confessor together with say to him, "Confess yourself." Then they enquire him for his in conclusion will—what to exit to his children together with what for his soul (the church). The confessor gives in conclusion rites and, after death, assigns a burial identify inwards the churchyard. The corpse is washed, wrapped inwards a shamma, carried to church building for the mass, together with buried, traditionally without a mark except for a circle of rocks. Women limited grief amongst loud keening together with wailing. This is repeated when kinfolk acquire inwards to console. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 memorial feast (tazkar) is held 40 days after the expiry of a human being or a woman, when the soul has the earliest chance to hold out freed from purgatory. Preparations for this feast set about at the fourth dimension of the funeral: coin is provided for the priest to recite the fetet, the prayer for absolution, together with materials, food, together with imbibe are accumulated. It is often the greatest unmarried economical expenditure of an individual's lifetime and, hence, a major social event. For the feasting, a large, rectangular shelter (dass ) is erected, together with fifty-fifty distant kin are expected to participate together with eat equally much talla together with wot equally available.
Source:http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Amhara.aspx
A BRIEF NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF THE AMARA AND OROMO
By Fikre Tolossa
I gave my give-and-take in conclusion nighttime to Ato Zewge Fanta together with Wondimu Mekonnen that I would provide briefly the genealogy of the Amara. This information is based on on my reading of Ethiopian history together with Metsehafe Djan Shewa, (an ancient Ethiopian manuscript inwards Geez discovered yesteryear Meri Ras Aman Belay, inwards the ruins of an Ethiopian church building inwards Nubia, a constituent of the Ethiopian Empire) which has been, translated into Amharic, abridged together with published equally Metsehafe Subae yesteryear the discoverer himself. According to this ancient manuscript, both the Amara together with the Oromo are the descendants of 1 human being or father- Melchizedek, King of Salem the highest priest of God on Earth, founder of Jerusalem to whom Abraham together with other kings bowed together with paid tithes to have his blessings.
About 2000 years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ, God ordered Melchizedek to send his boy Ethel who was named equally Ethiop afterwards on yesteryear God, to go together with settle inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia at the islands of Lake Tana, the source of the River Nile. God sent Ethel (meaning the gift of God) to Ethiopia, so that when God (Jesus Christ) is born equally a human existence 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethel would convey him to Bethlehem Ethiopian gifts such equally yellowish gold, myrrh together with incense, led yesteryear a star which would appear inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to Pb them to Bethlehem. Accordingly Ethel went to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with settled inwards what is today known equally Gojjam. God changed his call from Ethel to "Ethiop" pregnant "the gift of yellowish aureate to God". Thus, non only Ethel became Ethiop, but the solid reason inwards which he settled also started to hold out called "Ethiopia". Lo together with behold, 2000 years later, the descendants of Ethiop became 12 kings inwards the together with so Ethiopian Empire. They headed for Bethlehem amongst gifts led yesteryear the star which God had said would Pb them. Now Ethiop begat xiii children- 10 boys together with iii girls. The boys were: Atiba, Bior, Biora, Temna, Ater, Ashan, Azib, Berissa, Tesbi, Tola (by the way, the call of my uncle, the blood brother of my begetter Tolossa, was Tola.), together with Azeb. The girls were, Loza, Milka together with Suba. All of them became the fathers together with mothers of many, many Ethiopian tribes. Out of the 10 boys of Ethiop, I volition pick out only the line of 1 of them- the line of Bior together with exhibit that the Amara together with Oromo descend from him. Ethiop begat Bior, Bior begat Aram, Aram begat Nage who begat Hage, who begat Biora, who begat Belam (a prophet inwards the Sinai who prophesied the Birth of Jesus equally a Star.
He is inwards the Bible known equally Baalam), Belam begat Keramid, who begat Shemshel (a female, corking prophetess who was able to enhance the dead). Shemshel begat Deshet. Her boy Deshet too, became a major prophet who designed the Zodiac which was taken out of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with did spread elsewhere inwards the world. Deshet, piece meditating at the Bank of the River Nile virtually 15 hundred years earlier the nativity of Jesus Christ saw inwards the foam of the River a vision of Mary, Jesus together with the Star, that would Pb his descendants to Bethlehem, together with drew them on a tablet together with passed the tablet to them. Now Deshet begat 4 sons who became the fathers of many Ethiopian tribes including the Amara together with the Oromo. They are: Maji, Jimma, Mendi together with Medebai. Maji begat Mara (Amara) together with Jema or Jama (the people who settled at the River Jema inwards today's Shoa, a river they named after their tribe. The Jamacans of Jamaica were captured yesteryear Ahmed Gragn when they fought him fiercely, taken from there, sold equally slaves to Arabs who sold them to European slave traders, who sold them inwards Jamaica). Jimma begat Geneti, Arerti together with Moren. Out of Medebay descended the Oromo. In fact, earlier the Oromo were called Oromo during the reign of Menelik I virtually 2950 years ago, they used to hold out called Medebay. There are some inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia who are soundless called Medebay retaining their original name. There is a argue why they started existence called "Gala" together with "Oromo" then, but I won't dwell on it now. Later on, the children of Mara began to hold out called "A-mara" or "Ha-mara". The words, "A" together with "Ha" were used equally indicators. Thus the Oromo together with Amara portion the same begetter together with grand father. It is tragic together with unfortunate that the Oromo together with the Amara have got been misled to cope each other inwards the yesteryear together with inwards our time. Both the Oromo together with Amara originated inwards Gojjam. The Oromo didn't come upwards from Asia or Madagascar, equally Aleka Taye together with other ill-informed historians suggest. Later, each tribe split together with spread all over the breath together with length of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia together with fifty-fifty the residuum of Africa to seek out their fortune. In the hateful time, they developed different languages together with cultures. The Oromo became pastoralists. The Amara specialized inwards warfare together with administration. For example, when Axumite was a footling man child he was crowned equally the Pharaoh of Arab Republic of Egypt yesteryear the call of Ramzes. It was the Amara who accompanied him all the way from Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to Arab Republic of Egypt virtually 2850 years agone to protect his throne. About 350,000 Amaras went amongst him to Egypt. Some of them returned to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia only after 1850 years of rest inwards Egypt, accompanying King Lalibela to Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia after his homecoming from exile inwards Jerusalem. They built together amongst the local Agew people, the Rock Hewen Churches of Lalibela. Later, when Axumite found the metropolis of Axum together with became Emperor of Ethiopia, he gave his immature lady Ribla inwards union to King Nabukedenesor of Babylon (today's Iraq). It was the Amara soldiers 1 time again who accompanied Ribla to Iraq. She found a metropolis after her name. The Amara found a metropolis called "Amara" inwards Republic of Iraq after their ain name. The metropolis of "Amara" exists to this twenty-four hr flow inwards Iraq. It was captured yesteryear Shiite Moslems virtually a yr ago. I have got an American paper inwards my possession which printed the capture of the metropolis of "Amara" yesteryear the Shiites. Pertaining to the Amara language, it had already begun to evolve equally far dorsum equally 3000 years ago.In fact, it had existed long earlier Geez. Menelik the I declared Geez equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia virtually 2950 years agone to honour together with empower the Agazi, a tribe he brought from Gaaza which fought for him when Ethiopian tribes warred against him treating him equally a Jewish "keles" who had ambition over the Ethiopian throne. Indeed, it had developed together with evolved to a greater extent than than 3000 years; i.e, a piece earlier Geez was decreed yesteryear Menelik I equally the official linguistic communication of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia yesteryear imposition. For instance, in that location are kings together with throne names that have got Amara names such equally Zerffe together with Sendek-alma inwards the listing of Ethiopian kings who reigned earlier Queen Sheba, woman parent of Menelik I; equally good ancient towns inwards Arab Republic of Egypt known equally Amarna (konjo honin) together with Delta (we are comfortable, nosotros are doing fine), inwards the part inwards which Jesus, Joseph together with Mary found refuge 2000 years ago. When Menelik I was born, the Amara wondered what King Solomon would say virtually his son, Menelik, together with called him "Menelik" (min yilik, abateh?). If the Amara language didn't be over 3000 years ago, how come upwards they called Menelik, "Minyilik" virtually 3000 years ago? I recollect this give-and-take lonely suffices to evidence that Amaregna together with the Amara had existed inwards Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia to a greater extent than than 3000 years ago. This is what I wanted to say for now. If I uncovering time, I volition particular all this inwards an article. I have got gathered all the literature that I demand to evidence my point. I am Fikre Tolossa, descendant of Melchitsedek, King of Salem, of Ethiop together with Deshet, the prophet, as, of course, all of you, my immature human being Ethiopians,
source:http://fikretolossa.com/FILES_ARCHIVE/MISCELANEOUS/A_BRIEF_NOTE_ON_THE_ORIGIN_OF_THE_AMARA_AND_OROMO[1]_2.pdf
The Evil Eye Belief Among the Amhara of Ethiopia
Ronald Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Reminick
Cleveland State University
Variations of the belief inwards the evil optic are known throughout much of the world, yet surprisingly footling attending has been given to explaining the dynamics of this aspect of civilization ( cf. SpoonerI9 70; FosterI 972; Douglas I970). The Amhara of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia handgrip to this belief. Data for this study
were gathered amid the Manze Amhara of the cardinal highlands of Shoa Province, Ethiopia. Their habitat is a rolling plateau ranging inwards height from 9,500 to I3,000 feet. The seasons vary from temperate together with dry out to moisture together with cold. The Amhara are settled agriculturists raising primarily barley,
wheat, together with a diversity of beans together with importing teff grain cotton, together with spices from the lower together with warmer regions inwards the gorges together with valleys nearby. Amhara technology is simple, involving the bull draw plow, crop rotation, soil furrowing for drainage together with some irrigation where streams are accessible. The soil is rich plenty to maintain iii harvests annually. Other of import technological items include the sickle loom, together with the walking together with fighting stick for the men; the spindle large clay H2O jug grindstone, together with cooking u tensilsf or the women. The most highly prized item of technology is the ride which symbolizes the proud warrior traditions of the Amhara together with a man's duty to defend his inherited land.
The homestead is the primary domain of potency within the larger political structure. The homestead varies inwards size from that of a nuclear household unit of measurement to a large hamlet consisting of several related families together with their servants tenants together with onetime slaves. The scheme of potency tin hold out characterized inwards damage of Webers patriarchalism where a grouping is organized on the footing of kinship together with economic science amongst potency exercised yesteryear a particular mortal controlling the resources upon which the grouping depends (Weber I948: 346H ).
Amhara family
Obedience together with loyalty are owed to the mortal rather than to the purpose or the rule, together with this mortal rules only yesteryear the consent of the grouping members who stand upwards to gain a portion of their patriarch`s wealth equally good equally legacy upon his death. This establishment of patriarchal potency is reinforced yesteryear a cultural emphasis on virile mortal qualities of aggressiveness oriented around the acquisition together with defense strength of land. Land is the fundamental requirement of the patriarchal system, for without it a human being cannot fulfill his basic purpose of supporting his dependents together with providing a legacy for his children equally a reward for their loyalty together with service. But solid reason is a scarce resource, together with in that location are often to a greater extent than claims to solid reason than tin hold out supported. Thus, closest siblings may unite against a to a greater extent than distant relative to maintain solid reason amid themselves or siblings may compete for scarce solid reason amid themselves becoming bitter enemies together with dividing the kinship or domestic group.
Amhara shepherd boy
The Amhara peasant`s supernatural world includes both Christian together with infidel (traditional) elements. Although Monophysite Christianity is the legitimate faith of the Amhara people who inwards fact define their tribal identity largely inwards damage of their Christian God, the infidel or "non legitimate" systems of belief also play an of import purpose inwards the everyday routine of the peasant's social together with cultural life. There are essentially 4 separate realms of supernatural beliefs. First,there is the dominant Monophysite Christian faith involving the Almighty God, the Devil, together with the saints together with angels inwards Heaven. Second, in that location are the zar together with the adbar spirits," protectors who exact tribute inwards homecoming for physical together with emotional safety together with who bargain out punishments for failure to recognize them through the practise of the appropriate rituals. Third is the belief inwards the buda, a grade of people who possess the evil eye, together with who exert a deadly powerfulness over the descendants of God's" chosen children." The 4th category of beliefs includes the ciraq together with satan, ghouls together with devils that prowl the countryside creating danger to unsuspecting persons who cross their path.
source: http://www.refugeelegalaidinformation.org/sites/srlan/files/fileuploads/Reminick-TheEvilEyeBeliefAmongAmharaEthiopia_again.pdf
Amhara Samien Mountain girl
0 Response to "Info For Yous Amhara People: Ethiopia`S About Culturally Dominant In Addition To Politically Powerful People Of Semitic Ancestry"
Post a Comment